Over Voltages in Electrical Power rl Systems Torics Causes of Overvoltages ond its Effects on Power System-Lightning, Switching Surges ond Temporary Overvoltages Corena and its Effoets Bewley Lettice Diagram Protection against Ovorvolhages UNIT LEARNING OBJECTIVES ¥ —_ Cansesof various types of ovorvoltages and their effects on power system. Concept of corenc and its effects on tronsmission lines. Y Concept of bowley lattice diagram. Protection against overvohtages. INTRODUCTION Power systems are always subjected to ovorvoltages \whose values are much more than the normal operating voltages. The overveltages are generally classified into two types Le, Internal overvoltages and external overvoltages. interno! overveltager such as switching overvoltages and temporary overvoltages are caused due te opening and closing of circuit broaker contacts, sudden load rejection, insulation failure etc. External evervoltages are generated due to lighting. The overvoltages cause number of effects in a power system such as Insulation foilure of equipments, damage to equipments connected to power supply, heating, flashovor ete. Hence, electrical equipment should be protected against these ‘yoltages. The Inculation requirement of any electrical equipment Is decided by these voltages. Even though all the overvoltage strettes are not strong enough to damage insulation of the equipment, but stil these overvoltager noed to be eliminated to ensure the smooth operation of electrical power system. All the destructive and non-destructive abnormal overvoltages are climincted from the system by means of everveltage protection.12 High Voltage Engineering (Anna University) PART-A Short Question and Answers QI, Define overvoltage and list the types of overvoltages. Ans: Overvoltage Every electrical equipment is designed to operate at certain maximum supply voltage. IF the voltage inthe equipment is increased beyond its maximum limit, itis known as overvoltage ‘Types of Overvoltages There are two types of overvoltages. They are, 1. Extemal overvoltages (a) Lightning overvoltages al overvoltages (a) Switching overvoltages (b) Temporary overvoliages (or) Power frequency overvoltages. Q2. Define surge voltage. - Ans: Surge voltage is also known as spike, transient or impulse voltage. It is a short duration overvoltage which can cause ‘malfunction or failure of equipments in a system depending upon the severity ofthe surge. Surge voltage spikes normally occurs ‘not less than one nano second. 3, What are the causes of overvoltages in power system? Ans: ‘The two main causes of overvoltages in power system are, 1, Internal Causes (a) Switching su (b) Insulation failure (©) Areing ground and (@) Resonance 2, External Causes Extemal causes of overvoltages are mainly due lightning Q4. What are the causes for switching overvoltages? Ans: The following are the causes for switching overvoltaze. Switching OFF of unloaded tansformers, reactors ee Switching OFF of transmission lines, capacitor banks, cables ete. Short circuits and fault interruptions. Sudden switching OFF ofa load Switching ON of reactive loads and lines 6 Reso Q5. What are the causes for power frequency overvoltages in power system? Ans: (Mode! Paper.2, 02 | Nowee-17, (R13), a1] -e phenomenon such as ferro-re ynance, arcing grounds et. “The various causes for power frequency and its harmonic overvoltages are, Sudden load rejection (loss of load) Ferranti effect Ground faults Saturation in transformers ‘Unsymmetrical faults SIA Publishers &Unit - 1 : Over Voltages in Electrical Power Systems Q6. Define the term ‘Isokeraunic level [Model Paper-2, 01 | Apriay-19, (R13), 9 OR What is isokeraunic level? Nev.oec.-17,e13),02, ‘OR Define isokeraunic level or thunderstorm days. NowiDec-16, (R13), 02 ‘The average number of days per year when thunder is recorded or heard in a particular location is known as, isokeraunie level or thunderstorm days (TD). ‘What are the harmful effects of lightning? Ans: 13 Q11. List the factors affecting corona loss. Ans: ‘The factors affecting corona loss are categorized as follows 1 Blectrical Factors (Effect of frequency Gi) Effect of line voluge Gil). Effect of load current Atmospheric Factors a7. Ans: (i) Effect of temperature and pressure “The following are the harmful effects of lightning. Gi Exeaclinle: mower (i) The winding of transformer or generator are subjected to high pressure and get damaged when they are hit by x Factors Related to Conductor the travelling waves produced dv to lightning () Conductor size (i) Disturbing oscillations willbe produced inthe ne by Wi) Spaidigcwwon condo the intiation of are in any part ofthe power system due | —__—C”_SPaCwD tolightning stroke, These oscillations may cause damage | 12. What is ‘Burst corona’? tothe ecuipments that are linked othe wansmission line Ans: ‘Aoviay 19, (843),09, (ii) The insulators will get destroyed and even poles may ee ‘get damaged by he traveling waves generated duc 0 Consider point plane gaps in air. When the point lightning strokes. under consideration is positive then corona current increases GB. Classify the lightning stroke. constontly with an inerease in voltage ifthe point is positive a novioec.t8,qmiy,01 | At an adequately high voltage, the amplification of current “The following are the two dfferem type of lightning | inereases to about 10” with an increase in voltage and then strokes the coment becomes pulsed having smal bursts with repotiion 1. Direct stroke fiequency of about | kHz. Such type of corona is known as 2. Indinect stroke. burst corona Q9. What is back flashover? Q13, Define: Corona Critical Disruptive Voltage. Ans {Model Paper, 01 [Nov/Dec 6 (R11, Back Flashover is one of the phenomenon which, decreases the reliability of power transmission lines. Itoceurs due to direct lightning stroke to the tower structure or earth ‘wires, It injects wave currents with high amplitude to the phase cconciuctors which in turn causes phase to ground faulis in power transmission lines. This induced voltae may add to‘subtract from the power frequeney voltage. At any moment any one of the phase will have the same polarity as that of lightning surge which lead to a flashover and this phenomenon is known as back flashover. Q10, Define corona and corona loss. Ans: Corona Corona is defined as the phenomenon of violet glow, overhead hissing noise and formation of ozone gas in a transmission line Corona Loss ‘Whenever corona occurs, the space around the conductor gets ionized and hence produces ions. These ions move around the conductor. In order to maintain the motion, the ions require some eneruy which they take fom the supply, This additional energy taken by the tons dissipated as heat, sound and light ‘This is ealled as corona loss. Ans: [Model Paper-t, a1 |ApriMay-17, (R13), 1) ‘The minimum phase to neutral voltage at which corona ‘occurs is called critical disruptive voltage (V_). Mathematically, itis given as, 5 (4 Sr in| r Breakdown strength of air at 70 cm of He and 25°C y Where, m= lnregularity factor 8 ~ Air density factor = Radius of conductors dd = Spacing between the conductors, Q14, List the methods of reducing corona. The following are the methods of reducing corona. 1. By increasing conductor size 2. By inereasing spacing between the conductors. By using bundled conductors. Spectrum All-In-One Series14 Q15._ Mention the advantages of Bewley’ lattice diagram, Ans: ‘The following are the advantages of Bewley’s latice diagram. 1. Bewley’s lattice diagram technique is used to study travelling wave problems. thelps in solving the transient problems directly in time domain, 3. Ircan be drawn for voltage as well as for current 4. Itholps in observing the position and direction of all successive reflections of voltage and current waveforms, 5. Ithelpsin describing the results for attenuation and wave distortion without any difficulty 6 This technique is efficient for lossless or distortionless line. Good accuracy ean be achieved by lumping resistance at one oF more points along the line. History of any wave |. How are overvoltages controlled? oR What are the techniques to be adopted for controlling the switching overvoltages? be determined easily. Ans ‘The switching and power frequency overvoltages can be controlled by. 1. Increasing the damping of the system Phase controlled switching of eireuit breakers ‘Sweeping trapped charges ‘Using shunt reactors Reducing switching suru Q17. What is surge arrester? Ans: 4 using surge diverters A surge arrester is a device connected between a conduetor and ground to protect the electrical equipment against bigh voltage surges. It is also known as a lightning arrester as it provides protection against lightning. The surge arrester diverts the lightning or switching surges from the equipment towards the ground, Q18. Draw the equivalent circuit of a surge diverter. Ans ‘Aprntay-19, (13), 2 The equivalent circuit of surge diverter is shown in figure. Romer cet Figure: Surge Diverter High Voltage Engineering (Anna University) | Q19. What are the different methods employed for protection of overhead lines against lightning? ‘Ans: {Mode Paper.2, 2 Apriay-17, (R19), 2 The various methods employed for protection of ‘overhead lines against lightning are, 1. Shielding the overhead line using ground wires above phase wires. Using ground rods and counter poise wires, 3. Using protective devices such as expulsion gaps protector tubes and surge diverter at appropriate places 20. What are the factors to be considered for the effective protection of transmission line using ‘ground wire? Ans: Ava. The following are the important factors to be considered forthe effective protection of transmission line using ground wire, 1. Protective ratio 2. Protective angle Height of the wire 4. Protective zone 5. Coupling factor 6.__Tower footing resistance. Q21. A single phase overhead lines has two conductors of diameter 1 cm with a spacing of 1m between centers. If the electric strength of air is 21 kV/cm, determine the line voltage for which corona will commence on the line. ‘Ans: Given that Diameter of conductor ~ | em Radius of conductor, r= 0.5 em Spacing of conductor, d= 1 m= 100m. Dielectric strength of ait. ¢, ~ 21 kViem Assuming irregularity factor. m= 1 ‘Air density factor, 3 = Line voltage for which corona will commence on, the line =? ‘The line voltage at which corona occurs is known as the critical disruptive voltage. Critical disruptive voltage is given by. rome = 55.63 kViph SIA Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Lid.Unit - 1: Over Voltages in Electrical Power Systems 1s PART-B Long Question and Answers 4.1 CAUSES OF OVER VOLTAGES AND ITS EFFECTS ON POWER SYSTEM - LIGHTNING, SWITCHING SURGES AND TEMPORARY OVERVOLTAGES. Q22. State the various causes of overvoltages in a power system. oR Discuss the causes of overvoltages in a power system. Ans: Causes of Overvoltages in Power System “The two main eauses oF overvoltages in power system are 1. Inemal causes 2. Extemal causes. 1. Internal Causes ‘These causes are due to some abnormal conditions generated in the circuit itself. These abnormal conditions not only change the system’s parameter but also damage the cireuit under severe conditions. Internal causes of overvoliages are mainly due to, Gi) Switching surges Gi) Insulation failure ‘Atcing ground and Resonance, @ (ching Surges ‘The overvaltages produced on a system duc 0 switching operations are known as switehing surges. (i) Insulation Failure ‘The overvoltages are also caused duc tothe insulation failure between line and ground or the grounding of conductor in 4 power system. (iii) Arcing Gros Arcing ground is commonly caused in long transmission line operations on high voltages duc to oscillation, The high ‘voltage surges produced due to areing ground ean damage the apparatus in the power system severely. The voltage produced due to arcing grounds is nearly 310 4 times the power frequency voltage. Areing grounds can be avoided by earthing the noutral (iy) Resonance In an electrical system when inductive reactance of the circuit becomes equal to capacitive reactance, resonance takes place. High voltage surges are produced in power system due to resonance in transmission lines. Resonance rarely occurs as the eapacitance is very small. In case of cables, resonance may oceur due to 5" harmonic components. 2. External Causes External causes of overvoltages im a power system are mainly due to lightning. “The other factors which causes overvoltages are as follows. Indirect Jectromagnetically induced overvoltages. Wg strokes such as lightning discharge taking place near the line result i Different atmospheric conditions along the line length will cause overvoltages GiiyOvervoltages are produced due to Friction between the atmospheric particles such as dust, dry snow et Gx) Overvoltages are produced due to lightning between the two nearby clouds Spectrum All-In-One Series16 @23. Discuss the power frequency overvoltages and their causes in power systems. Ans: Power system and tansmission lines are always sub- jected 10 power frequency overvollages which may occureither due to internal disturbances or extemal disturbanees. These power frequency overvoltoges play a very important role in the designing of whole system especially in extra high vol age systems, where the operating voltages will be very high ‘of the order of hundreds of kilo volts. These power frequency voltages are not only important fiom the design point of view but also very harmful 1o the system. If they are not controlled and if measures are not taken to minimize them. the complete power system will he damaged, Hence. itis very important to study the various origins of power frequency overvoltages and different methods to control or minimize them. Causes for Power Frequeney Overvoltages The various causes for power frequency overvoltages 1. Sudden load rejection 2. Ferran effeet 3. Ground faults 1. Sudden Load Rejection It is known that the load on the power system is never Ifthe load variations constant and varies with are slow and gradual, the various equipments in the power system like generators. automatic voltage regulators, prime movers ete. Will adjust themselves to the variations and retains the stable operation of the power system, However, ifthe load on the power stem is suddenly reduced to a very low value. the erator Will rise to very high value speed of the ws At the same time. the voltage on the power system will rise to very high value of the order of 200%%. This voltage is not desirable as it may cause breakdown of the insulation in the equipment or may completely damage the equipments. Hence, measures has to be taken to avoid the power frequency overvoltages due to sudden load rejection 2. Ferranti Effect When a long transmission line is operating under no-load ‘of light load condition, the receiving end voltage will become greater than sending end voltage. this effeet is called as Ferranti effect ‘The main cause of Ferranti effect isthe leading power factor at light load or no load condition. Due te this, the reactive power generated will become more than the reactive power absorbed, This effect will become prominent as the length and applied voltage of the line increases and hence will give rise 10 power frequency overvoltages, High Voltage Engineering (Anna University) 3. Ground Faults Ground faults are the faults involving ground. Incase of L-G fault the voltage of the faulty line will become zero, ‘whereas the voliage of the healthy ines increases to high value and hence give rise to overvoltages. However. the percentage increase of the voltage in the healthy lines depends on the type of grounding. Fora solidly grounded system the rise in voltage generally does not exceed 1. eer What are the different types of lightning strokes? Explain. There are two types of lightning strokes. They are, 1. Diwet stroke 2. Indirect stroke. 1. Direct Stroke It is defined as the electric discharge or lightning taking place directly from the cloud tothe tall structures such as towers, shielding wire or surrounding clouds. Practically, the direct strokes occur very rarely. Direct sttokes are further classified into owo types, namely stroke ‘4’ and stroke 'B Stroke A’ In this type of stroke, an electrostatic field is between a charged cloud and the tall struc which charge of opposite polarity is induced. When the electrostatic field intensity becomes huge enough to cause ionization and breakdown of surrounding ait. then lightning discharge takes place. It fakes long time to produce stroke "discharge and it always occurs on tall and sharp pointed structures as shown in figure (1). (car) SS Figure (1: Stroke ‘A’ Stroke'B! Direct stroke ‘Bis a sudden stroke in which three clouds A. B and C are involved, Where clouds 4 and C are positively charged and cloud B is negatively charged The clouds 4 and B gets discharged very rapidly whenever a flashover oceurs from cloud A to cloud B Duc to this, eloud C gains much higher potential and. discharges to earth quickly. It takes very less time 10 produce B suoke and does not oecur on tall structures but usually reaches the ground as shown in figure (2) SIA Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd.t= 1 : Over Voltages in Electrical Power Systems wW 2. Indirect Stroke ‘The type of electric discharge that hits the ground or an adjacent structure ofa power Line or a grounded structue taller than the power line and induces the voltage is known as indirce! stroke. These are the strokes on transmission lines that reach the power system equipments through travelling waves. Consider s negatively charged cloud over a conductor as shown in figure (3) — Charged cloud Conductor Leakage 10 ground Figure (i: ‘The negatively charged cloud induces a positive voltage on the portion of conductor which is exactly below the cloud while the portion of the conductor which is away from the cloud remains negatively charged. This negative charge slowly leaks to the ground through the insulators. When the lightning discharge occurs from the cloud to earth or 10 another cloud or passes away. the charge on the conductor is isolated and is released in both the directions along the line in the form of travelling waves. 25. What are the causes for switching and power frequency over voltages? How are they controlled in power systems? RIB, oR Describe the causes for switching and power frequency overvoltages. Ans: ‘Aoeimay- 17, (R43), Q44(aK) ‘Causes for Switching Overvoltages For answer refer Unitel, Q2 ‘Causes for Power Frequency Overvoltages Foranswer refer Unit-, Q23. 26. Explain the theories of charge formation in clouds. {Model Paper-1, 211(a) | Nev/Dee.-17, (R13), at1(b)M) oR Explain the different theories of charge formation in clouds. ‘Apeintay 17, (813), 01116) OR Explain the mechanism of charge formation in the clouds. Ans: Apia tt, (ROM), NNN) In the study of natural causes of occurrence of lightning. the study of c bbe neglected. Though the study of ch: xe Formation in clouds is inherent and it cannot formation in elouds is bit complex and uncertain, itis interesting. Spectrum All-In-One Seriesh Voltage Engineering (Anna University) tion is a key faeior ie, separation of charges. The positive and negative charges get separated thus making the ice erystals to settle in the upper part and rain drops in the lower part of the thunder cloud, Many Factors are ingulge i the process ofehuge formation under whi In charge formation in clouds, the height ofthe cloud, charge inside the cloud and voltaze eradients constitute the other factors and its a known fact thatthe portion of the cloud in the upper side is positively charged whereas the lower side portions are negatively charged. Figure (1: Charge Formed in Thundering Cloud (Simulated) At about | to 100 Coulombs of charge gets accommodated in the cloud before thundering and 0.3 km to 2 km range is being stated as the distance of charge centres which results lightning. The potential in the cloud may be as high as 10,000 kV to 100.000 kV and the lightning stroke which generates energy is nearly about 250 kwh The diameter of the rain drop till which it could be stable is 0.003 m and under field of 0.1 MVfem, the water and a particles get charged where they get clashed ic. the water droplets attain postive and air panicles attain negative charge. In another case when iee crystals get Ay charged and air positively charged shed with at, these crystals got nega ‘Theories which explain and give information on formation of charge in clouds are as follows. (i) Wilson's theory of charge separation Gi) Simpson's theory of charge separation (iii), Reynold’s theory of charge separation (Wilson's Theory ‘The following are the assumptions made to explain this theory. 1, Electrical field is present in the atmosphere under fair conditions whose direction is vertically downwards 2. There are number of ions in the atmosphere which get attached 10 the water and dust particles, 3. Atthe surface of earth the electric field intensity is 1 V/em. 4. The electric field intensity goes on decreasing with the inerease in height, Now, when a rain drop of lange size falls in this region, drop gets the positive and negative charges setting in the lower and upper positions respectively. The lower section of the drop stars attracting negative charges from the surrounding environment, As the negative charges get attracted by the lower section of the drop which is positively charged, the positive ions get remained in the environment. The remained positive fons floating in the air are blown to the upward direction with these ait currents Now, compared to the atmosphere where there get separated equally opposite). As the a settled with negative ions. Thus, theory. neutralization between charges, the cloud charges get polarized (charges tends the positive ions to move further upwards, the bortom of the cloud bein n this manner the charges in clouds get separated or polarized aecording to Wilson's SIA Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Lid.Unit - 1: Over Voltages in Electrical Power Systems 19 Wee i earn nie cat ‘cen Wiss hay {al Capture of Negative lons by Large Falling Drop _(b) Separation of Charge in a Thunder Cloud Figure (2k Wilson's Theory (ii) Simpson’s Theory This theory is based on variation of temperature. From the faets concerning thunder cloud itis known that when air cure rent breaks matter droplets it attains negative charge whereas the matter droplets attain positive charge. When the ait current break the ice crystals. then these ive erystals acquire negative charge and air currents acquire positive charges. In this theory its assumed that the cloud is moving from left to right. When the air with velocity 10 m/sec collides withthe droplets atthe bottom of the eloud, these drops get broken and are carried up, Asitisknowm tat, when ai lashes with rain drops gets negative charged and rain drops postive charged. The broken drops of rain are tend to move up and are not et down ntl hey combine with drops and fll down in the form of bunch of charger or pockets as shown in the figure (3). PRA ini ee — [Ssaha rede) Ar canens raking, ‘Sepia ockcor tech elpeane re Figure (3 Generation and Separation of Charge in Cloud ‘The air which is negatively charged tries to go up further til the place where the vapour gets in crystal form, There it clashes withthe ice crystals, as already known these crystals gct negatively charged and air being positively charged. The heavier drops of rain seitle down tothe base of cloud and the positively charged drops arc tend to attain the {op positon, In this manner, che charges get separated or the eloud charges get polayized Reynold’s Theory -Acconding to this theory, packets of small hard balls of ice which fall rom sky yet negatively charged, because these are effected by ice crystals which are warmer. This theory is based on experimental thcorics, according to which, the packets of frozen rain falling in shower, gets negatively charged when they have an impact by Warmer ies crystals and the char ing polarity reverses when the tempe ersed ture conditions are ‘Thus, relating to thunder clouds, the rate of charging and charge generation ic. discharge are not agreeing the practical observation, Thus. theory has some limitations. Q27. Describe the mechanism of lightning strokes inducing high overvoltage on transmissi [Model Paper 3, 11a) | ApriiMay. lines. RAD, 110K) OR Explain the mechanism of lightning stroke. Novibee 16.13, 011(an0) OR ‘What are the mechanisms by which lightning strokes. develop and induce overvoltages on overhead power lines? Ans: AS in the case of capacitor having two charged plates with dicleetrie medium in between, the symmetrical synopsis is found in lightning phenomena where the cloud and ground acts as plates of a capacitor having air as dielectric medium. As the lower part of the cloud is negatively charged the earth surface becomes positively charged due to induction, In order to have a lightning discharge the air surrounding the cloud must breakdown which require a voltage gradient of 30 kViem. But because ‘Spectrum All-In-One Ser110 High Voltage Engineering (Anna University) of the presence of moisture in air in the cloud, the breakdown strength of air decreases and may cause the breakdown even at tradient as low as 10 kV/cm. With the observation of below figures the concept of lightning can be understood further ot ay OOOOOOOOOS aaa Figure (1) Figure (2) ‘The air in the surrounding gets ionized with the presence of the voltage gradient 10 kV/cm. Now, at this voltage gradient ‘a negative streamer starts travelling from the cloud to ground, This streamer initiates the lightning effeet and thus named as pilot streamer as shown in figure (1), ‘This streamer holds the current of about 0.1 kA and has a speed of 15 envpsee, Depending upon the ionization of air, there appears a link between streamer and stepped leader as shown in figure (2) ic. the same ionized path of air through which both travel ia mr PRO 2 9898 Figure (3) Figure (4) feck tioned gah Thiet stoenow itt endanger The elon socket neutralized. Now, this streamer (as former streamer was retum stroke} is known as dart leader. This dart leader has its effects much foe ona an uns nd as cling oucke Tiss eof tl ou ake hh ny Sct rs mlseons Thott vd nae sft ingest cared ek ay SIA Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Lid.wa Unit - 1: Over Voltages in Elect sal Power Systems 28. Explain the mechanism of lightning discharge Ans: Aprarmay- 11, (RO), NNN) Lightning is an electrical discharge in the air between clouds or between separate charge centres in the same cloud. Lightning is basically a huge spark when large number of discharges occur within clouds than to earth which results in serious havards. As the potential between the cloud and the earth increases. gradient inthe air also inereases. When the potential gradient is up to 10 kV/cm the surrounding air gets breakdown and results in lightning stroke. ‘There are many theories which are put forwarded to explain the phenomenon of lightning and how the thunder cloud becomes electrically charged. According to the theory, the positive as well as negative ions in the air attach themselves to small dust particles. Small water drops suspended by ait due to polarization by induction, gets charged under storm conditions. Whenever such elouds passes over the earth, they induce opposite charges in below the earth. o “i Figure: Mochanism of Lighting Discharges “The following are the few points which should be noted about lightning dischanze. 43) Anlightning discharge the current ranges from 10 kA t0 90 kA. $100 strokes per second. (i) The estimation of the lightning discharg ii) A lightning discharge usually appears to the eye as a single flash. iv) Bach separate stroke starts as 2 downward leader from the cloud, Q29. Derive the mathematical model for lightning discharges. (Mode! Paper2, 218(0)| Now,0ee.-17, (R12), Q11(101 oR Give the mathematical model for lightning discharges and explain them. Ans: Nov nee.-16, (R13), A110} Mathematical Model for Lightning Discharges A cloud attains a large amount of charge and induees an opposite charge on the tall objects such as towers, In between these two charges an electrostatic field is set up and when the intonsity of the electrostatic field becomes sufficiently great 10 ionize the neighbouring air, the air breaksdown and discharge takes place between the eloud and the object. Such a discharge is known asa stroke the stroke strikes an overhead line then the voltage rise atthe point is taken as. Spectrum All-In-One Series1, Lightning stroke current reaching the ground Z,~ Stroke impedance “The probability of source impedance is estimated 10 be about 1 £2 t0 3 KE and the objects lke transmission line et. hhave surge impedance less than 500.0 (overloaded Lines 300 10 500.2, ground wires 100 0 150 €-and wower Footing resistance 10 10 $0 £2 ete. As surge impedance is very les, so the erm 2 60.1 and can be neglected. Hence, the rise in voltage can betncarly taken as = 1,2. volts, If a direct stroke occurs atthe top of an unshielded transmission line, the eurrent waves try to travel in both the directions and the curvent ishalved. Then the source impedance is given as ‘Usually, the lightning strokes incident on wansmission lines or substations are recorded for total number of days present in a year over a particular region. The degree of thunderstorm is given by the level of Thunderstorm Day (TD). The strokes may be either ground strokes or cloud-to-cloud sirokes. The above analysis do not give a clear idea to differentiate between the Wo strokes. Hence, ground flashover density is taken into ‘account to determine the ground strokes, It is denoted by N, N,=0.1 0 0.2 TDistrokes/km G30. What are the sources of switching surges? Ans: (R19), atten Ariat Switching surges are the overvoltages produced on a power system due to switching operations, Study of switching surges are important for designing the insulation of winding and for insulation coordination of EHV lines. The following are some of the major souress for production of switching surges. 1, Switching of an Unloaded Line (or) Open Line Switching surges duc © switching of an unloaded line arise due to travelling wave phenomenon being originated and. ddue to suckien application of voltage in the line as soon as the circuit breakerat the sending end iselosed. Successive reflection of the voltage wave causes overvoliages in the line 2. Switching of a Loaded Surges are also produced during the switching operation (of a loaded linc, Lotus consider that a loaded line is suddenly interrupted which results in voltage sctup of 2Z,/ across the switeb, Whore," is the initial value of eument atthe time of opening of the line and *Z,*is the natural impedance of the line. 17°¥, is the phase voltage and “Vis the voltage aeross the switcH, then the maximum value of voltage to which a line ray be subjected is, Viav,+V, Av Line High Voltage Engineering (Anna University 3. Reactor Switching Reactor switching may cause current chopping. Curent chopping isthe phenomenon of current interruption before the natural current zero is reached. Current chopping results in the production of high voltages due to the energy in inducianee seman opntie (1 ne contacts of the circuit breaker. Overvollages duc to current chopping can be reduced by resistance switching, 4, Short-eircuits and Line-faults Interruption In a circuit breaker, after clearing faults a transient restriking voltage appears which may cause overvoltazes. Auto-rectosing of Circuit-breaker in Long EHV Lines High speed three-phase auto-reclosure gencrates surges in long lines due to closure on the trapped change of the line. The surge voltages are influenced by non-simultancous Fall the three-phase poles 6. Opening of only one Phase due to Occurrence of Fault Cable Charging Circuit Switching OFF In a 3-6 system, when fault occurs on any one phase, then the phase volt ng two phases will increase beyond its normal valuc until the faults cleared. This rise in voltage across the healthy phases appears as surge 4.2. CORONA AND ITS EFFECTS Q31. What is corona? Discuss the factors affecting corona loss. ne othe rem Ans: Corona For answer refer Unitel. Q10, Topic: Corona Factors Affecting Corona Loss Foranswer refer Unit-l, QU 1, Electrical Factors @ Effect of Frequency From Peok's formula, we have, Power loss, P= 244f + 25(V — VF) 10° kWikvph a ‘The above formula shows that the power loss is 2 fof frequency. The loss is proportional to system frequency and hence corona losses increase with inerease in supply frequeney. ‘Corona loss is high for A.C supply when compared to corona loss of D.C supply duc to the present of third harmonies component in A.C supply. Gi) Effect of Line Voltage ‘The supply voltage ina transmission line greatly affects corona loss. As the supply vollage increases and reaches funetio SIA Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd.Unit=1 Over Voltages in Electrical Power Systems '@ point called eritical disruptive voltage, corona is formed and corona loss occur. This corona loss increases if the line voltage is increased further. Effect of Lond Current Load current has slight effet on the corona To to the Fact that increase in Toad current increases the temperature of conductor which prevents deposition of snow leading to less corona losses. However, this factor is least considered during rainy season 2, Atmospheric Factors () Effect of Temperature and Pressure From the formula of critical disruptive voltage, we have, ain) vain ei ‘And from Peck’s formula, we have, Loss VP From the above two equations. we ean infer that corona loss will be high for lower values of air density factor (6) because lower values of *3" im fest equation wi result in lower entcal disriptive voltage (V) and in second equation will result in higher vale of corona loss: For this reason, corona loss in hilly areas is more than in plain areas Effect of Dust, Rain, Snow and Hall Due tothe deposition of dust particles onthe surface of conductors. critical disruptive voltage (V,) decreases ‘which causes more corona loss. The cases same in bad atmospheric conditions like rain and snow: Therefore, corona loss n bad weather cond compared to fair weather. 3. Factors Related to Conductors (Conductor Size From equation of Pock's formula we ean obtain the relations And loss in each case) From first equation, corona loss is directly proportional to square root of radius of the conductor which means seases with increase in size of conductor. qi) ons when > (other parameters being constant ‘corona loss i Bur, from the formula of critical disruptive voltage, V, is dicetly proportional to size of the conduetor and, the relation of loss 2 (1”— 1) shows that corona loss decreases with inerease in V/, In practice, the effect of cond ease is found 1 be more on corona losses than the first one. Hence, corons losses will be less for larger diameter of conductor. Spacing between Conductors From the relation, los / «tcan be sce that the iy loss is inversely proportional to the square root of the distance betwe be less if the spacing between conductors is more. ‘conductors. Thus. corona losses will 1.13 Listoutthe problems caused by corona discharges. Model Papert, a11(b) | New/0ee.-10, R13}, 21100) OR What are the effects of corona on transmission lines? 932. ‘The following are the effects of corona on transmission 1 When corona occurs, the current drawn by the line wil be non-sinusoidal and hence the voltage drop oceurring in the line will also be non-sinusoidal Ozone gas is produced by corona which chemically reacts with the conductor resulting in corrosion of the conductor 3. Corona reduces the efficiency of the transmission line 4. When corona occurs. shunt leakage currents and charging currents are increased resulting in th ‘of power loss in the lines. 5. Corona reduces the effects of transients produced by surges 6. When the applied voltage is dc for positive conductor. ‘corona appears as a uniform bluish white sheath over the entire surface of the conductor 7. Corona appears as a reddish glowing spot distributed along the length of the wire for negative conductor Q33. Define disruptive critical voltage and critical voltage. Ans: Disruptive Critieal Voltage For answer refer Unit- 1. Q13. Distuptive critical voltage V_ depends on stuch as the size of eonductor, spacing between the conductors and the surface condition of conductors. Visual Critical Voltage ‘The minimum phase neutral voltage at which corona glow (violet glow) appears along the complete length of line is called as visual critical voltage (J). 03 vor factors d Where, im, = Surface factor g, = Breakdown strength of airat 76cm of Hg and 25°C 8 = Air density factor r= Radius of the conductor d = Spacing between the conductors Visual disruptive voltage also depends on size of the conductor, spacing between the conductor and the surface condition of conductors. — 034. What are the different methods of reducing corona? Ans: The corona effect can be reduced by the following methods, Spectrum All-In-One Series14 (i) By Increasing Conductor Size When the size ofthe conductors increased the voltage at ‘whieh corona occurs also increases. As the size ofthe conductor is increased, the electric feld intensity reduces which in tora roduecs the effect of corona. However, inereasc in size of conductor will increase the cost of conductors, mechanical stress ‘n the insulator etc. Thus. the size of the conductor cannot be ‘increased to a lange value in order to avoid early occurrence of corona, Hence, hollow conductors are employed for reducing the corona in EHV Lines, (ii) By Increasing Spacing between the Conductors By increasing the spacing between the overhead transmission line conductors, the electrostatic stress berween the two conductors decreases and hence the air between the conductors getsionizedata higher voltage ic. the value of Vand increases and the effeet of corona is eliminated. However, the spacing between the conductors cannot be increased t© a larger value as this effects the size of the tower, weight of the supporting structures and the kund occupied by the tower. Hence, an optimum value of spacing should be chosen so that the critical beeakslown voltage inercascs and the effect of corona, By using Bundied Conductors For the same power rating, by using bundled conductors, the diameter ofthe conductor increases compared to the normal diameter of the conductor. By increasing the diameter of the ‘conductor, the electric field intensity is decreased whieh in urn decreases the effect of coron 035. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Ans: Advantages of Corona 1. The electrostatic stress between the conductors is reduced due 10 the formation of corona which in turn reduces the probability of flashover and improves the performance of the system. 2. The conductive nature of the air increases the diameter of the conductor which in tum reduces the electrostatic stress or the maximum potential gradient between the conductors 3. Corona reduces the effects of transients produced due to lighning or switching by partially dissipating asa corona loss. Disadvantages of Corona 1. Corona affects the transmission elficiency of the line as there isa definite loss of energy due to corona, ‘The voltage drop is non-sinusoidal as the current drawn, by the line due t corona is non-sinusoidal High Voltage Engineering (Anna University’ 3. Electwomagnetie and eleetostatic effects may cause some inductive interference with the neighbouring 1 cixcuts oF lines. 4. Ozone gas is produced by corona which chemically reacts with the conductor and causes corrosion, Consider an overhead transmission line is connected to a cable. Obtain the expression of reflection and refractions of travelling waves at the junction. 036. Ans: (Model Paper.2, 2119) | Nov/Dee.-18, R13), a11(0)0) According 10 reflection and refraction phenomenon, whenever a travelling wave encounters a change of impedance in the transmission Line, a part of the travelling wave reflects, back to the source and a part of it gets refracted. This process takes place especially tthe junction points. line-cable junctions ‘and at terminations, The reflection and refraction phenomenon of travelling wave depends on the surge impedance of the transmission line. At junction points. line cable junctions and at terminations, the surge impedance changes and whieh leads to the reflection and refraction of traveling wave. Consider a transmission line hav cha: impedance Z_. terminated by an impedance Z, as shown in figure. istic 2 with Charastoristic Impedance Figure: Transmission Li Leta voltage “Ibe incident on the transmission line, At the impedanee Z,. the wave encounters change in impedance tnd gets reflected back whereas a part of it gets refracted. Let Vand ¥, be the magnitudes of reflected and refracted (i.e transmitted) voltages respectively. The magnitudes of these waves are given as, For incident wave, vem, a t wave associated with voltage waved) For reflected wave, 12, @ Where, 1, ~ Current wave associated with voltage wave J) For refracted wave, Lhe, 3) SIA Publishers & Distributors Pvt Ltd.Unit - 1 : Over Voltages in Electrical Power Systems Where, 1 Current way sociated with voltage wave (V') ‘Now. the algebraic sum of reflected and incident voltage is nothing but transmitted voltage. ‘The same thing holds good for current waves also. Therefore, we get, y, co +1, 6) Substituting the values off, and J, from equations (1), ©). 3) and (4) in equation (5). we get fom equation (4)] (0) The term 72Z'y-in the above equation is called refraction coeficiem Again from equation (4), we have, VAY, reflection coelicient By using reflection and refraction coefficients, the transmitted and reflected voltages ean be found. was 4.3 BEWLEY LATTICE DIAGRAM Q37, Explain Bewley lattice diagram. Ans: Partel Bewkey’s Lattice Diagram: Consider a resistive load (2,) ‘connected to a generator (G) having r (R) through a transmission line of characteristic impedance (Z,) a8 shown, in figure (1), Ifa voltage of current wave is sent to the load by the generator then, the wave reflects back to the generator afier reaching the load (R,). Again due to the presence of resistance, Rat the generator side, the wave reflects back to the load. nee, the wave suffers from repeated reflections and to monitor these reflections, Bewley’s lattice diagram is drawn, which is also called zig-zag diagram, ‘Traraniasion Line a) R SR, s Figure 1): Bewley Lattice Diagram Part-II In lattice diagram two axes are provided, a horizontal axis representing the distance along the system and a vertical axis showing time. The passage of surges is represented by the lines whose slopes provide the time equal to the dis ‘avelled. The reflected and transmitted waves can be achieved atany point of change impedance by mulitplying the magnitudes of incidence wave with their relevant refraction and reflection coefficients. Lattice diagrams can also be drawn for eurrent, ‘only when the reflection coefficient of current is negative of the refleetion coefficient of voltage Consider a system as shown in figure (1). where a generator unit with internal resistance R_ is switched on a line ‘without attenuation having a characteristic or surge impedance with load resistance R, at its receiving end. The reflection coeffici atthe te ving end is given by. Spectrum All-In-One SeriesLet“T be the time interval of surge from one end of the line tothe other. Now. as soon as the generator unit is switched ON, a step voltage surge of infinite length travels down the line towards the receiving end. This is represented by a line sloping (left to right) as shown in figure (2). When the surge reaches the load end in time *T” seconds. a surge of amplitude a, is _genctated inthe reflection process, This surge is then travelling towards the generator end and reaches the end in time “27° seconds. Its represented by a line sloping (right to le). The reflection at the generator end originates an outward surge of strength “a, Load resistance, R, = 0] Now, ws] 5 100%50 200 £-38v ‘The Bewley’s lattice diagram is drawn as shown in figure (3), Revirnget Roos aseay Rome ngesy Dal a 125s (425)e4asv Figure (i: Bewley Lettice Diagram The waveform of the voltage at the input (sending end) of the line from the Berley’s lattice diagram is shown in figure . Spectrum All-In-One SeriesHigh Voltage Engineering (Anna University Figure (4): Voltage-Time Waveform (242, A systom consists of fong line of surge impedance 400 0, a cable of length 300 m, surge impedance 50 0. a line of fength 300 m, surge impedance 400 0, a cable of length 300 m, surge impedance $0 {>and a long line of surge impedance 400 0. The velocity of propagation of wave is 300 jlmsec in line and 450 msec in eable. Atop wave of 100 KV travels along one of the long lines. Draw the Bewley's lattice diagram and plot voltage versus time at the junction of long line and cable for 10 sec. ans: Given san, System configuration, Long linet, surge impedance, Z,= 400 2 0 m, surge impedance, Z,= 302 Line-2,!=300 m. surge impedance, Z, = 400 82 Cabl-2,1~ 300 m, surge impedance, Z,~ 50.2 Long fine, surge impedance, Z, = 400 2 Tnpat voltage, ~ 100 KY (stp) Velocity of voltage wave in lnc», 300 muse Velocity oF voltage wave in cables. , = 150 msec Required 19 draw Bewley’s lattice diagram for 10 sce and te plot ine- (2899 1,78) + (252 *— 0.78) ee tee) 24.81kV Figure (3): Voltage-time Plot at Line-cable Junctions: Spectrum All-In-One Series1.22 4.4. PROTECTION AGAINST OVERVOLTAGES 43. What are the causes of overvoltages arising on a power system? Why is it necessary to protect the lines and other equipments of the power system against overvoltages? Ans: Causes of Overvoltages in Power System For answer refer Unit, Q3. In general, the majority of faults on power system are transient in nature and caused duc to switching operations (07) lightning surges. However, the surges caused du to lightning strokes have very high voltage of million volts, which ean cause the insulation breakdown and farther damage tothe components, of power systems. The high voltages produced can also cause disturbances in neighbourhood trans sion lines. Hence, itis necessary to protect all the lines and equipments connceted 10 the network in power systems Q44. Explain in detail about the protection of transmission line against overvoltage. Ans: Nov/Dee-17, (R13), a11(4) ‘The following are the various protection schemes that ‘can be employed to suppress overvoltages. 1 Incr wing the damping of the system 2. Phase controlled switching of circuit breakers 3. Swe: 4. Using shunt reactors, Jing tapped charges 1, Increasing the Damping of the System ‘The overvoltages occurring ng operations can he reduced or damped out by increasing, the damping of the system. The damping of the system can be the system duc to switch= ncreased by adding an extra resistor in series with the circuit breaker only during switching. The inserted resistor must be shorted after a definite imerval of time. The time interval ranges from 5 ms to 10 ms. Care must be taken to see that the upper limits are not violated. However due to some reason ifthe upper limit is violated, then the overvoltages will rise to still higher values. 2. Phase Controlled S hing of Cire Breakers These overvoltages can be reduced by providing automatic control system for cantlling the instances of closing, Of the three phases independently 3. Sweeping Trapped Charges Whenever a fault occurs on a system, the circuit breaker operates and breaks the circuit by opening the contacts. The gap between the contacts willbe still in favour of restriking due to the presence of trapped charges. Also. es will be present in the capacitor and conductor sone char High Voltage Engineering (Anna University which may cause a leakage current through the insulator Hence, in order 9 avoid the overvoltages duc 0 the above two conditions, the trapped charges must be swapped away before reclosing the cirevit 4. Using Shunt Reactors ‘Shunt reactors are very useful in reducing the steepness of the overvoltages especially duc to sudden switching because of the property of reactor that it dacs not allow sudden changes n current. However, the shut reactor ean"t sweep the tapped charges present after faulvswitching conditions, This can be done by adding resistors in series with the reactor. This also suppress the oscillations and limit the overvoltages. 45, Explain the different methods employed for lightning protection of overhead lines. [Model Paper.s, a11(0)| Now Dee--16, (R13), 01109) oR Explain the protection of overhead transmission line against lightning overveltge using protective. Ans: ‘The devices which provide protection to the power system against lightning are as follows. ()Eanthing sereen Gi) Overhead ground wires Giiy Lightning arresters. ()—Earthing Screen Eanthing sereen provides protection to power station ‘and substation from direet strokes. The electrical equipment jn a power station is mounted all over by a network of copper conductors also known as sereen or shield. The shield is ‘connected to the ground on minimum two points through a low mpedance. The setup is shown in figure (1) cans Ground Figure (1 Earthing Screen ‘Whenever a direet stroke oceurs, the sereen absorbs the lightning surges and provides a path of low resistanee by which it is conducted to the earth, Thus, protecting the system from damage. But, the disadvantage with this method is that it does, ‘not provide protection against travelling waves. SIA Publishers & Distributors Pvt, Ltd.Unit - 1 : Over Voltages in Electrical Power Systems (i) Overhead Ground Wires As transmission lines cover very long distanees. they have more possibility to be exposed (6 lightning. Overvoltages duc to lightning strokes ean be avoided or minimized in practice by using overhead ground wires, The ground wires ae placed ‘on the top of the power conductors, so that any discharge due to lightning near the transmission lines are attracted towards these wires. These wires are carthed or groumded at regular intervals and so form a low resistance and impedance path to ‘ground for the lightning surges. They have indireet contact ‘with the towers so that whenever a lightning surge occurs, it discharges through both the ground path of grounding wite and, the tower. Ilightning occurs at the tower itself, itis discharged, through the tower body and the two ground wires connected 10 it (one coming towards it sing away from it). Ifthe ‘conductors on the tower are arranged vertically then, only one ‘ground wire is sufficient and if they are arranged horizontally then, 10 parallel ground wi conductors fall within the pro rad other es are requited so that all the iy Lightning Arresters ient way of providing protection to the power + lightning strokes is through. lightning arrester. I also provides protection against travelling “A lightning arrester or a surge diverter is a protective device which provides protection against high voliage surges ‘on the power system by neutralizing them to the ground before they reach the terminal apparatus connected” ‘The basic cireuit ofa lightning aresteris shown in figure ep Power circuit Figure [2]: Cireuit Diagram of a Lightning Arrester “The lightning arrester consists of two parts. They are, (a) Spark gap (b) Non-linear resistor sets 1.23 (2) Spark Gap spark gap is formed when two electrodes are fixed with ‘a gap berween them, The two electrodes are maintained at equal voltage. The spark gap is constructed in such a ‘way that under normal conditions it does not sparkover and during high voliage surges sparkover takes place. (b) Nontinear Resistor Sets The value of nonlinear resistor is inversely proportional to the voltage or current, As the current inereases the nonlinear resistance decreases Under normal operating conditions the spark remains nonconducting. When an overvoltage oecurs on the line, the sparkover takes place in the spark gaps and it offers a low resistance path to the flow of current. Thus, current follows the low resistance path through nonlinear resistor and neutralize the fault © ground. Since, it provides low resisianee path 10 high current the surge will very quickly move (0 the ground, (Once the surge is neutralized to ground, the nonlinear resistor offers high resistance for power frequeney the current will flow to the power circuit without any diversion, rent. Therefore, Q48. Explain the construction and working principle of expulsion gaps and protector tubes. Ans: Apratay-17, 13}, 1190) Expulsion Gaps Expulsion gap is a device whieh essentially consists of| ‘rod gap in air in series with a second gap wiich is housed within a fibre ube as shown in figure (1). Rod EY ‘Upper sbectrode eter Fibre tube Lower ete ~ | Ont fr oes Figure (1): Expulsion Type Arrester Spectrum All-In-One Series1.4 on uurrence of overvoltage both the gaps breakdown simultaneously. Only the iower footing resistance npedance ofthe ground wires reduces the current e ure vapourizes some of and the sunge due to overvoltage . The heat of the organic material of the tube. The gas thus produced is a combination of water vapour and the decomposition products of the fibte. This gas drives out the ionized air by the are products, ‘The arc is extinguished and the path is open citeuited when the follow up current passes through zero value, At this instant, the rate of build up of the insulation strength is greater than the Rate of Rise of Recovery Voltage (RRRV). The follow up current ‘may become very high but its duration does not excced two 10 three half eyeles For transmission lines of 132 07220 kV lines, the current rating may be as high as 7.5 kA. Protector Tubes Protector tube isa device which consists ofan isolating rod or spark gap in air formed by the line conductor and a fibre tube with an electrode at each end, The upper electrode forms a series gap with line conductor and the arrangement is as shown in figure (2). Line conduetor of string insulator rr series wap i Protector be BH Gronnd connection Figure (2 Protector Tube Mounting “The nonlinear element in the expulsion tube offers a very high resistance tolow currents and a low resistance to high ‘currents, On the occurrence of overvoltage the spark gap breaks down, resulting inthe formation of ar inthe fibre tube between the two electrodes. Current due to overvoltage is limited by its ‘own resistance and the tower footing resistance. The spark gap recovers the insulation strength quickly after the current zero, It can discharge the lightning overvoltage effectively because the protector tube flashover voltage is less than that of the line Q47. Write short notes on, (@) Rod gaps used as protective devices High Voltage Engineering (Anna University) {b) Ground wires for protection of overhead lines. Ans: (a) Rod Gap Rod gap arrester is very simple and rugged in ‘construction, Its the cheapest among all the other arresters and requires no maintenanes, It consists of two 1 inch metal rods which are placed at right angles 10 each other with a gap in benween them, One rod is connected to the ground and the ‘other is connected tothe line citcuit. The distance between the rod gap and the insulator should be 1/3" of rod gap lengths to avoid any damage t it. ‘The flashover Voltage depencis upto some extent on the length of the lower rod which is connected to ground. Ifthe | length of this lower rod is small, then there will be dil between positive and negative flashover voltages and can be ‘minimized by adjusting the length of the lower rod by 1.5 to 2.0 times the gap length, ‘The gaps between the rods remain open under normal ‘operating conditions, When a high voltage surge occurs on the Tine, the gaps spark over and it offers low resistance path for flow of surge current to ground. The rod gap arrester is shown, in figure (1). tie The breakdown characteristic of rd gap is figure (2), ‘Spark voltage (kV) 800 600 400 200 1 1 ga Time(uis) | aU) Figure (2k: Volt time Characteristics of Rod Gap Ground Wires For answer refer Unit, Q45, Topic: Overhead Ground | Wires SIA Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Lid.Unit - 1 : Over Voltages in Electrical Power Systems (Q48. Why ground wire is provided as the top most conductor in high voltage transmission lines? Ans: One of the effzctive methods of providing protection of overhead transmission lines against direct lightning strokes is throvigh ground wires as shown in figure (a). The ground wire is made up of galvanized steel wire having geod mechanical strength, The ground wires are always placed above and in parallel to the line conductors, Therefore. the length of ground, ‘wire and line conductor should always be the same. 9 Grand te Figure al: Basie Arrangement of Ground Wire The ground wire is always placed as the top most conductor in high volt: following reasons. 1, Tracts asa protection tothe powerline conduetors from direct lightning strokes as it is placed above the power line conductors. all the direct lightning strokes ate first interrupted by ground wire and line conductors are protected It provides multiple parallel paths for the lightning strokes through tower footing resistance connected. By passing through the multiple paths, the voltage of the surge gets reduced, thereby reducing the potential atthe top of the tower. 3. The chances of insulation failure are greatly reduced with the use of ground wires 4. If the ground wires are placed above the line conductors ‘maintaining some distance, the chances of short circuit between the ground wire and line conductor can be mized 5. The location of ground wire is decided according to the protective angle. Good shielding of line conductor is obtained when protection angle between the slant line connecting the ground wire and vertical line ken as reference through ground wire is 30°s shown in figure (6), Figure (i: Ground Wire Arrangement with Protection Angle 49, What is tower-footing resistance? Discuss the two methods to reduce this resistance. Ans: NoviDee.-10, 13), 011(0K0) ‘The resistance offered tothe lightning current, when the tower is dircetly exposed to lightning is ealled tower footing resistance. Its the value of footing resistanee measured at SO Hz, The performanee ofthe line purely depends upon the value of resistance during lightning, The resistance isthe function of soil resistivity, critical breakdown gradient of soil, length of driven grounds and surge currents. The voltage and current transmitted into the tower will depend upon the surge impedance of the tower and ground impedance (ic., the tower-footing resistance) of the tower. Taking all the factors into consideration such as wave shape, magnitude of lightning current striking the tower. surge impedance, potential wave at the top of tower, footing, impedance etc. ‘The tower-footing resistance is given by. R=" ‘The value of tower-footing resistance should always be low, Ifthe tower-footing resistance is low, the chances of ‘occurrence of lash over is eliminated and the potential atthe top, of the tower is reduced. Always, the tower-footing resistance is, connected in parallel with ground rods or counterpoise wires. [the tower-footing resistance is low, it helps in controlling the lightning over voltages on the lines effectively with the help of ‘ground wires, The maximum-value of towerfvoting resistance is 200. ‘The tower-resistance is reduced by two methods, either by driving rods near the tower and connecting them to the tower base or by burying counterpoise wires into the ground ul connecting them to the tower base. By the above methods, the lightning current is reduced, thereby reducing the voltage atthe base of the tower. Therefore, the potential value at base of the tower is lower than the flashover voltage and helps in neutralizing hemo the ground, Hence, towertooting resistance is recommended to be low always. Spectrum All-In-One Series1.26 High Voltage Engineering (Anna University) LIST OF IMPORTANT FORMULAE 1 catenin =m] N 2. Ifa stroke strikes an overhead line then the voltage rise atthe point, = 14] , NIN) Z~ Surge impedance ~ J,~ Lighting stroke current reaching the ground eit 2 Porn, = 28,2501 ft Mea age tt Reflection coefficient, = 6 Hfcienn = 7, 6 Reflection voltage, ¥, = (1 7. Refraction coefficient, [i SIA Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd.