Sensors & Transducers(Unit 4)

Jeeva Joy, Assistant Professor

Department of Computer science
Sri C. Achutha Menon Government College, Kuttanellur.
Unit 4 - Syllabus

Hall effect transducers, Digital transducers, Piezo-electric sensors, eddy

current transducers, tacho generators and stroboscope, Magnetostrictive
transducers
Radiation sensors: LDR, Photovoltaic cells, photodiodes, photo
emissive cell types
Force and Torque Transducers: Proving ring, hydraulic and
pneumatic load cell, dynamometer and gyroscopes.
Sound Transducers: Sound level meter, Microphone.

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Radiation Sensors
Radiation is the emission of energy from matter in the form of rays or high-speed
particles.
Broadly, it can be thought of as either electromagnetic radiation (like radio waves or visible
light) or particle radiation (like alpha particles or beta particles).
Radiation Sensors or Radiation Detectors are devices that can sense and measure
radiation. The radiation sensors discussed here are mostly based on the photoelectric effect.
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a material when electromagnetic radiation,
such as a photon of visible light, falls on them is called the photoelectric effect.
Photoconductive cells(LDR), Photovoltaic cells, Photo emissive cells are all
transducers that work on the basis of the photoelectric effect. They all can convert
light energy into electrical energy.

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Radiation Sensors
Common Types of Radiation Sensors are,
Gas-filled radiation detectors.
Scintillation radiation detectors.
Solid-state radiation detector.

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Radiation Sensors
Gas-filled radiation sensors
A chamber filled with air or special gas is given a high voltage potential difference which
causes ionization and as a result, positive ions gets collected to the cathode and free electrons
to the anode which in turn causes a small current flow. The level of current indicates the level
of radiation. A common type of gas-filled radiation detector is Geiger-Muller Detector, filled
with helium, neon, or argon.

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Radiation Sensors
Scintillation radiation sensors
Solid or liquid material is hit with radiation which releases photons into a photomultiplier tube.
The tube consists of multiple dynodes each one having higher electrical potential than the
previous one. The released photon strikes the first dynode and an electron is emitted as a result
of the photoelectric effect. The electron freed hits the next higher potential dynode and more
electrons are emitted and are repeated forward. Hence, the output pulse from the tube is
proportional to the light entering the tube.

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Radiation Sensors
Solid-state radiation sensors
A semiconductor device that contains two materials,
n-type and p-type, are used in this detector.
The n-type semiconductor material has electrons
as majority carriers and the p-type has holes
(positively charged) as majority carriers.
When these two are joined, electrons from the
n-region migrate to the p-region creating a
depletion region between them. When radiation
hits the depletion region, free electron-hole pairs are created. These charge carriers travel within
the detector and the current pulse they cause is proportional to the level of radiation.

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Light Dependent Resistor(LDR)
A light dependent resistor(LDR) is used to detect the presence or level of
light.
They work on the basic principle of photo-conductivity. It is also called a
photo-resistor, photoconductor or photocell. The circuit symbol of an LDR is
shown in the figure.

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Light Dependent Resistor(LDR)
LDR consist of a resistor made up of semiconductor material. Cadmium sulphide and cadmium
selenide are the most commonly used materials for constructing these resistors. They have high
resistivity and their resistance value varies according to light intensity. Photons from the fallen light are
absorbed by the material lattice and some electrons gain this energy to break the bond and be free. As a
more light strike, more free electrons are emitted that can conduct electricity thereby decreasing the
resistance.
A snake-like track is formed using cadmium sulphide on the surface as shown in the figure. This structure
provides maximum surface and reduces resistance.

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Light Dependent Resistor(LDR)
Advantages of LDR
Low cost.
Ease of manufacture.
Ease of use.
Disadvantages of LDR
High response time.
Applications
Automatic Street Lighting.
Burglar Circuits.
Cameras, Alarm Clocks.

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Photovoltaic Cell
A photovoltaic cell is a device that generates an electric current when exposed to light. The basic
principle behind its working is the photovoltaic effect.

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Photovoltaic Cell-Construction
Layers – Conducting material on top surface and backside collects produced electricity. The
material on the top doesn’t cover the surface fully to allow penetration of radiation to the
depletion region on the p-n semiconductor. The anti-reflection layer traps maximum light rays
to be occupied by the p-n semiconductor.
Materials Used : Silicon, Gallium Arsenide, Cadmium Telluride, Gallium Selenide.

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Photovoltaic Cell-Working
The photoelectric cell is formed of a p-type and an n-type semiconductor. The
n-type semiconductor material has electrons as majority carriers and the p-type
has holes(positively charged) as majority carriers. When these two are joined,
electrons from the n-region migrate to the p-region creating a depletion region
between them. When light falls on the depletion region, the energy from
photon is transferred to electrons, creating free electron-hole pairs that can
move freely and conduct electricity.

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Photovoltaic Cell
Advantages
Fast response.
High efficiency.
Generate voltage without any bias.
Disadvantages
Power generation depends on weather conditions.
Easily damaged.
Applications
Solar farms.
Telecommunication and Signalling.
Standalone systems including solar lamps, parking meters, trash compactors.
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Photodiode
The photodiode is a p-n junction diode that converts light energy into
electrical energy. It is also known as a photodetector, photosensor or light
detector.

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Photodiode-Working
A photodiode always works in reverse biased condition. That is the n region of the
semiconductor is connected to the battery’s positive terminal and the p region of the
semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal of the battery.
When the photodiode is exposed to light, the electrons from n region moves towards the
positive terminal and holes from the p region move towards the negative terminal. Thus a
photocurrent is produced which is proportional to the intensity of light. It is called the
photoelectric effect.

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Photodiode- Types
1.PN Junction Diode
It is formed with a p-type and an n-type semiconductor and creates a depletion region where
the incidence of photons generates free electrons that can conduct electricity.
2. PIN Diode
It has a thin layer of intrinsic(pure form of semiconductor)material between two
extrinsic(n-type and p-type) materials. The added layer has high resistivity and electric field
strength. It also increases the depletion region thereby increasing the possibility of a larger
amount of photons hitting the region.
3. Avalanche Photodiode(APD)
High reverse biased voltage is applied to create an avalanche effect, which is the rapid
increase of current when enough electric force is applied to the material. This happens because
photoexcited electrons have high energy to excite other atoms and free more electrons.

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Photodiode- Modes of operation
1.Photovoltaic modes
Also known as a zero-bias mode. It is forward biased, i.e., the positive terminal is connected
to the p-region and the negative terminal to the n-region. This arrangement decreases the width
of the depletion region and the voltage produced when photon hits will have a small dynamic
range.
2.Photoconductive mode
It works on reverse biased condition, increases the width of the depletion region and therefore
is fast by having a low response time.
3. Avalanche Mode
Under the high reverse biased condition, the avalanche effect is initiated which produces
internal gain which in turn increases device response by producing a larger current per photon

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Photodiode- Applications
Applications
Optical communication system
Used in solar cell panels
Smoke detectors, Remote controls in VCR , Street lights

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Photoemissive cell
A photoemissive cell is also known as a phototube that operates on the photoelectric effect. It
consists of a photosensitive cathode(negative) from which electrons are emitted when hit by
light. It also contains an anode(positive) that attracts these free electrons. Both cathode and
anode are enclosed in glass or quartz. When the electrons are drawn from cathode to anode,
an electric current is generated proportional to the fallen light.

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Photoemissive cell-Types
Vacuum type cell
In a vacuum phototube, a rod anode and curvature cathode are housed in a vacuum glass.
The current is generated immediately on light incidence and is proportional to the brightness of
the light.
Gas-filled cell
A similar arrangement as the vacuum tube except, inert gas like argon is filled in the tube and
emitted electrons by the light are accelerated by the electric field and cause ionization thereby
increasing the current due to high collision.
Photomultiplier cell
It contains evacuated glass which is occupied by multiple dynodes in addition to anode and
cathode. Each dynode has a higher electrical potential than the previous one. Electrons emitted
from the cathode strike the first dynode that emits multiple electrons which in turn hits the next
higher potential dynode and more electrons are emitted and is repeated forward. The anode is
placed at the end and a large number of electrons reaching the anode results in a current pulse
which is detected easily. It is highly sensitive and has a high-frequency response.
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Hall effect Transducers
Hall effect transducers can measure the magnetic field strength. Direct measurement of
magnetic field intensity is impracticable and hence, this kind of transducer uses the Hall effect
for this purpose. Hall effect is the production of e.m.f or voltage difference across a
current-carrying conductor in the presence of a magnetic field, which is perpendicular to
both the current and magnetic field.

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Hall effect Transducers
The magnitude of voltage depends on the strength of the magnetic field, current and properties
of the conductor material used. A voltmeter can be used to measure the magnitude of the
produced voltage.The voltage developed due to Hall effect or the Hall Effect e.m.f is given as,

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Hall effect Transducers
Advantages
Long life.
High-speed operation.
Disadvantages
May be affected by an external magnetic field.
High temperature affects the sensitivity of the transducer.
Applications
Position sensing.
Magnetometer.
Automotive fuel level indicator.
Encoded Switches.

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Digital Transducers
Digital Transducers converts an input signal into an electrical output which is in the form of
pulses.
Digital signals are less susceptible to disturbances compared with analogue signals.
Data storage capacity is more.
Shaft encoders, digital resolvers,
digital tachometers, hall effect sensors and
limit switches are some digital transducers
with direct methods of producing
digital output.
A control processor is used to read the
digital signal directly and a counter is used to
count the output pulses over a period.
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Digital Transducers
An encoder is any transducer that generates a digital or coded reading of a measurement. Eg:
Shaft encoder
Shaft Encoder
A Shaft Encoder is an electro-mechanical transducer, which converts a rotary position into an
electronic signal suitable for providing input data to a vast range of electronic control devices.
Various applications of shaft encoders are,
Mirror positioning systems
Robotics
Printers
plotters

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Digital Transducers
Shaft encoders are classified into two
1. Absolute encoders-Maintains information about the position when power is removed from the system.
2. Incremental encoder- It records changes in position, but does not power up with a relation between encoder state and
physical position. An incremental encoder can measure the change in position but not the absolute position.

An Incremental encoder is electro-mechanical, it works by transforming the angular

position of the shaft into digital or pulse signals by means of an optical disk. A
certain number of pulses are generated per revolution and each pulse is an increment
corresponding to the defined resolution.
It contains a coded disc with alternating
Conducting and non-conducting portions.
The pulse output is used to keep track the
position

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Piezoelectric Sensors

A sensor which works on the principle of piezoelectricity is known as a piezoelectric sensor.

Where piezoelectricity is a phenomenon where electricity is generated if mechanical stress is
applied to a material. Not all materials have piezoelectric characteristics.
Rochelle Salt, Ammonium Dihydrogen Phosphate, Lithium Suphate, dipotassium tartarate,
quartz and ceramic are some common example of piezoelectric material.
Basically, there are two types of piezoelectric materials: Natural and Synthetic.
Quartz and Ceramic are examples of natural piezoelectric material whereas materials like
lithium sulphate, ethylene diamine tartarate belong to the synthetic group..

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Piezoelectric Sensors - Working

A piezoelectric transducer uses a piezoelectric material as a transduction element. A

piezoelectric material is one in which an electrical potential difference appears across a certain
surface of a crystal if the dimension of the crystal is changed by the application of force. This
potential difference appears due to displacement of charge. The process is reversible which
means if potential difference across some specified surface is changed, the dimension of the
piezoelectric material will also change. This effect is known is Piezoelectric Effect.
The working principle of a Piezoelectric Transducer is based on the fact that when a
mechanical force is applied on a piezoelectric crystal, a voltage is produced across its faces.
Thus, mechanical phenomena is converted into electrical signal. No external supply is required
for this transducer to work and hence it is an active transducer.

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Piezoelectric Sensors - Working

In a piezoelectric transducer, a piezoelectric crystal is sandwitched between the two electrodes.

When a mechanical deformation takes place, it generates charge and hence it acts as a
capacitor. A voltage is developed across the electrodes of the transducer which can be
measured and calibrated with the deforming force to directly measure the mechanical
deforming force. Figure below shows a simple piezoelectric transducer.

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Eddy Current Sensors

Eddy currents are current induced in a conductor due to the magnetic field produced by a coil
associated with it. The Eddy Current Transducer uses the effect of eddy (circular) currents
to sense the proximity of non-magnetic but conductive materials. A typical eddy current
transducer contains two coils: an active coil (main coil) and a balance coil. The active coil
senses the presence of a nearby conductive object, and balance coil is used to balance the
output bridge circuit and for temperature compensation.
If the conductor is placed in a changing magnetic field then a current is produced proportional
to this change.
When an alternating current is applied to the active coil, It causes a magnetic field to form
around the coil. If an electrically conducting material is kept in this magnetic field, then eddy
current will get induced. The amount of eddy current produced becomes more, if the distance
between the conducting material and active coil is less.

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Eddy Current Sensors

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Tachogenerators

Tachogenerators are true speed measuring devices that rely on the basic principle of a
generator, to determine the speed of a rotating part based on voltage. A tachogenerator is
attached to the object whose speed is being measured — such as a fan or motor shaft — and
evaluates the voltage of the power produced by the generator to determine the rotational speed
of the object. Tachogenerators are designed to ensure that the relationship between voltage and
speed is extremely precise and linear within a specified range.

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DC Tachogenerators
Most tachogenerators used today are brushed DC types with a permanent magnet stator and a wound, rotating
armature. One end of the armature is attached to the object whose speed is being measured, and the armature
rotates within the magnetic field of the stator. As the measured object rotates, the rotation of the tachogenerator
armature induces a voltage, and the amplitude of the voltage is proportional to the speed of rotation. A
commutator converts the alternating current generated by rotation into direct current that can be interpreted by a
voltmeter circuit and converted to speed. If the direction of rotation changes, the voltage polarity changes, so DC
tachogenerators can determine both speed and direction of rotation.
The armature of the DC generator
revolves between the constant field
of the permanent magnet. The
rotation induces the emf in the coil.
The magnitude of the induced
emf is proportional to the shaft speed.

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AC Tachogenerators

The DC tachometer generator uses the commutator and brushes which have many disadvantages. The AC
tachometer generator designs for reducing the problems. The AC tachometer has stationary armature and
rotating magnetic field. Thus, the commutator and brushes are absent in AC tachometer generator.
The rotating magnetic field induces the EMF in the stationary coil of the stator. The amplitude and
frequency of the induced emf are equivalent to the speed of the shaft. Thus, either amplitude or frequency
is used for measuring the angular velocity.

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AC Tachogenerators

The below mention circuit is used for measuring the speed of the rotor by considering the amplitude of
the induced voltage. The induces voltages are rectified and then passes to the capacitor filter for
smoothening the ripples of rectified voltages.

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STROBOSCOPE

A stroboscope is an instrument that can be used to measure revolutions, velocity , and frequency of
rotating components or moving parts. It is also known as a strobe. This device can measure periodic or
rotary motions. This instrument can make a cyclically moving object appear to be slow-moving or
stationary and it is done by the stroboscopic effect. This principle is used for the study of rotating,
oscillating or vibrating objects.
This instrument is a source of variable frequency flashing brilliant light and the flashing frequency can be
adjusted by the operator. The circuit is based on a variable frequency oscillator which controls the
flashing frequency. Speed can be measured by adjusting the frequency and because of that, the moving
objects are visible only at specific intervals of time. The method of use of the stroboscope depends
upon the imperfect dynamic response of the human eye. When strong light is flashed on a moving
object which will occupy a given position during the occurrence of each flash then the object will appear
to be stationary. Stroboscope consists of a source of flashing light whose frequency can be varied and
controlled and this source is called a strobotron.

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STROBOSCOPE
This type(Mechanical) of stroboscope consists of a rotating disc and a stationary mask, both having the
opening of the same shape and size. When the two openings on the disc and stationary mask coincide then
the observer can catch glimpses of the object behind the mask. If the object is rotating and the speed of the
disc is synchronized with the motion of the object then the object will appear to be motionless. When the
disc is rotating at a lesser speed than the object then the object would appear to creep forward and if the
disc is rotating at a slightly faster speed then the rotating object will appear to creep backward.

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MAGNETOSTRICTIVE TRANSDUCERS

A magnetostrictive transducer is a device that is used to convert mechanical energy into magnetic energy
and vice versa. Such a device can be used as a sensor and also for actuation as
the transducer characteristics is very high due to the bi-directional coupling between mechanical and
magnetic states of the material.
A magnetostrictive transducer makes use of a type of magnetic material in which an applied oscillating
magnetic field squeezes the
atoms of the material together,
creating a periodic change in
the length of the material and
thus producing a high-frequency
mechanical vibration.

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FORCE AND TORQUE TRANSDUCERS

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Force and Torque

Force is any action that stops or changes the motion of a body.

F=MA
Where M=mass in kg
A= Acceleration
Torque is a turning force about an axis which tends to change the linear motion of a body.

T=FD
Where F=Force
D=perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation.

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PROVING RING

The proving ring is a device used to measure force. It consists of an elastic ring of known diameter with a
measuring device located in the center of the ring.
The proving ring is a metal ring which flexes under
an applied load. If fabricated properly, the ring's diameter
will change with a consistent, reliable, linear relationship
of load versus deflection. The ring's deflection spans
bidirectional use, stretching for tension loading and
shrinking for compression loading. As a result of the
load -versus-deflection characteristic, it provides
precise equivalent of deadweight calibration indication,
but at a fraction of the size, cost and weight.

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Hydraulic Load Cell

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Pneumatic Load Cell

Pneumatic load cells use air pressure applied to one end of a diaphragm, and it escapes through the nozzle
placed at the bottom of the load cell, which has a pressure gauge inside of the cell..

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Dynamometer

A dynamometer, also known as a "dyno", is a device that measures force, torque or power.

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Prony Brake Dynamometer

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Belt Transmission Dynamometer

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Belt Transmission Dynamometer

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Gyroscopes

A gyroscope is a device used for measuring or maintaining orientation and angular velocity. It is a
spinning wheel or disc in which the axis of rotation (spin axis) is free to assume any orientation by itself.
The working principle of gyroscope is based on gravity and is explained as the product of angular
momentum which is experienced by the torque on a disc to produce a gyroscopic precession in the
spinning wheel.
This process is termed gyroscopic motion or gyroscopic force and is defined as the tendency of a rotating
object to maintain the orientation of its rotation.
We know that the rotating object possesses angular momentum and this needs to be conserved. This is
done because when there is any change in the axis of rotation, there will be a change in the orientation
which changes the angular momentum. Therefore, it can be said the working principle of gyroscope is
based on the conservation of angular momentum.

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Gyroscopes- Applications

Gyroscopes find applications in the compasses of boats, spacecraft, and aeroplanes. The orientation and
the pitch of the aeroplane are determined against the steady spin of the gyroscope.
In spacecraft, the navigation of the desired target is done with the help of a gyroscope. The spinning
center of the gyroscope is used as the orientation point.
The stabilization of the large boats and satellites is done with the help of massive gyroscopes.
Gyroscopes are used in gyrotheodolites for the maintenance of the direction in tunnel mining.
Gyroscopes along with accelerometers are used in the design of smartphones providing excellent motion
sensing.

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Ring Laser Gyroscopes
The advantage of using a RLG is that there are no moving parts.

Here's how a RLG can measure rotation about its sensitive axis:
The input laser beam is split into two beams that travel the same path but in opposite directions: one clockwise
and the other counter-clockwise.
The beams are recombined and sent to the output detector. In the absence or rotation, the path lengths will be the
same and the output will be the total constructive interfernence of the two beams.
If the apparatus rotates, there will be a difference in the path lengths travelled by the two beams, resulting in a net
phase difference and destructive interference. The net signal will vary in amplitude depending on the phase shift,
therefore the resulting amplitude is a measurement of the phase shift, and consequently, the rotation rate.

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Sound Transducers

A sound transducer is a device that can convert Sound Signals into electrical signals or electrical signals
into sound signals. In the former case, they are called as Input Sound Transducers and a Microphone is an
example for this case.
There are the 2 main categories of the sound transducers first one is input transducers and the second one
is output transducers.
Input transducers are that converts sound energy into the electrical energy, an example of these
transducers is a microphone that converts our sound into an electrical signal and sends to the loudspeaker.
The output transducers are that changes the electrical signal into the sound wave, its example is
loudspeaker that converts the electrical signal into the sound received by the microphone.

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Sound Transducers

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Sound Level Meters
Sound level meters track and measure the strength of sound waves. These meters are primarily manufactured as
handheld, portable devices. They are often referred to as dosimeters, sound pressure level meters, or decibel
meters and are useful tools for making sure sound levels comply with regulatory requirements.
A sound level meter comprises a microphone, a preamplifier, signal processing, and a display. The microphone
converts the sound signal to an equivalent electrical signal. The most suitable type of microphone for sound level
meters is the condenser microphone, which combines precision with stability and reliability..
The electrical signal produced by the microphone is at a very low level, so it is made stronger by a preamplifier
before it is processed by the main processor. Signal processing includes applying frequency and time weightings
to the signal as specified by international standards such as IEC 61672 – 1, to which sound level meters conform.
Rectifier converts Ac signal into DC.

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Microphone

A microphone is an acoustic to electric transducer or sensor that detects sound signal and
converts them into an electrical signal.
Common types are,
Condenser microphone(Capacitive microphone)
Carbon microphone
Ribbon Microphone
Dynamic Microphone
Inductive Microphone
Piezoelectric Microphone

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Condenser or Capacitive Microphone

The condenser microphone or capacitor microphone is able to provide high quality audio.
As the name implies, the condenser microphone or capacitor microphone uses a capacitance
that varies in line with the incoming signal to generate the varying output voltage.
The actual condenser microphone element consists of a thin membrane in close proximity to a
solid metal plate. The membrane acts as the diaphragm and is electrically conductive.
This construction creates a capacitor which may be in the region of 10 to 50pF. For the
condenser microphone to operate it requires a DC voltage to be applied. This can be supplied
by the battery shown in figure.

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Condenser or Capacitive Microphone

When sound waves hit the microphone, the diaphragm moves backwards and forwards. This
changes the level of capacitance and as a result small voltage changes are seen across a high
load resistor connected across the microphone element.

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Ribbon Microphone

A ribbon microphone is a unique type of dynamic microphone that is based around a thin,
corrugated strip of metal (often aluminium) or film suspended between two magnetic poles.
Unlike traditional moving-coil dynamic mics, the ribbon element responds to variations in
the velocity of air particles, rather than the pressure. As the ribbon vibrates within its magnetic
field, it generates a tiny voltage that corresponds to these changes in velocity.

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Thank You

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