Chapter 17 Cartesian Geometry

17 CARTESIAN
GEOMETRY
Objectives
After studying this chapter you should
• be familiar with cartesian and parametric equations of a curve;
• be able to sketch simple curves;
• be able to recognise the rectangular hyperbola;
• be able to use the general equation of a circle;
• be able to differentiate simple functions when expressed
parametrically.

17.0 Introduction
You have already met the equation of a straight line in its cartesian
form - that is, y expressed as a linear function of x.

Here you will extend the analysis to other curves, including circles
and hyperbolas. You will also see how to differentiate to find the
gradient of a curve when it is expressed in a parametric form.

17.1 Cartesian and parametric

equations of a curve
y
You have already met the equation of a straight line in the form

y = mx + c ← slope m

Here m is the slope of the line, and c the intercept on the y-axis
(see diagram opposite)
} c
x

This is an example of a cartesian equation since it gives a y

relationship between the two values x and y.

Similarly, the equation of a circle, centre origin, radius a, is given a

..
..
.. y
by α ..
x
x

x 2 + y 2 = a2 (using Pythagoras)

339
Chapter 17 Cartesian Geometry

This is again a cartesian equation, but it can also be expressed as

x = a cos θ  a
0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π
y = asin θ 
y

θ
This is an example of a parametric equation of the circle and x
the angle θ is the parameter.

Example
A curve is given by the parametric equation

x = a cos θ 
 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π
y = b sin θ 

Find its cartesian equation.

Solution
To find the cartesian equation, you need to eliminate the
parameter θ ; now

x x2
= cos θ ⇒ cos 2 θ =
a a2
y y2
= sin θ ⇒ sin 2 θ =
b b2

But cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = 1 giving

y
2 2
x y
2 + 2 =1
a b
b
This is in fact the equation of an ellipse as illustrated opposite a x
when a > b .

*Activity 1
Use a graphic calculator or computer program to find the shape
of the curve
x 2 y2
+ =1
a2 b2
when (a) a = 1, b =1
(b) a = 1, b=2
(c) a = 1, b=3
(d) a = 2, b =1

340
Chapter 17 Cartesian Geometry

Example
A curve is given parametrically by

x = t2 y = t3

Find its cartesian equation and sketch its shape in the xy plane.

Solution
Eliminating the parametric t,
y

( )
1 3 3
y = t3 = x 2
=x 2

t>0

Its sketch is shown opposite; for t > 0 and t < 0 . There is a cusp at x
the origin.
t<0

Exercise 17A
1. Find the cartesian equation of the curve when 3. Sketch the curve given parametrically by
parametric equations are
x = t2 , y = t3
(a) x = t ,
2
y = 2t
Show that the equation of the normal to the curve
(b) x = 2 cos θ , y = 3sin θ at the point A (4, 8) is given by
x + 3y − 28 = 0
1
(c) x = 2t, y= 4. A curve is given by the parametric equations; for
t
θ ≥0
2. Find the stationary points of the curve when
parametric equation are x = e θ + e −θ
x = t, y = t3 − t y = e θ − e −θ
Distinguish between them. Find its cartesian equation.

17.2 Curve sketching

You have already met many examples of curve sketching. One
way is to use your graphic calculator, or a graph plotting program
on a computer, but you can often determine the slope of the curve
analytically. This is illustrated for the function

3( x − 2 )
y=
x ( x + 6)

First note special points of the curve

(a) y=0 ⇒ x=2

(b) y → ±∞ as x → 0 and as x → −6
(since x = 0 and − 6 give zeros for the denominator)

341
Chapter 17 Cartesian Geometry

dy
(c) Stationary points given by = 0 when
dx

dy 1. x ( x + 6 ) − ( x − 2 )( 2x + 6 ) 
= 3 
x 2 ( x + 6)
2
dx  

=3
(x 2
+ 6x − 2x 2 − 2x + 12 )
x ( x + 6)
2 2

=3
(− x 2
+ 4x + 12 )
x ( x + 6)
2 2

( x + 2 )( x − 6)
= −3
x 2 ( x + 6)
2

This gives x = −2 and x = 6 for the stationary points.

dy
As you pass through x = −2 , goes from negative
dx
3
to positive - hence minimum at x = −2 of value .
2
1 y
Similarly there is a maximum at x = 6 of value .
6

(d) As x → ∞, y → 0 and as x → −∞, y → 0

These facts can now be plotted on a graph as shown
–6 0 2 x
opposite.

There is only one way that the curve can be

completed. This is shown opposite. –6 0 2 x

342
Chapter 17 Cartesian Geometry

Activity 2
Check this sketch by using a graphic calculator or graph plotting
program.

Exercise 17B
In each case, without using a calculator or graph
plotting program, sketch curves for the following
functions. Then check your answers using a graphic
calculator or graph plotting program.
2x −1 x2 +1
1. y = 3. y =
( x − 2 )2 ( )
x + x +1
2

2 4x + 5
2. y = 4. y =
( x + 1)
( x − 1)
2

y
17.3 The circle
r
The equation of the circle, radius r, centre the origin, is clearly y
given by x
x

x 2 + y2 = r 2

How can you find the equation of a circle whose centre is not y
at the origin?

Suppose, you wish to find the equation of a circle, centre

x = 2, y = 3 and radius 4, as illustrated opposite. 4
3
x
If (x, y) is any point on the circle, then the distance between (2, 2
3) and (x, y) is 4 units. Hence

( x − 2 )2 + ( y − 3)2 = 42 = 16

⇒ x 2 − 4x + 4 + y2 − 6y + 9 = 16

⇒ x 2 − y2 − 4x − 6y = 3

Activity 3

Find the equation of a circle, centre x = a, y = b , and radius r.

343
Chapter 17 Cartesian Geometry

The equation in Activity 3 can be written as

x2 + y2 − 2ax − 2by = r2 − a2 − b2

but, given such an equation, it is not so straightforward to find the

centre (a, b) and radius r. This is shown in the next example.

Example
Find the centre and radius of the circle which has the equation

x 2 + y 2 − 4x + 2y = 20

Solution
To find the centre, the L.H.S. must be written in the form

( x − a )2 + ( y − b )2

In this case,

( x − 2 )2 + ( y + 1)2

since this gives

(x 2
) (
− 4x + 4 + y 2 + 2y + 1 )
in which all the terms are correct except for the ' +4' and ' +1'
terms. So the equation can be rewritten as

( x − 2 )2 + ( y + 1)2 − 5 = 20

⇒ ( x − 2 )2 + ( y + 1)2 = 25 = 52

So it is the equation of a circle centre (2, –1), and radius 5.

One other special curve that is of great practical importance is the

rectangular hyperbola, which has equation

c
y= (c constant)
x

For example if c = 1 ,

1
y= ,
x

you can see that y → 0 as x → +∞ .

344
Chapter 17 Cartesian Geometry

What happens to y as x → −∞ ? y

Similarly, as y → ±∞, x → 0 , and the graph is shown opposite.

Activity 4
↑
←y =
1
x

Sketch the curve y = f ( x ) when

2
(a) f (x) =
x
1
(b) f (x) = −
x
1
(c) f (x) =
x +1

Exercise 17C
1. Find the equation of the circle with 3. Find the equation of the tangent at the point
(a) centre (1, 2), radius 3 (3, 1) on the circle

(b) centre (0, 2), radius 2 x 2 + y 2 − 4 x + 10 y = 8

*4. Find the equation of the circle which passes
(c) centre (–1, –2), radius 4.
through the points (1, 4), (7, 5) and (1, 8).
2. Find the centre and radius of the circle whose
equation is
(a) x 2 + y 2 + 8x − 2 y − 8 = 0

(b) x 2 + y 2 = 16

(c) x 2 + y 2 + x + 3y − 2 = 0

(d) 2 x 2 + 2 y 2 − 3x + 2 y + 1 = 0

345
Chapter 17 Cartesian Geometry

17.4 Parametric differentiation

You have seen in section 17.1 that a parametric equation of the y
circle, centre origin, radius r is given by
r
x = r cos θ
θ x
y = r sin θ

If you wanted to find the equation of the tangent at any point

P( r cos θ , r sin θ ) , then the gradient of the tangent is given by

dy dy dx
= (function of function rule)
dx dθ dθ

r cos θ
=
−r sin θ

= − cot θ

So the equation of the tangent is given by

( y − r sin θ ) = − cot θ ( x − r cos θ )

y sin θ − r sin 2 θ = − x cos θ + r cos 2 θ

y sin θ + x cos θ = r

Activity 5
Write the equation of the circle in the form

y = r2 − x2

dy
in order to find at the point P given by x = x0 , y = y0 .
dx

Hence find the equation of the tangent at P and show it is

equivalent to the equation above, with x0 = r cos θ , y0 = r sin θ .

Example
A curve is defined parametrically by

x = t 3 − 6t + 4
2
y = t −3+ (t ≠ 0 )
t
346
Chapter 17 Cartesian Geometry

Find (a) the equation of the normal to the curve at the points
when the curve meets the x-axis;
(b) the coordinates of their point of intersection.

Solution
dy dy dx
Since =
dx dt dt

= 1 − 2 
 t 
2
(3t 2
−6 )

=
(t 2
−2 )
3t t − 2
2
( 2
)
1
= ,
3t 2

the gradient of the normal is

  2
 y −  t − 3 +   = −3t x − t − 6t + 4
 t 
2 3
( ( ))

yt − t 2 + 3t − 2
t
= − 3t 2 x − t 3 + 6t − 4( )
yt + 3t 3 x = 3t 6 − 18t 4 + 12t 3 + t 2 − 3t + 2

The curve crosses the x-axis when y = 0 ; i.e.

2
t −3+ =0
t

⇒ t 2 − 3t + 2 = 0

⇒ (t − 2 )(t − 1) = 0

⇒ t = 1, 2

Equation of normal at t = 1 is given by

y + 3x = 3 − 18 + 12 + 1 − 3 + 2

⇒ y + 3x = −3 ,

347
Chapter 17 Cartesian Geometry

and at t = 2 ,

2y + 24x = 192 − 288 + 96 + 4 − 6 + 2

⇒ y + 12x = 0 .

These two lines intersect when

1
21x = 3 ⇒ x = y = −4 .
3

Exercise 17D
1. Show that the tangent at the point P, with 3. A curve is given by
parameter t, on the curve x = 3t , y = 2t has
2 3
π
x = a cos t, y = asin t, 0 <
2 3
equation 2
y = tx − t 3 when a is a positive constant. Find and simplify
2. The parametric equation of a curve is given by dy
an expression for in terms of t. (AEB)
x = cos2t , y = 4sin t . Sketch the curve for dx
π 4. A curve is described parametrically by the
0≤t≤ 2
, and show that
equation
dy
= − cosec t 1+ t 1+ t3
dx x= ,y= 2
t t
Find the equation of the normal to the curve at
the point where t = 2 . (AEB)

17.5 Miscellaneous Exercises

1. Sketch the curve defined parametrically by 3. Sketch the curve C defined parametrically by

x = 2 + t 2 , y = 4t . x = t 2 − 2; y = t
Write down the equation of the straight line with Write down the cartesian equation of the circle
gradient m passing through the point (1, 0). with centre the origin and radius r. Show that
Show that this line meets the curve when this circle meets the curve C at points whose
parameter t satisfies the equation
mt 2 − 4t + m = 0 .
Find the values of m for which this quadratic t 4 − 3t 2 + 4 − r 2 = 0
equation has equal roots. Hence determine the (a) In the case r = 2 2 , find the coordinates of
equations of the tangents to the curve which pass the two points of intersection of the curve
through the point (1, 0). (AEB) and the circle.
2. Determine the coordinates of the centre C and the
radius of the circle with equation (b) Find the range of values of r for which the
curve and the circle have exactly two points
x 2 + y 2 + 4 x − 6 y = 12 in common. (AEB)
The circle cuts the x-axis at the points A and B.
Calculate the area of the triangle ABC.
Calculate the area of the minor segment of the
circle cut off by the chord AB, giving your
answer to three significant figures.

348
Chapter 17 Cartesian Geometry

4. A curve is defined parametrically by 5. The parametric equations of a curve are

2t t2 x = 3( 2 θ − sin 2 θ )
x= , y=
1+ t 1+ t y = 3(1 − cos2 θ )
Prove that the normal to the curve at the point
(1, 12 ) has equation 6 y + 4 x = 7 . The tangent and normal to the curve at point P
π
Determine the coordinates of the other point of when θ=
intersection of this normal with the curve. 4
(AEB) meet the y-axis at L and M respectively.
Show that the area of the triangle PLM is
9
( π − 2 )2 . (AEB)
4

349
Chapter 17 Cartesian Geometry

350