COMPUTER NETWORK:

 A computer network comprises two or more computers that are connected—either by

cables (wired) or WiFi (wireless)—with the purpose of transmitting, exchanging, or
sharing data and resources.

 A computer network is an interconnection of various computers to share

software, hardware, resources and data through a communication medium between them.
 A Computer Networking is a set of autonomous computers that permits distributed
processing of the information and data and increased Communication of resources.
A data communications system has five components

I. Message.
The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender.
The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver.
The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on
4. Transmission medium.

The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair
wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.

5. Protocol.

A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an

agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may
be connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be
understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.
Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex as
shown in Figure.

Simplex In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one- way

street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive
(Figure a). Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices.
Half-Duplex

In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa (Figure
b). Walkie- talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half- duplex systems.
Full-Duplex

In full-duplex, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously (Figure c).
One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network.
When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen
at the same time. The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both
directions is required all the time.
Network Criteria

A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of
these are

 performance,

 reliability,

 Security.
Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response
time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one
device to another. Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a
response. The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including
the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the
connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software
Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics:
throughput and delay.
Often we need more throughput and less delay.
However, these two criteria are often contradictory. If we try to send more data to the
network, we may increase throughput but we increase the delay because of traffic
congestion in the network.
Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured
by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and
the network's Robustness in a catastrophe.
Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized
access, protecting data from damage and development, and implementing policies
and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.

USES OF NETWORKS:

A computer network refers to a group of two or more computing devices that are connected by a
communication medium allowing the computers to communicate electronically. A computing
device on a network is usually referred to as a node, being connected to one another, it allows
nodes to exchange data with one another using a connection media between them. The links can
be established either over cable media such as wires or via a wireless media such as Wi-Fi.
The following are reasons for using networks:

1. COMMUNICATION

Everything, from the World Wide Web to online banking to multiplayer computer games,
depends on the ability of computers to communicate. However, it is not just computers that
communicate with each other; computer and telecommunication networks also connect people.
Whether this is through video calls on a smartphone, emails from your computer, instant
messaging services or social networks, computer networks allow people from across the world to
easily communicate with one another.

2. ACCESSING RESOURCES
Networks allow computers to share and access resources with other computing devices
connected to it.

 Data and information: Networks allow computers to share data and information. This
can most easily be seen on the internet, where websites like Wikipedia share
information on millions of different topics, but is also true for smaller home and
business networks.
 Printers and scanners: Hardware devices like printers and scanners are not used that
frequently by any single computer. A network allows several people to be connected to
one printer or scanner, thus making optimal use of these resources.
 Software: Networks also allow people and computers to share software. Online
applications like Office 365 and Google docs are examples of applications installed on
only a few servers and shared by people around the world.
 Labour and money: Resources are not just restricted to computer resources but can
also extend to real world resources like people and money. By seeking advice on the
internet, you can gain access to experts from all over the world who can help you to
resolve an issue you may be experiencing..
 Other hardware resources: Equipment such as portable disk drives, portable DVD
drives, and plotters can be shared amongst many users on a network.

3. CENTRALISATION OF DATA

Data can be stored on one server instead of several devices. For example, on a small home
network, all the data can be centralized by using a server. By doing this, anyone with access to
the network can work with the data stored on the central server without needing to connect
several external hard drives or flash drives to a computer.

4. TRANSFER OF FILES

One way in which data and information can be shared on a network is by sharing files. By
sharing files, allow users connected to the same network

Files can be shared in several different ways. These include:

 using the operating system’s file sharing utility

 placing the files on a Network-attached Storage (NAS) device or file server
 uploading the files to a website
 sending an e-mail with the files as attachments
 Using file sharing websites like Google Drive, One Drive and Dropbox.

5. INCREASED PRODUCTIVITY

The use of networks allows most people to work and study more productively. This is achieved
by allowing people to:

 Collaborate more easily.

 Share files, thereby preventing work from being duplicated.
 Share resources and information.
 Quickly find answers to their questions by centralizing useful information.

For example, as a programmer you might not be able to solve a programming problem. By using
the internet you can speak to experts live and they would be able to guide you in solving the
problem you may be experiencing. You could also look at the files of similar applications that
have been developed to see how their creators solved a problem. Or you could work through
several free, online programming courses and permanently improve your productivity. The same
is applicable for most fields of study and work.

6. LEISURE

Access to the internet provides access to an almost unlimited amount of entertainment. Examples
include:

 games
 multimedia
 books

The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental

characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
I. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be
received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2.Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been
altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3.Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data
delivered late are useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery
means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order that they are
produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-
time transmission.
4.Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay
in the delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video
packets are sent every 30 ms. If some of the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and
others with 40-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.

Type of Connection

A network is two or more devices c o n n e c t e d through links. A link is a

communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
Point-to-Point
 A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.
The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two
devices. Most point-to- point connections use an actual length of wire or cable
to connect the two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite
links, are also possible.
 Changing television channels by infrared remote control,you are establishing a
point-to-point connection between the remote control and the television's
control system.
Multipoint
 A multipoint (also called multi-drop) connection is one in which more than
two specific devices share a single link.
 In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared,
either spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link
simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users must take
turns, it is a timeshared connection
TYPES OF NETWORKS:

LAN:

 Local area network is a group of computers

connected with each other in a small places such as school, hospital, apartment etc.

 LAN is secure because there is no outside connection with the local area network thus the
data which is shared is safe on the local area network and can’t be accessed outside.
 LAN due to their small size are considerably faster, their speed can range anywhere from
100 to 100Mbps.

 . LANs are not limited to wire connection, there is a new evolution to the LANs that
allows local area network to work on a wireless connection.

ADVANTAGES:

1. Resource Sharing

Sharing of resources such as hard disk drives, DVD drives and Printers are made easy in Local
Area Network. For an example all the resources can be connected to one single computer with a
network so that whenever there is a need of resources it can be shared with the connected
computers.

2. Software Sharing

Another type of sharing made easy here is the Software sharing. A single computer with the
licensed software can be shared among other users in the network. There is no need to purchase
individual license for each and every computer in the network. All can be worked under one
single license.

3. Convenient Communication

Using LAN users can exchange messages and data in a convenient way. Since the data is placed
on the server it can be accessed anytime by the LAN users. Every single LAN user can do this
with others on the network. Hence, this not only saves lots of time, it ensures that messages get
delivered to the right people.

4. Centralized Data

As mentioned earlier data of the users are located at the centralized server. Any workstation in a
particular network can be used to access this information. Moreover users can access their own
set of data by logging into their respective accounts.
5. Improved Security

Since data is stored on a local server, it can be guaranteed to be secure. If the data on the server
is updated then simply all the LAN users can access them. In addition to that, the host has the
capability to deny or allow users in a particular network so that additional security measurements
can be imposed.
6. Internet Sharing

LAN has the capability to share internet connection among all the LAN users. One single
computer with an internet connection shares internet with all the connected computers. This type
of infrastructure can be seen in Offices and Netcafes.

7. Computer Identification

For the purpose of identification, each computers on the LAN is assigned with a MAC address.
This address will be normally used when sending and receiving data. In modern computers these
data is stored inside the network adapter that comes attached with the motherboard.

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Implementation Cost
Even though LAN saves lots of money in terms of resource sharing, the initial cost involved in
setting up the network is quite high. This is mainly due to the requirement of a special software
that is needed to make a server. In addition to that purchasing of hardware equipments such as
routers, hubs, switches and cables are required for the first time setup.

2. Policy Violations
Since all the data of the connected computers are stored inside a central server, unauthorized
users can view all the browsing history and downloads of all the connected computers.
Especially the LAN administrator has the authority to check personal data of each and every
LAN user. Therefore, this can lead to Policy violations.

3. Security
Since it is rather easy to gain access to programs and other types of data, security concerns are a
big issue in LAN. The sole responsibility to stop unauthorized access is in the hands of LAN
administrators. The LAN administrator has to make sure that the centralized data is properly
secured by implementing correct set of rules and privacy policies on the server.

4. Maintenance
LAN often faces hardware problems and system failure. Hence, it requires a special
administrator to look after these issues. The administrator needs to be well knowledgeable in the
field of networking and needed at its full time job.
5. Area Coverage
LAN is usually made to cover up a limited distance (up to 10km). Most probably it is operated in
small areas such as in offices, banks and schools. This is because its cabling system cannot be
extended more than a certain range.
6. Server Crashes
Central server which is present on the LAN architecture manages all the attached computers. If
in case the server encounters any faults all the connected computers are affected too. For an
example if the files on the server gets corrupted, no more data on the attached computers can be
accessible.
MAN:

 MAN network
covers larger area by
connections LANs to a larger network of computers. In Metropolitan area network
various Local area networks are connected with each other through telephone lines.
 The size of the Metropolitan area network is larger than LANs and smaller than
WANs(wide area networks), a MANs covers the larger area of a city or town.
ADVANTAGES:
Less expensive:It is less expensive to attach MAN with WAN. MAN gives the good efficiency
of data. In MAN data is easily managed in a centralized way.
Sending local emails:
On MAN you can send local emails fast and free.
High speed than WAN:
MAN uses fiber optics so the speed of data can easily reach upon 1000 Mbps. Files and
databases can be transferred fast.
Sharing of the internet:
In some installation of MANs, users can share their internet connection. So multiple users can
get the same high-speed internet.
DISADVANTAGES:

Difficult to manage:
If MAN becomes bigger then it becomes difficult to manage it. This is due to a security problem
and other extra configuration.
Internet speed difference:
MAN cannot work on traditional phone copper wires. If MAN is installed on copper wires then
there will be very low speed. So it required the high cost to set up fiber optics for the first time.
WAN:

Wide area network provides long distance transmission of data. The size of the WAN is larger
than LAN and MAN. A WAN can cover country, continent or even a whole world. Internet
connection is an example of WAN. Other examples of WAN are mobile broadband connections
such as 3G, 4G etc.
Advantages of WAN:
 Centralized infrastructure: One of the main advantage of WAN is the that we do not need
to maintain the backup and store data on local system as everything is stored online on a
data centre, from where we can access the data through WAN.
 Privacy: We can setup the WAN in such a way that it encrypts the data that we share
online that way the data is secure and minimizes the risk of unauthorized access.
 Increased Bandwidth: With the WAN we get to choose the bandwidth based on the need,
a large organization can have larger bandwidth that can carry large amount of data faster
and efficiently.
 Area: A WAN can cover a large area or even a whole world though internet connection
thus we can connect with the person in another country through WAN which is not
possible is other type of computer networks.

Disadvantages of WAN:
 Antivirus: Since our systems are connected with the large amount of systems, there is
possibility that we may unknowingly download the virus that can affect our system and
becomes threat to our privacy and may lead to data loss.

 Expensive: Cost of installation is very high.

Issue resolution: Issue resolution takes time as the WAN covers large area, it is really
difficult to pin point the exact location where the issues raised and causing the problem.
TOPOLOGIES:

MESH TOPOLGY:

In mesh topology each device is connected to every other

device on the network through a dedicated point-to-point link. When we say dedicated it means
that the link only carries data for the two connected devices only. Lets say we have n devices in
the network then each device must be connected with (n-1) devices of the network. Number of
links in a mesh topology of n devices would be n(n-1)/2.
Advantages of Mesh topology
1. No data traffic issues as there is a dedicated link between two devices which means the link is
only available for those two devices.
2. Mesh topology is reliable and robust as failure of one link doesn’t affect other links and the
communication between other devices on the network.
3. Mesh topology is secure because there is a point to point link thus unauthorized access is not
possible.
4. Fault detection is easy.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1. Amount of wires required to connected each system is tedious and headache.
2. Since each device needs to be connected with other devices, number of I/O ports required
must be huge.
3. Scalability issues because a device cannot be connected with large number of devices with a
dedicated point to point link.

STAR TOPOLGY:

In star topology each device in the network is connected to a central device called hub. Unlike
Mesh topology, star topology doesn’t allow direct communication between devices, a device
must have to communicate through hub. If one device wants to send data to other device, it has
to first send the data to hub and then the hub transmit that data to the designated device.

Advantages of Star topology

1. Less expensive because each device only need one I/O port and needs to be connected with
hub with one link.
2. Easier to install
3. Less amount of cables required because each device needs to be connected with the hub only.
4. Robust, if one link fails, other links will work just fine.
5. Easy fault detection because the link can be easily identified.
Disadvantages of Star topology
1. If hub goes down everything goes down, none of the devices can work without hub.
2. Hub requires more resources and regular maintenance because it is the central system of star
topology.

BUS TOPOLGY:

In bus topology there is a main cable and all the devices are connected to this main cable through
drop lines. There is a device called tap that connects the drop line to the main cable. Since all the
data is transmitted over the main cable, there is a limit of drop lines and the distance a main
cable can have.

Advantages of bus topology

1. Easy installation, each cable needs to be connected with backbone cable.
2. Less cables required than Mesh and star topology

Disadvantages of bus topology

1. Difficultly in fault detection.
2. Not scalable as there is a limit of how many nodes you can connect with backbone cable.

RING TOPOLGY:
In ring topology each device is connected with the two devices on either side of it. There are two
dedicated point to point links a device has with the devices on the either side of it. This structure
forms a ring thus it is known as ring topology. If a device wants to send data to another device
then it sends the data in one direction, each device in ring topology has a repeater, if the received
data is intended for other device then repeater forwards this data until the intended device
receives it.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Easy to install.
2. Managing is easier as to add or remove a device from the topology only two links are required
to be changed.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. A link failure can fail the entire network as the signal will not travel forward due to failure.
2. Data traffic issues, since all the data is circulating in a ring.

HYBRID TOPOLOGY:

A combination of two or more topology is known as hybrid topology. For example a

combination of star and mesh topology is known as hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid topology

1. We can choose the topology based on the requirement for example, scalability is our concern
then we can use star topology instead of bus technology.
2. Scalable as we can further connect other computer networks with the existing networks with
different topologies.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

1. Fault detection is difficult.
2. Installation is difficult.
3. Design is complex so maintenance is high thus expensive.

Layers of a computer network models

1. The main purpose of having several layers in a computer network model is to divide a process
of sending and receiving data into small small tasks.

2. These layers are connected with each other, each layer provide certain data to its immediate
higher and immediate lower layer and receives certain data from the same.

3. Dividing a model is layers make the structure quite simple that makes it easy to identify the
issue if it occurs. There are three main components of a computer network model. Sender,
receiver and carrier.
At sender Side:
Higher layer: Higher layer serves the middle layer, directs the message (or data) to middle layer
Middle layer: Middle layer picks up the data from higher layer and transfer it to the lower layer
lower layer: The data is transmitted to the lower layer of the receiver side.

At receiver Side:
lower layer: Receives the data from the lower layer of sender side and transfer it to middle
layer.
Middle layer: Middle layer picks up the data from lower layer and transfer to higher layer.
Higher layer: Higher layer transfers the data to the receiver.

The most important computer network models are:

1. OSI Model
2. TCP/IP Model

 OSI Model stands for Open System interconnection model.

 OSI Model defines how data is transferred from one computer to another computer.
In a very basic scenario two computers connected with a LAN and connectors transfer
data using the NIC.
 This forms a computer network, however if both the system uses different operating
systems, for example one system runs on windows and other one runs on MacOS then
how can data be transferred between these two different systems, here comes the role of a
OSI model which is a seven layered model that defines how a data can be transferred .

 OSI model was introduced by International Organisation for standardisation (ISO) in

1984.
There are seven layers in a OSI model

Physical Layer

 Deals with all aspects of physically moving data from one

computer to the next Converts data from the upper layers into 1s
and 0s for transmission over media Defines how data is encoded
onto the media to transmit the data
 Defined on this layer: Cable standards, wireless standards, and fiber optic
standards.
 Copper wiring, fiber optic cable, radio frequencies, anything that can be
used to transmit data is defined on the Physical layer of the OSI Model

 Device example: Hub Used to transmit data

Main functions of Physical Layer:
 Digital Transmission:
One of the main functions of physical layer is to transfer data in form of signals. In this
guide, we will learn about digital transmission. A data can be either analog or digital. To
transfer the data over a transmission media such as wire, cable etc. physical layer must
need to convert the data to its digital signal.
 Digital data to Digital signal conversion:
In this section we will learn how physical layer converts digital data to digital signal. It
uses two techniques to do this conversion: Line coding and block coding.
 Line coding:
A digital data is in form of binary sequence such as 1000111 (combination of 0s and 1s).
Line coding uses three schemes to represent these binary sequences in form of signals
that can be transferred.

DATA LINK LAYER:

 Data link layer is responsible for moving frames from node to node or
computer to computer

 Data unit in the data link layer is called frame. A frame is transferred from one
computer to another computer and transmission is done through a transmission
media such as wire, cable etc. Both sender and receiver computer has NIC that
helps in sending and receiving frame. These NICs presents at sender and receiver
provides a physical link between sender and receiver.

Main functions of data link layer:

 Access the Media: Allows upper layers of OSI model to use the media using a
technique called framing
 Media Access control: How data is placed and received from the media.
Error Detection: Tail of the each frame transferred contains certain bits to check
whether the data received on the side is corrupted or not.

NETWORK LAYER:

Responsible for moving packets (data) from one end of the network to the
other.
The main functions of network layer:

Logical Addressing: Every computer on a network has a unique IP address. Network layer
assigns the sender and receiver IP address to the data packets before transmitting them so that the
data packet reach the correct destination.

Routing: It is a method of transferring data packets from source to destination. It uses the
combination of Mask and IP address to transfer the data to correct destination. Each data packets
contains three addition components mask, sender IP, receiver IP. The Mask determines the
computer network to which the data needs to be delivered and then the IP address determines
which computer on that particular network needs to receive the data packet.

Path determination: A computer can be connected to another computer in number of ways.

Network layer determines the optimal path for data transmission so that the data can be
transmitted faster to the receiver. OSPF, BGP, IS-IS protocols are used to determine best
possible path for data delivery.

TRANSPORT LAYER:

 The main role of transport layer is to check the reliability of data communication.

The main functions of transport layer are:

 Segmentation: Data received from session layer is divided into small data units called
segments. Each segment contains the sender and receiver port number along with the
sequence number. Port number helps to direct the data segments to the correct application
and the sequence number helps to reassemble the data from data segments in correct
order.
 Flow control: It controls the flow of data. It checks the capability of the receiver device
receiving capability before transmitting data. For example a sender server can send the
data at a rate of 200Mbps but a receiving data can only receive data at a rate of 10 Mbps
then it controls the flow of data to 10Mbps so that the data doesn’t get lost during
transmission.
 Error control: Transport layer also performs error control using Automatic Repeat
Request, if a data is lost during transmission, it is send again using automatic repeat
request. Transport layer also adds a group of bits called checksum with each segment to
check whether the data received at receiver side is not corrupt.
 Connection oriented transmission: Connection oriented transmission is done using
transmission control protocol (TCP). TCP is considerably slower than UDP because it
provides the feedback that the data is received or not, thus a data can be sent again if it is
not received.
 Connectionless transmission: Connectionless transmission is done using User Datagram
protocol (UDP). UDP is faster than TCP because it doesn’t provide the feedback that the
data is actually received at the receiver side or not.
SESSION LAYER:

The main role of session layer is to setup and maintain the connection
between different systems.

Main functions of session layer:

 Authentication: Before a computer can be connected to a server, the computer has to

provide user name and password for the authentication. The function of authentication
and setting up a connection after authentication is performed by session layer.
 Authorization: Once a connection is established, session layer checks whether the
connected computer is authorized to access the data, this function of authorization
checking is also performed by session layer.
 Session management: Session layer also checks that the data which is received from the
server in form of data packets belongs to which application for example when you access
Face book profile through your browser, the data transferred from the Face book server is
transferred to your web browser application, thus the session layer helps in session
management.

PRESENTATION LAYER:

Presentation layer receives the data from top most layer which is application layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

 Translation: The data received from application layer is in form of characters and
numbers such as 1234, ERFF etc. The presentation layer converts these characters and
numbers into machine understandable format which is known as binary format for
example 100111101.
 Encryption: To protect the sensitivity of data, presentation layer encrypts the data at the
sender side before the transmission and the receiver side this data is decrypted by the
presentation layer at the receiver side. Secure sockets layer protocol (SSL) is used by the
presentation layer for encryption and decryption.
 Compression: Compress the data to small size so that it can be transferred faster over a
network. This compression can be lossy or lossless compression.

APPLICATION LAYER:

 Application layer is used by computer applications such as

google chrome, outlook, FireFox, Skype etc
 Application layer provides the services to computer applications
with the help of protocols that are defined in it.
 Application layer defines the protocols that are used by
computer applications for
 example:
HTTP and HTTPS protocols are used by web browsers such as
google chrome, FireFox, Safari etc.
 FTP protocol is used for file transfer between two or more computers.
 SMTP protocol is used for emails
 Telnet is used for virtual terminals.
 There are dozens of other protocol that forms the application layer, such as NFS, FMTP,
DHCP, SNMP, IRC, NNTP etc.

The TCP/IP Model has four layers:

1. Physical Layer and data link layer – combined known as host-to-network layer
2. Network layer
3. Transport
4. Application
1. Physical and Data Link Layer
Physical and Data Link Layers in TCP/IP model does not define any protocols, they support all
the standard protocols. They are combined known as host-to-network layer. A network in
TCP/IP internetwork can be LAN or WAN.

2. Network Layer
In the network layer, the TCP/IP model supports internetworking protocol in short known as IP.
The IP uses four protocols internally: ARP, RARP, ICMP & IGMP.

Internetworking protocol(IP):
 It is an unreliable connectionless protocol used by TCP/IP Model.

 This protocol is used for data transmission,doesn’t do error checking or tracking of data,
thus we cannot be sure that the data is actually reached its destination. This is why it is
also known as best effort delivery service which means this protocol tries it best to send
the data to its destination but doesn’t take an guarantee.

 IP protocol transmits the data in form of small packets known as datagrams. Each of
these datagrams are transmitted separately, thus they can take different routes and
sometime duplicate datagrams can be reached to destination, also they are reached in no
particular order at the destination.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
ARP finds the physical address by using the IP address. In a network, each device is known as
physical address usually imprinted on Network interface card (NIC).

ARP protocol is used to find the physical address of a device whose internet address (IP address)
is known.

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)

RARP protocol helps to find the internet address of a device whose physical address is known.

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

IP in network layer sends data in form of small packets known as datagrams. ICMP protocol
sends the datagrams problems back to sender. It is used for query and error reporting messages.

Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP)

This protocol is used for simultaneous transmission of a message to a group of recipients.
3. Transport Layer
Transport layer in TCP/Model can be represented by three protocols: Transmission control
protocol (TCP), User data gram protocol (UDP) and Stream Control Transmission Protocol
(SCTP).

These three protocols in transport layer are responsible for delivery of messages from one
process to another. The SCTP protocol was later introduced to meet the needs of newer
applications.

User Datagram protocol (UDP)

1. UDP is a process to process protocol used for data transmission.

It takes the data from upper layer of TCP/IP Model and adds following information to the data:

 Port Address – Source port address of 16 bits and destination port address of 16 bits
added to the data so that it reaches to correct destination and displays the correct source
of data.
 checksum error control – 16 bits of checksum data is added to the data received from
upper layer, this is used for error control.
 c) length of data – Length defines the total bytes of data in datagram.
Transmission control protocol (TCP)
 Unlike UDP which is a connectionless protocol, the TCP is a connection oriented
protocol.
 A connection must be made between sender and receiver before the transmission of data.
 TCP protocol divides the data in small units called segments. Each segment contains the
sequence number which makes it possible to rearrange the segments in correct order at
the receiver side to make the complete data.
 It also adds acknowledgement number to the segments to verify that the data is actually
reached its destination or not.
 Unlike UDP which is unable to specify the exact error in transmission, this protocol does
error control and specifies the exact error which makes TCP a reliable protocol.
Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
 This protocol combines the best features of TCP and UDP protocols.
 It was discovered later to support newer applications such as voice data transmission over
the internet.
4. Application Layer
 This is the top most layer of TCP/IP model.
 It is used for interaction between user and application.
 There are several protocols used by the application layer for user interaction such as:
HTTP, SNMP, SMTP, DNS, TELNET, FTP etc.
 HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol, it allows the user to interact with
world wide web through the browser application. HTTP can be used to transfer various
types of data such as plain text, audio, video etc.
 FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. This protocol is used for transmitting files
from one system to another system.
 TELNET: TELNET is a client-server protocol. It is a reliable connection oriented
protocol. This protocol is used on internet or on LAN to provide a bidirectional (both
ways) text based communication through a virtual terminal connection.
 DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. Each computer on a network has different
IP address, a computer is known by its IP address. DNS provides a mapping to a name to
the IP Address so a name can be used to identify a system on network rather than IP
address itself.
 SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It managers the
devices connected to the internet using TCP/IP protocol.
 SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. It is used for email services,
using this protocol a email containing data can be sent to another email address.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TCP /IP AND OSI READ FROM CLASS NOTES..

TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Twisted pair Shielded Twisted pair
Guided Media: Guided media, which are those that provide a medium from one
device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.

Twisted-Pair Cable: A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper),

each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together. One of the wires is used to
carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground reference.

Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

 The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred
to as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). STP cable has a metal foil or braided
mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated conductors. Although
metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of
noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and moreexpensive.

The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack)
Applications
Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data
channels. Local-area networks, such as l0Base-T and l00Base-T, also use
twisted-pair cables.
Category Twisterd pair type with data rates
type
Cat1 UTP used in telephone networks with data
rate<0.1MBPS.
Cat2 UTP used in LANs with data rate of 2Mbps.

Cat3 UTP used in LANs with data rate of 10Mbps

Cat4 UTP used in TOKEN RING networks with

data rate of 20Mbps.

Cat5 UTP used in LANs with data rate of 100Mbps

Cat6 UTP used in LANs with data rate of 200
Mbps.
Cat7 STP used in LANs with data rate of 10Mbps

Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those
in twisted pair cable. coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded
wire (usuallycopper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn,
encased in an outer conductor of metal foil,braid, or a combination of the two.

 The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the
second conductor, which completes the circuit.This outer conductor is also
enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a plastic
cover.
The most common type of connector used today is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman
(BNe), connector.
Applications
 Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks,digital
telephone networks Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables.
 Another common application of coaxial cable is in traditional Ethernet LANs

Categories of co-axial cable

Base band co-axial cable Broad band co-axial cable

Bidirectional Unidirectional
50Ω cable 75Ω cable
Supports quick transmission of single Supports multiple signals transmission
signal at a time at a time
Used for LANs Used for longer distances

Fiber-Optic Cable

A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the

form of light. Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through
a single uniform substance.
 If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another
substance(of a different density), the ray changes direction.
Bending of light ray

Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic
core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic.

Propagation Modes
Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source move through
the core in different paths. How these beams move within the cable depends on the
structure of the core, as shown in Figure.

 In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant

from the center to the edges. A beam of light moves through this constant
density in a straight line until it reaches the interface of the core and the
cladding. The term step index refers to the suddenness of this change,
which contributes to the distortion of the signal as it passes through the
fiber.
 A second type of fiber, called multimode graded-index fiber, decreases
this distortion of the signal through the cable. The word index here refers
to the index of refraction.
 Single-Mode: Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source
of light that limits beams to a small range of angles, all close to the
horizontal.

Fiber Construction
The subscriber channel (SC) connector, The straight-tip (ST)
connector, MT- RJ(mechanical transfer registered jack) is a
connector

Applications
 Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide
bandwidth is cost-effective..
 Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and
coaxial cable, thus creating a hybrid network.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber

Advantages Fiber-optic cable has several advantages over metallic cable (twisted
pair or coaxial).
 Higher bandwidth.
 Less signal attenuation. Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly
greater than that of other guided media. A signal can run for 50 km without
requiring regeneration. We need repeaters every 5 km for coaxial or twisted-
pair cable.
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference. Electromagnetic noise cannot
affect fiber- optic cables.
 Resistance to corrosive materials. Glass is more resistant to corrosive
materials than copper.
 Light weight. Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
 Greater immunity to tapping. Fiber-optic cables are more immune to tapping
than copper cables. Copper cables create antenna effects that can easily be
tapped.
Disadvantages :
There are some disadvantages in the use of optical fiber.
 Installation and maintenance Unidirectional light propagation. Propagation of
light is unidirectional. If we need bidirectional communication, two fibers are
needed.
 Cost. The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of
other guided media. If the demand for bandwidth is not high, often the use of
optical fiber cannot be justified.

UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor.

This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication.

Transmission media
Radio
It is a wireless transmission medium that is used to communicate information through radio
signals in air, over long distance such as between cities and countries. In this medium, a
transmitter is required to send messages (signals) and receiver is required to receive them. To
receive the broadcast radio signal, the receiver has an antenna that is located in the range of
signal. Some networks use a special device called transceiver used to send and to receive
messages in the form of radio signals.
The frequencies falling between 3000 hertz (3 kHz) and 300,000,000,000 hertz (300
GHz) are called RADIO FREQUENCIES (abbreviated RF) since they are commonly used in
radio communications. This part of the radio frequency spectrum is divided into bands, each
band being 10 times higher in frequency than the one immediately below it. This arrangement
serves as a convenient way to remember the range of each band. - The usable radio-frequency
range is roughly 10 kilohertz to 100 gigahertz.
Microwave
Microwaves are radio waves that provide a high speed transmission. In Microwaves
transmission, data is transmitted from one station to another. Microwave station contains an
antenna, transceiver (transmitter & receiver) and other equipments that are required for
microwave communication. Microwave uses the line-of-sight transmission, which means that in
microwave transmission system the data signals travel in a straight path and cannot bend.
Microwave stations or antennas are usually installed on the high towers or buildings. Thus
microwave stations need to be placed within 20 to 30 miles of each other. Each microwave
station receives signals from the previous stations. In this way, data is transmitted from one place
to another. The data transmission speed of microwave transmission is up to 150 Mbps.
Microwave transmission is used in environments where installing physical transmission media is
impossible and where line-of-sight transmission is available. It is used in wide-open areas.
Today, it is used by telephone companies, cable television providers, universities etc.
There are two types of microwaves:
Terrestrial – Used to link networks over long distances but the two microwave towers must have
a line of sight between them. The frequency is usually 4-6GHz or 21-23GHz. Speed is often 1-
10Mbps. The signal is normally encrypted for privacy. Two nodes may exist.
Satellite – A satellite orbits at 22,300 miles above the earth which is an altitude that will cause it
to stay in a fixed position relative to the rotation of the earth. This is called a geosynchronous
orbit. A station on the ground will send and receive signals from the satellite. The signal can
have propagation delays between 0.5 to 5 seconds due to the distances involved. The
transmission frequency is normally 11-14GHz with a transmission speed in the range of 1-
10Mbps.
Infrared5
Infrared light is part of electromagnetic spectrum that is shorter than radio waves but longer than
visible light. Its frequency range is between 300 GHz and 400 GHz that corresponds to
wavelength from 1mm to 750 nm. Infrared has long been used in night vision equipment and TV
remote control. Infrared is also one of the physical media in the original wireless LAN standard,
that’s IEEE 802.11. Infrared use in communication and networking was defined by the IrDA
(Infrared Data Association). Using IrDA specifications, infrared can be used in a wide range of
applications, e.g. file transfer, synchronization, dial-up networking, and payment. However,
IrDA is limited in range (up to about 1 meter). It also requires the communicating devices to be
in LOS and within its 30-degree beam-cone. Light may interfere with the signal.

Lack of OSI Model's Success

The OSI model appeared after the TCP/IP protocol suite. Most experts were at first excited and
thought that the TCP/IP protocol would be fully replaced by the OSI model. This did not happen for
several reasons, but we describe only three, which are agreed upon by all experts in the field. First,
OSI was completed when TCP/IP was fully in place and a lot of time and money had been spent on
the suite; changing it would cost a lot. Second, some layers in the OSI model were never fully defined.
For example, although the services provided by the presentation and the session layers were listed in
the document, actual protocols for these two layers were not fully defined, nor were they fully
described, and the corresponding software was not fully developed. Third, when OSI was
implemented by an organization in a different application, it did not show a high enough level of
performance to entice the Internet authority to switch from the TCP/IP protocol suite to the OSI model
INTERNET HISTORY:
Early History
There were some communication networks, such as telegraph and telephone networks, before 1960.
These networks were suitable for constant-rate communication at that time, which means that after a
connection was made between two users, the encoded message (telegraphy) or voice (telephony)
could be exchanged.
ARPANET:

In the mid-1960s, mainframe computers in research organizations were stand-alone devices.

Computers from different manufacturers were unable to communicate with one another. The
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the Department of Defense (DOD) was
interested in finding a way to connect computers so that the researchers they funded could share
their findings, thereby reducing costs and eliminating duplication of effort. In 1967, at an
Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) meeting, ARPA presented its ideas for the
Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET), a small network of connected
computers. The idea was that each host computer (not necessarily from the same manufacturer)
would be attached to a specialized computer, called an interface message processor (IMP). The
IMPs, in turn, would be connected to each other. Each IMP had to be able to communicate with
other IMPs as well as with its own attached host.
Birth of the Internet
In 1972, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, both of whom were part of the core ARPANET group,
collaborated on what they called the Internet ting Project. TCPI/P Cerf and Kahn's landmark
1973 paper outlined the protocols to achieve end-to-end delivery of data. This was a new version
of NCP. This paper on transmission control protocol (TCP) included concepts such as
encapsulation, the datagram, and the functions of a gateway. Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP). IP would handle datagram routing while TCP would be
responsible for higher level functions such as segmentation, reassembly, and error detection. The
new combination became known as TCPIIP.
MILNET
In 1983, ARPANET split into two networks: Military Network (MILNET) for military users and
ARPANET for non military users.
CSNET
Another milestone in Internet history was the creation of CSNET in 1981. Computer Science
Network (CSNET) was a network sponsored by the National Science Foundation (NSF).
NSFNET
With the success of CSNET, the NSF in 1986 sponsored the National Science Foundation
Network (NSFNET), a backbone that connected five supercomputer centers located throughout
the United States.
ANSNET
In 1991, the U.S. government decided that NSFNET was not capable of supporting the rapidly
increasing Internet traffic. Three companies, IBM, Merit, and Verizon, filled the void by forming a
nonprofit organization called Advanced Network & Services (ANS) to build a new, high-speed
Internet backbone called Advanced Network Services Network (ANSNET).
Internet Today
Today, we witness a rapid growth both in the infrastructure and new applications. The Internet today
is a set of pier networks that provide services to the whole world. What has made the internet so
popular is the invention of new applications.
World Wide Web
The 1990s saw the explosion of Internet applications due to the emergence of the World Wide Web
(WWW). The Web was invented at CERN by Tim Berners-Lee. This invention has added the
commercial applications to the Internet.
Multimedia
Recent developments in the multimedia applications such as voice over IP (telephony), video over
IP (Skype), view sharing (YouTube), and television has increased the number of users and the
amount of time each user spends on the network.