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Computernetworksxii

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mayank6638
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Computer Networks

NETWORK:
When two or more autonomous computers are connected to each other with the help of wired or wireless mediums to
share hardware or software resources is called a network.
Main advantage of network:
(a) Resource Sharing (both hardware and software) (d) Increased and Fast Communication
(b) Reliability (e) Saves paper and time
(c) Reduces cost (f) Security (using authentication process)
Disadvantage:
• File Security is at risk (virus and hackers)
• Can add cost to network (need special staff)
• Whole network fails if central server is fail (dependency)
• Badly managed networks made services unavailable

COMPONENTS OF A NETWORK: (Sender, Communication Channels, Receiver, Hardware devices and software)
Hosts or Nodes/Workstations: The term host or node refers to the computers that are attached to a network and are
seeking to share the resources of the network.

Server: A powerful computer that facilitates the sharing of data, software, and hardware resources (eg. Files, Printer,
modems etc) on the network is called a server.
Server is of two types: (i) Non-dedicated Server (ii) Dedicated Server
(i) Non-Dedicated Server: On small networks, a workstation that can double up as a small server (works as
server as well as workstation). It is slower and requires more memory. Small networks using such
servers are also known as PEER-TO-PEER networks.
(ii) Dedicated Server: Purely made for providing services to the workstations on bigger networks. Networks
using such servers are also known as Master-Slave Networks. Ex. File Server, Printer Server, Modem
Server (ISP) etc.
Client: A computer attached to a network is called a node, workstation or client and it requests for some services form a
server.

Network Hardware:
NIC / NIU / TAP / Ethernet or LAN Card: A Network Interface Card is an interface that helps in establishing
communication between the server and the workstation. It is attached to every host in a network so as to establish
network connection. An NIC is also called NIU (Network Interface Unit) or TAP (Terminal Access Point). Every NIC card
has a unique physical address (permanent address) called the MAC address, which of 6 bytes (48 bits) address assigned
by the NIC manufacturer.
(MAC Address): The MAC (Media Access Control) address refers to the physical address assigned by NIC manufacturer.
NIC manufacturer assigns a unique physical address to each NIC card called MAC Address. It looks like
10 : B5 : 03 : 63 : 2E : FC
Manufacturer ID NIC Manufacturer
Assigned by IEEE Card No.

IP Address: Every machine on a TCP/IP network has a unique identification number, called an IP Address. It is normally
written in a dotted decimal form (four numbers where each number ranges from 0 to 255 separated by dot).
Ex. 192.168.1.25
Note: Older version of IP address is 32-bit long called IPv4 address and newer version of IP address is 128-bit long called
IPv6 address.
How to see IP address: Start  Run  cmd  and type ‘ipconfig’
IP Address V/s MAC (Media Access Control) Address:
• IP address is assigned by the network administrator or ISP while MAC address is assigned by the Manufacturer.
• IP address get changed when transferred from one network to another but MAC address remains same.

Domain Name: The character based naming system by which servers / websites are identified is called domain name or
Domain Name System. Ex. www. amazon.com www.cbse.nic.in
Domain Name Resolution: Refers to the process of obtaining the corresponding IP address from domain name
How Domain Name Resolution Works:
We provide domain name in the web browser in the address bar  the browser issues a command to obtain IP address
to the OS  the OS refers to its HOST file to obtain IP address (if previously visited)  if OS does not find it, it connects
to the DNS Sever on Internet which maintains the directory of IP addresses of all domain names registered on Internet
 DNS searches the request and return the IP address to OS  OP passes this IP address to the Web Browser.

Modem: A modem is a computer peripheral that allows us to connect and communicate with other computers via
telephone lines or cable network. Because ordinary telephone lines cannot carry digital information, a modem is
required to change analog signal to digital and vice versa.
It employs Modulation and Demodulation:
Modulation: Conversion of Digital signals to Analog Signals Digital  Analog
Demodulation: Conversion of Analog signals to Digital Signals Analog  Digital
Three Types of Modulation Techniques:
AM (Amplitude Modulation)
FM (Frequency Modulation)
PM (Phase Modulation)
Types of Modem:
Internal  fixed within the computer on its motherboard
External  connected externally to a computer as other peripherals are connected.

Hub (Concentrator):
• Is a hardware device which is used to connect several computers together.
• It provides central connection point for cables from workstations, servers and peripherals.
• Hubs are multi-slot concentrators into which multiport cards can be plugged to provide additional access.
• Hub broadcasts the message to all ports so the bandwidth is shared by all ports.
Types:
Active Hub  first amplify the signal and the passes it to other ports
Passive Hub  passes signals without change

Switch:
• It is a device the is used to segment networks into different subnetworks called subnets or LAN segments.
• LANs that are segmented through switch are called Switched LANs.
• A switch is responsible for Filtering so it provides dedicated bandwidth.
• Switch filters data i.e. transforming data in specific way and forwarding packets between subnets with prevent
traffic overloading.

Difference between Hub and Switch:


• Hub broadcasts the message while Switch filters.
• Hub gives distributed bandwidth while Switch provides dedicated bandwidth.
Repeater / Amplifier: A repeater is a network device that amplifies and restores signals for long-distance transmission.
Two types:
Amplifier merely amplifies all incoming signals over the network (both signal and any concurrent noise)
Signal Repeater Collects the inbound packets and then retransmit the packets as if it were starting from the
source station.

Gateway: A gateway is a network device that connects dissimilar networks. It establishes an intelligent connection
between a local network and external networks with completely different structures. A gateway is actually a node on a
network that serves as an entrance to another network. Ex. ISP (Internet Service Provider)

Bridge:
• A bridge is a device used to connect two LANs or two segments of the same LAN.
• Remember, LANs or LAN segments connected by a Bridge must follow same protocols.
• Bridge works with MAC addresses (Physical address).
• Bridge are smart enough to know which computers are on which side of the bridge, so they only allow those
messages that need to get to the other side to cross the bridge.
Router:
• It is a network device that connects multiple networks irrespective of their protocols. (different protocols) i.e. It
can handle different protocols.
• Routers works with IP addresses.
• The router is responsible for forwarding data from one network to a different network. If the destination is
unknown to a router it sends the traffic (bound to unknown destination) to another router (using logical
address) which knows the destination. Based on a network road map called routing table, routers can help
ensure that packets are travelling the most efficient paths to their destination.

Difference between Bridge and Router:


• Bridge cannot handle multiple protocols whereas a Router can.
• Bridge works with MAC addresses while Router works with IP addresses.

Protocols:
Internet provides a common set of rules (language) called protocols to all the computers on a network for
communication. Different computers on different networks are able to communicate with each other using the same
protocols. The most common and important protocols are:
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• Internet Protocol (IP)

TYPES OF NETWORKS
1. LAN (Local Area Network):
• Small computer networks confined to a localized area (office, building, factory etc.)
• Key purpose is sharing of resources.
• LAN cables (Ethernet cables) are used to connect NIC in each computer.
2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Networks):
• Networks spread over a city or town. (Eg. Cable TV)
• Also used to share resources.
3. WAN (Wide Area Network):
• The networks spread across the countries, states. (Eg. Internet)
• A group of computers separated by large distance and tied together.
• Computer in the network are connected through public networks or by leased lines or satellites.
• Note: Leased line is a permanent telephone connection between 2 points set up by government
organization that provide communication services to public.
4. PAN (Personal Area Network):
• Refers to a small network of communication-capable devices with a range of 10 meters.
• Ex. Connection between two mobiles using Bluetooth
Difference between LAN and WAN:
LAN WAN
1. Diameter of few kilometers 1. span over countries
2. Data rate are high 2. Data rates are low
3. Error rates are low 3. Error rates are high
4. Owned by single organization 4. Owned by multiple organizations
Comparison:
Network
Parameters PAN LAN MAN WAN

Area Covered Small Few Kms. Spread over a city Entire /across countries
Error Rates Lowest Low Moderate Highest
Transmission Speed Highest High Moderate Low
Network Cost Negligible Inexpensive Moderately Expensive Expensive

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
The pattern of interconnection of nodes in a network is called the Topology.
Factors which affect the choice of Topology:
(i) Cost (minimum installation cost)
(ii) Flexibility (Easy reconfiguration and growth/extension)
(iii) Reliability (Easy Detection and Isolation of faults)
(iv) Communication Media (as per situation like rivers, hills, ground etc.)
POINT-TO-POINT link: (PEER-TO-PEER): A P-P basically relies upon two functions i.e. transmit and receive. The main
characteristic of P-P network is that each station receives exactly from one transmitter, and each transmitter transmits
to exactly one receiver.
One method is simply to install P-P link between
x y each pair of computers in a network. This
approach is also called Mesh.

The Star Topology: The topology consist of a central node to which all other nodes are connected by a single path
(Cable). Node
Advantages: (i) Ease of Service Node Node
(ii) One device per connection
(iii) Fault Diagnosis and Isolation is easy Server
(v) Simple Access Protocols Node
Disadvantages: (i) Long Cable Length Node
(ii) Difficult to Expand Node
(iii) Central Node Dependency
(if central server fails – complete network fails)
The Bus or Linear Topology:
• It consists of a single length of transmission medium (normally co-axial cable) onto which various nodes are
attached.
• It has terminators at either end which absorbs the signal by removing it from bus.
• Data is transmitted in small packets containing the some bits and the destination address.
Advantages: (i) Short Cable Length and Simple Wiring Layout
terminator
(ii) Resilient Architecture Sever WS Printer
(iii) Easy to Expand
Disadvantages: (i) Fault Diagnosis is Difficult
(ii) Fault Isolation is Difficult
(iii) Requires Repeaters WS WS Printer WS WS
(iv) Nodes must be intelligent

The Ring or Circular Topology:


Each node is connected to two and only two neighbouring nodes.
Data travels in one direction in form of ring from one neighbouring node to another and after passing to each node,
sending node removes it.
Note: Here the data pass through each node rather than travel past.
Advantages: Node
• Short Cable Length
• No wiring closet requires
• Suitable for optic fibers
Disadvantages: Node Node
• Node failure causes network failure
• Difficult to diagnose faults
• Reconfiguration of network is difficult Node
• Repeaters can be required
The Tree Topology:
• It is a variation of Topology and its shape is that of an inverted tree with central root branching and sub
branching to the extremities of the network.
• Works as same as Bus Topology i.e. there is no need to remove the packet because when the packet reaches the
end of the medium, it is absorbed by the terminators.
• This is best suitable for the applications which have hierarchical flow of data.
Graph Topology:
• Nodes are connected together in an arbitrary fashion.
• A link may or may not connect two or more nodes or there may be multiple links also.
Mesh Topology:
Each node is connected to more than one node to provide alternate route in case of host is down or busy.
It is an extension of P-P network.
Excellent of long distance transmission as it provides backup, rerouting and pass through capabilities.
Fully Connected Topology:
When in a network, each host is directly connected to other nodes in the network.

Internet and Internet Services (Web)


Internet:
• Internet stands for International network of computers.
• Internet is a network of networks which consists of inter-connected networks.
• The internet is a globally connected network system that uses TCP/IP to transmit data via various types of
media.
History of Internet:
1969 – ARPANet (Advance Research Project Agency Network)
Mid 80’s – NSFNet (National Science Foundation Network)
1991 – ARPA, NSF and other private networks were linked to form INTERNET.
ARPAnet was shut down in 1990. The government funding for NSFnet discontinued in 1995.
In India, Internet services started on 15th Aug 1995 through a government owned company VSNL (Videsh Sanchar Nigam
Limited).
Advantages of Internet:
• Education: Smart Classes, Online Learning, Virtual Schools, Anytime and anywhere, Vast resource
• Mailing Letters: Email
• Business: For promoting business, financial planning and meetings using video conference
• E-Commerce/E-Shopping: Access to the global market, Ranking products, Reviews, Attractive offers
• Media and Entertainment: Games, Publishing Industry, News Broadcast
• Forum for Discussion: Online discussion sites where people to hold conversation in the form of posts/messages
• News and Information: treasure of information: news, market info, government laws, services, sports etc.
• Social Networking: people with common interest can communicate with each other (Facebook, Twitter,Linkedin)
• Health and Fitness: health and fitness information, medical reports transfer, cure and precautions of a disease
• E-Services: online banking, online reservations (air, bus, rail), movie tickets, bill payments, filing tax returns etc.
Disadvantages of Internet:
• Virus Threats
• Spamming: unwanted emails or messages from an identified or unidentified source (in bulk)
• Theft of Personal Information
• Pornography: leads to the destruction of the personality of young children and their mental health.
• Cyber Terrorism: cyber attacks on power plants, banks, confidential/commercial data of a country.
• Banking/Credit Card Related Crime

How does internet works?


Internet work on Client-Server Architecture/Model
Web Client: Clients are PCs or workstations on which users run application. It carries out the users’ request to the server
and display the results sent by the server.
Web Server: Server is a powerful host computer which accepts and interprets the requests sent by the client and fulfills
the requests or sends desired information to the client. It serves the clients with services which are available on the
internet.
Note: The communication session between a client and a server is initiated by the client.
Services provided by a Server:
• Equipment/Resource Sharing
• Centralized File Saving for Data Sharing
• Centralized Virus Scanning
• Centralized Backups

Internet provides a common set of rules (language) called protocols to all the computers on a network for
communication. Different computers on different networks are able to communicate with each other using the same
protocols. The most common and important protocols are:
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• Internet Protocol (IP)
They are collectively known as TCP/IP. To transfer information from one place to another, internet follows Packet
Switching Technique.
Packet Switching Technique is a technique, in which, before sending the large data, the data is broken down into
suitably sized blocks, known as packets.
TCP is responsible for breaking the large data into suitable sized packets at the source computer and again assembling
the packets into a single message at the destination computer.
IP is responsible for sending these packets to the right address by assigning them a sequence number, source address
and destination address.
Note: The packets are sent to a local ISP and then it travels through multiple levels of networks, computers and
communication lines, before reaching the destination.

World Wide Web (WWW): The WWW is a set of programs, standards and protocols governing the way in which
multimedia files are created and displayed on the Internet. (Note: Multimedia files are the documents which contains
combination of text, images, audio, video, graphics, animations etc.)
It can be said as a network of all internet resources (web pages, images, videos etc) and can be accessed via HTTP. It can
also be said as a series of all interconnected internet servers (containing all internet resources) and can be access using
URL through the internet.
Note: Tim Berners-Lee developed WWW(World Wide Web) in 1991.
Main features of WWW:
1. Availability of content
2. Uses common format to access content i.e. HTTP
3. Contains hypertexts/hyperlinks to surf the internet
Difference between WWW and Internet: Internet and www are not same. Internet provides many services like email,
chat, www, FTP, USENET, News Groups, video conferencing etc. WWW is only one of the services available on the
Internet. A large part of the Internet is ‘World Wide Web’ (WWW).

Uniform Resource Locator (URL): A Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is the address of a resource (website, webpage,
audio, video, image etc) on the Internet server. A URL indicates the location of a resource as well as the protocol used to
access it.
Ex. http://www.xaviersbehror.org/notes/class10/cybersafety.pdf
The components of the URL are as follows:
The Type/Protocol: This is the first part of the address, also called protocol identifier. It may be http, ftp or mailto.
The Host/Domain name: The name or the address of the server on the Internet.
The Extension: The domain extension of the website like .org, .com, .gov, .net etc.
The Path: The last part of the URL just after the domain extension containing directories, subdirectories and the file
name to be accessed.
http://www.xaviersbehror.org/notes/class10/cybersafety.pdf

Protocol Host Extension Path


The host (domain name) and its extension can be said as an address.
Some Most Common Domains Some Country Abbreviations
.com Commercial organizations .au Australia
.edu Educational organizations .ca Canada
.gov Government bodies/organizations .dk Denmark
.mil Military .fr France
.net ISP / Network Agencies .in India
.org Non Profitable Organizations .jp Japan
.co For listed companies .nz New Zealand
.tv For TV channels and companies .uk United Kingdom
URL Types: While using a URL in a webpage’s code (ex. HTML code), you can use URLs of following two types:
Absolute URL: These re URLs that contain the domain name and directory/page path.
Example: http://www.xaviersbehror.org/notes/class12/networks.jpg
Relative URL: These are the URL’s with just the path excluding the domain name. Relative path is used to reference a
given link of a file that exists within the same domain.
Example: <IMG SRC= “notes/class12/networks.jpg”>  note: the domain name is missing here

Website: A collection of web pages which are grouped together and usually connected together in various ways (using
hyperlinks) is often called a "web site". All web pages of a website have unique URL but are set under the same domain
name which is the address of the website.
• Components of a Website: There are some components essential for making a website:
• Webhost (Hosting Space): Hosting space is where a website is physically located on a web-server.
• Address (domain): This is the address of the website (also called the URL of the website). Ex xaviersbehror.org
• Homepage: The first page or the main page of a website is called home page. It is the page where visitors can
find hyperlinks to other pages on the site. By default, the homepage on all web servers is index.html, however,
can also be index.htm, index.php, or whatever the developer decides.
• Design: Overall look and feel of the website (proper use and integration of elements like navigation menu,
graphics, layout etc.
• Content: All the web pages contained in the website together make up the content of the website.
• The Navigation Structure: The order of the pages, the collection of what links to what. Usually it is held together
by at least one navigation menu.

Web Page: A web page or webpage is a document commonly written in Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) that is
accessible through the Internet or other network using an Internet browser. A web page is accessed by entering a URL
address and may contain text, graphics, and hyperlinks to other web pages and files

Components of a webpage:
Components of a webpage (Content wise):
(i) Hypertext: It refers to a digital text, which is more than just text as it can include information in various
media formats like text, graphics, sound, images, video, hyperlinks
(ii) Hyperlink: It refers to a link from a hypertext file to another such or other file. A hyperlink can be in the form
of graphics or text, upon clicking where the linked document opens up.
Components of a webpage (Structure wise):
(i) Page Title (the text which is displayed on the title bar of the web page)
(ii) Header (one or two lines text / graphics / images which defines the purpose of the web page)
(iii) Body (section below the header of the web page which contains the actual content of the web page)
(iv) Navigational links (hyperlinks placed on the web page using which you can move to linked web pages)
(v) Footer (the bottom section of the webpage usually contains the copy-right notice, contact information etc)

Types of web pages:


• Static Web Page: A static web page is the one which contains the static/fixed content. The static content is the
one which once written and published, remains same every time it is viewed. The static web pages are written
via HTML code.
Advantages:
(i) Fastest and most efficient way to deliver content.
(ii) It utilizes minimum resources.
(iii) Most secure way to deliver contents
(iv) Compatible with every type of web-server technology.
Disadvantages:
(i) Must be republished every-time when the changes are required.
(ii) It cannot display differently to different viewers, depending on their specific
requests/conditions.
• Dynamic Web page: A dynamic web page is the one which contains dynamic content. Dynamic content does not
remain the same every-time it is loaded on a web page. Dynamic content is generated for the user at the time(s)
of the requests made by the viewer using some scripts. Example. Weather information, user specific information
Dynamic code is written in the form of scripts using some scripting languages like PHP, Java-scripts etc. The
different information is kept in a database, which pulls up the relevant information when requested, and gives it
to the web server to insert into the dynamic web page.
Flipkart, Amazon, HDFC bank websites are dynamic websites.
Dynamic content is good for:
o Pages whose content changes too quickly to easily republish which changing the code.
o Pages that display viewer-specific content.
o Pages that display content conditionally.
Disadvantages:
o Consumes more resources.
o Slower loading than static pages.
o Require more security features than static pages.
Static v/s Dynamic Web Pages
S.No. Static web page Dynamic web page
1 The content remains same every time it is The content on the server is same, but displayed differently
viewed depending on the information/criteria/time/search-term.
2 Contains simple HTML code. Along with HTML code, it also contains dynamic code using PHP,
Java script, VB script etc.
3 Requires no additional special software Special software are required to be installed on web server to
generate dynamic web pages.

Difference between a Webpage and Website

Web Browsers:
Web Browser Settings:
Add-ons:
Plug-ins:
Cookies:
Setting cookies:

Web Portal: A web portal is a web page which contains links to other websites. A portal presents information from
diverse sources in a unified way. A web portal does not contain information on any topic but suggests web pages to the
user to find the desired information (like search engines). Example: Google, Yahoo etc.
Internet Applications:
Email:
E-mail Account and Address: [email protected]
Spam vs. Junk Mail:
Protocols used in Email:
SMTP: SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a TCP/IP protocol used in sending e-mail. However, since it is limited in its
ability to queue messages at the receiving end, it is usually used with one of two other protocols, POP3 or IMAP, which
let the user save messages in a server mailbox and download them periodically from the server. In other words, users
typically use a program that uses SMTP for sending e-mail and either POP3 or IMAP for receiving e-mail.

IMAP and POP (Internet Message Access Protocol and Post office Protocol): Both POP (Post Office Protocol) and IMAP
(Internet Message access protocol) allow people to get access to their email from a remote server but in different
manners.

Chat:
Commonly used types of Chat:
Instant Messaging (IM):
ICQ (“I See You”):
IRC – Internet Relay Chat:
Web Based Chat:

VoIP (Voice Over Internet Protocol):

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