GIS Basics

Answers of Most Important Questions

Chapter 1: Database Management System

1. Define and differentiate between data and

Information with example. [5]
Ans:
Data is raw, unorganized facts that need to be
processed. Data can be something simple and
seemingly random and useless until it is organized.
When data is processed, organized, structured or
presented in a given context so as to make it useful, it
is called information.
Data Information
Data is unorganized and Information comprises
unrefined facts processed, organised data
presented in a meaningful
context

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Data is an individual unit Information is a group of
that contains raw data that collectively
materials which do not carries a logical meaning.
carry any specific
meaning.
Data doesn’t depend on Information depends on
information. data.
Raw data alone is Information is sufficient for
insufficient for decision decision making.
making.
Examples of data are Examples of information
weights, prices, costs, are Time Table, Merit List,
numbers of items sold, Report card, Headed
employee names, product tables, printed documents,
names, addresses, tax pay slips, receipts, reports
codes, registration marks, etc. The information is
etc. obtained by assembling
items of data into a
meaningful form.

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2. Define database, DBMS and list the application
software that used in DBMS. Explain the benefits of
DBMS over file system. [3+5]
Ans:
A database is a collection of information that is
organized so that it can be easily accessed, managed,
and updated. The database can be maintained
manually or through electronic devices such as digital
diaries, Mobile phones, Computers, etc
A database management system (DBMS) is a software
package designed to define, manipulate, retrieve, and
manage data in a database.
Application software used in DBMS:
 MySQL.
 Microsoft Access.
 Oracle.
 PostgreSQL.
 dBASE.
 FoxPro.
 SQLite.
 IBM DB2.
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Benefits of DBMS over file system:
There are several advantages of Database management
system over file system. Few of them are as follows:
a) No redundant data: Redundancy removed by
data normalization. No data duplication saves
storage and improves access time.
b) Data Consistency and Integrity: As we discussed
earlier the root cause of data inconsistency is data
redundancy, since data normalization takes care of
the data redundancy, data inconsistency also been
taken care of as part of it.
c) Data Security: It is easier to apply access
constraints in database systems so that only
authorized user is able to access the data. Each user
has a different set of access thus data is secured
from the issues such as identity theft, data leaks and
misuse of data.
d) Privacy: Limited access means privacy of data.
e) Easy access to data: Database systems manages
data in such a way so that the data is easily
accessible with fast response times.
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f) Easy recovery: Since database systems keeps the
backup of data, it is easier to do a full recovery of
data in case of a failure.
g) Flexible: Database systems are more flexible than
file processing systems.

3. What do you understand by key in database?

Explain different types of key in database.[1 + 4]
Ans:
Keys in DBMS are attributes(columns) or sets of
attributes that help you identify a row(tuple) in a
relation(table). Keys help you uniquely identify a row
in a table by a combination of one or more columns
in that table.
There are three types of keys in database which are:
i. Primary key: Primary Key is a column or group of
columns in a table that uniquely identify every
row in that table. The Primary Key can't be a
duplicate, meaning the same value can't appear
more than once in the table. A table cannot have
more than one primary key. For example, a
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student ID might be the primary key in a student
table.

ii. Candidate key: A candidate key is a column or a

combination of columns that can also uniquely
identify each row in a table, just like a primary key.
However, unlike a primary key, a table can have
multiple candidate keys. For example, in a
Student table, the roll number and registration
number might be candidate keys. The Primary
key should be selected from the candidate keys.
Every table must have at least a single candidate
key.

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iii. Foreign key: A foreign key is a column in one table
that refers to the primary key in another table. It
is used to create a relationship between two
tables. The foreign key in one table is used to
match the primary key in another table, which
creates a link between the two tables. For
example, a customer ID in an orders table might
be a foreign key that refers to the primary key of
the customer table.

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4. What is data model? Describe Relational data
model and Network data Model with example.[2 +
3]
Ans:
A data model is a conceptual representation of how
data is organized and structured within a database. It
defines the relationships between different data
elements and provides a framework for storing,
retrieving, and manipulating data. Two commonly
used data models are the Relational data model and
the Network data model.
Relational model:
Relational data model is one of the most common
data model. It sorts data into tables, also known as
relations, each of which consists of columns and rows.
Each column lists an attribute of the entity in
question, such as price, zip code, or birth date.
Together, the attributes in a relation are called a
domain. A particular attribute or combination of
attributes is chosen as a primary key that can be
referred to in other tables, when it’s called a foreign
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key. Some popular Relational Database management
systems are: – DB2 and Informix Dynamic Server - IBM
– Oracle and RDB – Oracle – SQL Server and Access –
Microsoft
Example:
Consider a database for a library. In the Relational
data model, you might have two tables: "Books" and
"Authors". The "Books" table would have columns
like "BookID", "Title", "ISBN", and "AuthorID". The
"Authors" table would have columns like "AuthorID",
"AuthorName", and "Country". The "AuthorID" serves
as a key that establishes a relationship between the
two tables. Multiple books can have the same author,
but each book is uniquely identified by its "BookID".

Network model:
The Network data model represents data as a
collection of records interconnected through pointers
or links. It allows for complex relationships and
hierarchical structures among data elements. The
model is based on the concept of a graph, where each

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record is a node, and relationships are represented by
edges connecting the nodes.
Example:
Consider a database for an organization with
employees and their supervisors. In the Network data
model, you might have two record types: "Employee"
and "Supervisor". Each employee record would
contain information like "EmployeeID", "Name", and
"Position". Each supervisor record would have
additional fields like "SupervisorID" and
"Department". The relationships are established
through pointers, where an employee record points
to its supervisor's record.

5. What do you understand by logical data

concept? Explain different types of relationship that
occur in a database with examples. [2 + 4]
Ans:
Logical data modeling is the process of representing
data architecture and organization in a graphical way
without any regard to the physical implementation or
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the database management system technology
involved in storing the data. The components of a
logical data model include Entities, Relationships, and
Attributes.
Each Entity represents a set of persons, things, or
concepts about which the business needs
information.
Each Relationship represents an association between
two entities.
Each Attribute is a characteristic or piece of
information that further describes an entity.

A relationship is a situation that exists between two

relational database tables when one table has a
foreign key that references the primary key of the
other table. There are three types of relationships
that occur in a database. They are:
i. One to One: A pair of tables bears a one-to-one
relationship when a single record in the first table
is related to only one record in the second table,
and a single record in the second table is related
to only one record in the first table.
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One-to-one is where one occurrence of an entity
relates to only one occurrence in another entity,
eg if a man only marries one woman and a woman
only marries one man, it is a one-to-one (1:1)
relationship.

ii. One to Many: A one-to-many relationship exists

between a pair of tables when a single record in
the first table can be related to one or more
records in the second table, but a single record in
the second table can be related to only one record
in the first table.
A one-to-many relationship one manager
manages many employees, but each -employee
only has one manager, so it is a one- to many
(1:m) relationship.

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iii. Many to Many: A pair of tables bears a many-to-
many relationship when a single record in the first
table can be related to one or more records in the
second table and a single record in the second
table can be related to one or more records in the
first table.
A many-to-many relationship One lecturer
teaches many students and a student is taught by
many lecturers, so it is a many-to-many (m:n)
relationship where many occurrences in an entity
relate to many occurrences in another entity.

6. List out the components of DBMS. Describe

them.[1+6]
Ans:
Components of DBMS:
i. Hardware
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ii. Software
iii. Data
iv. Procedure
v. People/User

I. Hardware:
The hardware consists of a set of physical electronic
devices such as computers, I/O devices, storage
devices, etc., this provides the interface between
computers and real-world systems.

II. Software:
The main component of a DBMS is the software. It is
the set of programs used to handle the database and
to control and manage the overall computerized
database.

III. Data:
Data is the most important component of the DBMS.
The main purpose of DBMS is to process the data. In
DBMS, databases are defined, constructed and then
data is stored, updated and retrieved to and from the
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databases. The database contains both the actual (or
operational) data and the metadata (data about data
or description about data).

IV. Procedure:
Procedures refer to the instructions and rules that
help to design the database and to use the DBMS. The
users that operate and manage the DBMS require
documented procedures on how to use or run the
database management system.

V. People/End users:
End users are the ones who store, retrieve, update,
and delete data.

7. Short Notes: Tables, Forms, Relationships

Tables:
A database table is composed of records and fields
that hold data. Tables are also called
datasheets.Tables are organized into vertical columns
and horizontal rows. The rows are called records and
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the columns are fields. Each table in a database holds
data about a different, but related, subject.

Forms:
A form is a window or screen that contains numerous
fields, or spaces to enter data. Each field holds a field
label so that any user who views the form gets an idea
of its contents. A form is more user friendly than
generating queries to create tables and insert data
into fields. The reason the form is used so often is that
it is the easiest way to instruct the user to enter the
correct data.

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Relationships:
A relationship, in the context of databases, is a
situation that exists between two relational database
tables when one table has a foreign key that
references the primary key of the other table.
Relationships allow relational databases to split and
store data in different tables, while linking disparate
data items.
Types of relationships:
 One to One
 One to Many
 Many to Many

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Chapter 2: GIS and Spatial Data Models
1. How do you define GIS? List and explain its
components.[1 + 4]
Ans:
A geographic information system (GIS) is a system
designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze,
manage, and display geospatial data. Geospatial data
refers to any information that is associated with a
particular location or geographic area.
A geographic information system comprises five
components: hardware, software, data, users, and
methods.

I. Hardware: Hardware is the computer system on

which a GIS operates. The hardware component
of GIS includes all the physical devices required to
capture, store, and display spatial data. A fast
computer, large data storage capacities, and a
high-quality, large display form the hardware
foundation of most GIS. The computer hardware
component may comprise of any type of
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computer platform, including relatively modest
personal computers, high-performance
workstations and minicomputers, and mainframe
computers.

II. Software: GIS software provides the tools to

manage, analyze, and effectively display and
disseminate spatial information.GIS software is
the processing engine and a vital component of an
operational GIS. It is made up of integrated
collections of computer programs that implement
geographic processing functions.The three key
parts of any GIS software system are the user
interface, the tools (functions), and the data
manager. Some popular GIS software includes
ArcGIS, QGIS, GRASS, and Google Earth.

III. Data: Data consist of various kinds of inputs that

the system takes to produce
information.Geospatial and attribute (non-
spatial) data are two types of data that are
essential to GIS.
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Spatial data includes information about the
location, size, and shape of physical features, such
as buildings, roads, and rivers. The sources of
spatial data are digitized maps, aerial
photographs, and satellite images.
Non-spatial data includes attributes such as
population density, land use, and economic data.
Attribute data sources are statistical tables and
other related documents.

IV. Prople/User: People refer to GIS professionals

and users who define the purpose and objectives
and provide the reason and justification for using
GIS. It includes the individuals who operate,
maintain, and use the GIS system. Without
properly trained personnel with the vision and
commitment to a project little will be
achieved.The role of the user are to select
pertinent information to set necessary standards
to design cost-efficient updating schemes,
analyze GIS outputs for relevant purposes, and
plan the implementation.
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V. Method: Method refers to the procedures and
workflows used to capture, process, analyze, and
present spatial data within the GIS system. It
encompasses the entire lifecycle of GIS data from
its creation to its utilization in decision-making.
GIS methods include data collection, data entry,
data storage, data manipulation, analysis, and
visualization. The use of standardized methods
and workflows can help to ensure the consistency
and accuracy of the data collected and analyzed in
a GIS system.

2. What are geographic phenomenons? Explain its

types with suitable examples. [5]
Ans:
Geographic phenomena refer to natural or human-
made features and processes that occur on or near
the Earth's surface. These phenomena can range from
the very small, such as individual trees or rocks, to the
very large, such as oceans, continents, and even the
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Earth itself. These phenomena are often spatially
related and can be represented using maps, images,
or other geospatial data. It can be classified into
natural and human-made geographic phenoena.
Examples of natural geographic phenomena include:
 Rivers, lakes, and other bodies of water
 Mountains, hills, and other landforms
 Weather patterns, such as hurricanes, tornadoes,
and thunderstorms
 Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes
 Ecosystems, including forests, deserts, and
oceans

Examples of human-made geographic phenomena

include:
 Transportation networks, such as roads,
highways, and railways
 Urban and rural land use patterns
 Buildings, including residential, commercial, and
industrial structures

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 Agricultural land use patterns, including crop
fields and livestock operations
 Infrastructure, such as power plants, dams, and
water treatment facilities

3. Define and differentiate between spatial and non-

spatial data. [5]
Ans:
Spatial data refers to data that contains location
and/or shape information. It is used to represent
physical features such as terrain, water bodies, and
urban structures.
Non-spatial data refers to data that does not contain
location or shape informationIt is often used to
provide context to spatial data, such as describing the
population characteristics of an area.
Spatial Data Non-spatial Data

Contains location and shape Does not contain location or

information shape information

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Spatial Data Non-spatial Data

Represented by points, lines, Typically qualitative or

or polygons quantitative data

Used to represent physical Used to provide context or

features or phenomena attributes to spatial data

Collected through surveys,

Collected through GPS, census data, or public
remote sensing, or surveying records

Stored in specialized spatial Stored in traditional

databases or file formats databases or spreadsheets

Analyzed using spatial

statistics, querying, and Analyzed using statistical
modeling methods

Visualized through maps, GIS

software, or 3D Visualized using charts,
representations graphs, or tables

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Spatial Data Non-spatial Data

Examples: demographic data,

Examples: coordinates, socioeconomic data,
boundaries, elevation values environmental data

4. State and explain the different stages of workflow

for a GIS work.[5]
Ans:
The GIS workflow involves a series of interconnected
stages that are essential in creating and using spatial
data effectively.The GIS (Geographic Information
System) workflow consists of four main stages: data
preparation/acquisition, data storage and
management, data analysis, and visualization.

1. Data Preparation/Acquisition:
This stage involves the collection and preparation of
data from various sources, including satellite imagery,
aerial photography, ground surveys, and existing
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maps. The data collected in this stage needs to be
cleaned, validated, and processed before it can be
used in GIS software. This stage may involve digitizing
existing maps, converting paper-based data into
digital formats, or using geocoding to assign
geographic coordinates to non-spatial data. The data
needs to be collected and prepared carefully as the
accuracy and completeness of the data will impact
the results of the analysis.

2. Data Storage and Management:

This stage involves storing and managing the data
collected in the previous stage. The data may be
stored in different formats, such as shapefiles,
geodatabases, or raster images.
The data should also be organized in a way that
facilitates easy retrieval and analysis. This stage may
involve creating metadata, setting up data backup
and recovery procedures, and establishing data
security measures. The data needs to be managed
effectively to ensure it is accessible and reliable.

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3. Data Analysis:
This stage involves using GIS software to analyze the
data collected in the previous stages. The analysis can
be done using various GIS techniques such as spatial
analysis, network analysis, and 3D analysis. Spatial
analysis involves exploring patterns and relationships
between different spatial datasets, while network
analysis involves analyzing the connectivity and
accessibility of different spatial features. 3D analysis
involves creating 3D models of the spatial data and
analyzing them from different perspectives. The
analysis provides insights into the data that can be
used to make informed decisions.

4. Visualization:
This stage involves presenting the results of the
analysis in a visual format. Visualization can be done
using different GIS techniques such as maps, charts,
graphs, and 3D models. The visualizations can help in
communicating the results to stakeholders who may
not have a technical background. This stage may
involve creating static or interactive visualizations
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that can be shared online or in print format. The
visualization stage makes it easier for people to
understand the data and the insights that have been
gained from the analysis.

5. List out the application areas of GIS. Explain any

three of them in brief.[2+6]
Ans:
There are various application areas of GIS:
1. GIS for Mapping
2. GIS for Urban Planning
3. GIS for Transportation Planning
4. GIS for Agricultural Applications
5. GIS for Disaster Management and Mitigation
6. GIS for Determining land use/land cover changes
7. GIS for Business
8. GIS for Crime Analysis
9. GIS for Wildlife Management
10. GIS for Tourism Information System

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1. GIS for Mapping: Mapping is a central function of
the Geographic Information System, which provides
a visual interpretation of data. GIS stores data in a
database and then represents it visually in a
mapped format. People in all industries use maps
every day for their navigation needs.
GIS is used for web mapping platforms and
applications from Google Maps to proprietary
specialized platforms for aeronautical and military
use.Google Maps, Bing Maps, and Yahoo Maps are
the best example of web-based GIS mapping
solutions.

2. GIS for Transportation Planning: GIS can be used

in managing transportation and logistical problems.
If transport department is planning for a new
railway or a road route then this can be performed
by adding environmental and topographical data
into the GIS platform. This will easily output the best
route for the transportation based on the criteria
like flattest route, least damage to habitats and

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least disturbance from local people. GIS can also
help in monitoring rail systems and road conditions.

3. GIS for Agricultural Applications: GIS can be used

to create more effective and efficient farming
techniques. It can also analyze soil data and to
determine: what are the best crop to plant?, where
they should go? how to maintain nutrition levels to
best benefit crop to plant?.
It is fully integrated and widely accepted for helping
government agencies to manage programs that
support farmers and protect the environment. This
could increase food production in different parts of
the world so the world food crisis could be avoided.

6. Define and differentiate between vector and raster

data model. What are similarities between them? [4
+ 1]
Ans:
The vector data model represents geographic
features using points, lines, and polygons defined by
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their location, size, and shape. It uses a coordinate
system and mathematical formulas to create
geometric shapes. Features are often associated with
attributes such as names, population, and land use.

The raster data model uses a grid of cells or pixels to

represent geographic features. Each cell represents a
location on the map, and its value represents a
specific attribute, such as elevation, temperature, or
land use. Raster data models are commonly used in
remote sensing, environmental analysis, and land use
planning.

Difference between vector and raster data model

Vector Data Model Raster Data Model

Points, lines, and Grid of cells or

Representation polygons pixels

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Vector Data Model Raster Data Model

Less precise
Geometry Precise geometries geometries

Separate storage of Combined storage

coordinates and of location and
Data Structure attributes attributes

Requires less storage Requires more

Data Volume space storage space

Precise spatial Analysis of

analysis and continuous data and
topological statistical
Analysis relationships operations

Mapping, Remote sensing,

Applications cartography, environmental
environmental analysis, land use
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Vector Data Model Raster Data Model

modeling and planning,

analysis, cartography, natural
transportation and resource
logistics, architecture management
and urban planning,
utilities management

Shapefile (.shp),
GeoJSON (.json),
Keyhole Markup
Language (.kml),
MapInfo Interchange GeoTIFF, JPEG, PNG,
File Formats Format (.mif), etc. ESRI GRID, etc.

Accurate Accurate
Representation representation of representation of
Accuracy discrete features continuous data

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Similarities between Vector and Raster Data Models:
1. Both models are used to represent spatial data
and geographic features.
2. Both models can be used for mapping,
cartography, and environmental analysis.
3. Both models have applications in land use
planning and natural resource management.
4. Both models can be stored and exchanged in
various file formats for interoperability, such as
Shapefile, GeoJSON, and GeoTIFF.

7. Write down the advantages and disadvantages of

vector and raster data [4+4]
Ans:
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Vector Data
Model:
• Advantages:
1. Suitable to describe discrete objects like point,
line, polygons;
2. Compact data structure;

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3. Efficient for topological relationships allowing
spatial analysis such as proximity and network
analysis;
4. Easy coordinate transformation and
projection;
5. Accurate graphical representation at all
scales;
6. Easy retrieval, updating, and generalization of
graphics;
7. Graphic output is usually aesthetically more
pleasing;
8. Smaller file size.
• Disadvantages:
1. Complex data structure;
2. Inefficient to describe/represent continuous
data or data having high spatial variability;
3. Not compatible with remote sensing
imageries;
4. Difficult combining several polygon networks
by intersection and overlay requires
considerable computer power;

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5. Display and plotting may be time-consuming
and expensive for high-quality maps
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Raster Data
Model:
• Advantages
1. Simple data structure;
2. Easy and efficient overlaying;
3. Suitable to represent highly spatial variable
data;
4. Compatible with remote sensing imagery;
5. Location-specific manipulation of attribute
data is easy;
6. Mathematical modelling and quantitative
analysis is easy because all spatial entities have
a simple, regular shape;
7. Can also accommodate discrete data (e.g.,
landcover) through rasterization.
• Disadvantages
1. Usually, data volume is large;
2. Using large cell size to reduce data volume
reduces spatial resolution, resulting in loss of
information;
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3. Inefficient projection and transformation and
time-consuming;
4. Difficult to build a topological relationship;
5. Raster data inherently reflect only one
attribute;
6. Difficult to edit.

8. Write about a data model which is also called hybrid

in briefly.Define Break lines with its types. [3+2]
Ans:
TIN is a data model which is also called hybrid model.
The TIN (Triangular Irregular Network/ Triangulated
Irregular Network) data model is a type of vector data
model used to represent continuous surfaces such as
terrain, elevation, and land cover.
A TIN is a tessellated data structure that uses
contiguous, non-overlapping, irregularly spaced
triangles to represent geographic surfaces.
Each triangle in the TIN is defined by three vertices
and contains a set of attributes that represent the
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characteristics of the surface within the triangle, such
as elevation or land cover type.
The raster depiction of a surface represents elevation
as an average value over the spatial extent of the
individual pixel, whereas the TIN data structure
models each vertex of the triangle as an exact
elevation value at a specific point on the earth.

Breaklines are linear features that define and control

surface behavior in terms of smoothness and
continuity. They have a significant effect in terms of
describing surface behavior when incorporated in a
surface model. Breaklines can describe and enforce a
change in the behavior of the surface. Z-values along
a breakline can be constant or can vary throughout its
length.
Three types of breaklines can be employed to
describe surface behavior:
 Soft breaklines
 Hard breaklines, and
 Faults

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9. What do you understand by topography? Among
raster and TIN which one do you prefer for recording
topography of an area? Explain.[1+4]
Ans:
Topography refers to the study and representation of
the physical features and characteristics of a land
surface or terrain. It involves measuring and
describing the elevation, slope, and other spatial
attributes of the Earth's surface, including natural and
man-made features such as mountains, valleys,
rivers, and human settlements. Topographic data
provides valuable information for a variety of
applications, including urban planning, infrastructure
development, environmental analysis, and scientific
research.

When it comes to recording the topography of an

area, both raster and TIN (Triangulated Irregular
Network) models have their advantages and
considerations. The choice between the two depends

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on the specific requirements of the project and the
intended use of the data.

Raster models represent data as a grid of cells or

pixels, making them suitable for capturing continuous
surfaces such as elevation. They are computationally
efficient, capable of storing large amounts of data,
and can be easily processed using GIS tools. However,
they may result in data redundancy and have
limitations in representing precise geometric
features.

TIN models, on the other hand, use irregularly

distributed data points to create triangles, providing
a more flexible and accurate representation of
complex terrain. They offer efficient storage, capture
detailed geometric features, and accurately
represent sharp peaks and slopes. However, creating
TIN models can be computationally intensive, may
require a higher density of data points, and have

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limitations in representing large, smooth surfaces
uniformly.

Ultimately, the choice between raster and TIN models

for recording topography depends on factors such as
the desired level of detail, computational resources,
and specific analysis and visualization needs of the
project.

10. Define TIN data model? Why TIN is hybrid data

model? [2 + 3]
Ans:
TIN stands for Triangulated Irregular Network, which
is a data model used to represent terrain or surface
data in a three-dimensional space. The TIN data
model represents terrain as a set of non-overlapping
triangles that are formed by connecting irregularly
distributed data points. These data points, also
known as nodes, are typically obtained through
surveying or other measurement techniques. Each
triangle in the TIN represents a portion of the terrain
PREPARED BY: DIPESH LAMICHHANE
surface, and the vertices of the triangles are
associated with elevation values.
It is called a hybrid data model because it combines
elements of both vector and raster data models.
The TIN (Triangular Irregular Network/ Triangulated
Irregular Network) data model is a type of vector data
model used to represent continuous surfaces such as
terrain, elevation, and land cover. A TIN is a
tessellated data structure that uses contiguous, non-
overlapping, irregularly spaced triangles to represent
geographic surfaces. The raster depiction of a surface
represents elevation as an average value over the
spatial extent of the individual pixel, whereas the TIN
data structure models each vertex of the triangle as
an exact elevation value at a specific point on the
earth.

PREPARED BY: DIPESH LAMICHHANE

11. Define an information system which is mostly
used for spatial analysis. Write its functional
component in brief. [1+4]
Ans:
GIS is an information system which is mostly used for
spatial analysis. A geographic information system
(GIS) is a system designed to capture, store,
manipulate, analyze, manage, and display geospatial
data.
(Functional components == Stages of GIS workflow)

PREPARED BY: DIPESH LAMICHHANE

Chapter 3: Spatial Data Acquisition and
Preparation
1. What is spatial Data Acquisition? Describe the
sources of spatial data. [1 + 4]
Ans:
Spatial data acquisition refers to the process of
collecting or gathering geospatial data from various
sources or methods. It involves capturing or acquiring
information about the Earth's surface, including its
physical features, attributes, and spatial
relationships.
In a broad sense spatial data for GIS can be acquired
from two different sources. These are:
a.Primary Data Sources: Primary data are the
types of data that are collected directly from
the main sources through interviews, surveys,
experiments. A primary data source is an
original data source, that is, one in which the
data is collected firsthand by the researcher for
a specific research purpose or project.

PREPARED BY: DIPESH LAMICHHANE

b. Secondary Data Sources: Secondary data
refers to data that is collected by someone
other than the primary user. Common sources
of secondary data for social science include
censuses, information collected by government
departments, orgazational records and data
was originally collected for other purposes.

2. What are the techniques to collect primary data?

Explain. [6]
Ans:
In a broad sense spatial data for GIS can be acquired
from two different sources. These are:
a. Primary Data Sources : Primary Data Sources are
those which involves direct acquisition of spatial data
from the field using different data collection
techniques. These are:
i. Field based technique: Plane Table, Total
Station, GPS, DGPS … (Explain these in brief)
ii. Air-based Technique: Photogrammetry, UAV,
LiDAR … (Explain these in brief)
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iii. Space based Technique: Remote Sensing
… (Explain these in brief)
b. Secondary Data Sources
Secondary Data Sources are those which doesn’t
involves direct acquisition of spatial data from the
field. Some secondary data source are:
i. Existing paper maps (Base and thematic maps)
ii. Data available in Web (Clearinghouse and online
sources)

3. Differentiate between primary and secondary data

source [4]
Ans:
Primary Data Secondary Data
Sources Sources

Data collected Data collected by

directly from main someone other
sources by the than the primary
Definition researcher. user or researcher.

PREPARED BY: DIPESH LAMICHHANE

Primary Data Secondary Data
Sources Sources
Requires active
data collection Utilizes existing
methods data sets, records,
Data (interviews, or information
Collection surveys). collected by others.

Full control over Limited control

Researcher the data collection over the data
Control process. collection process.
May vary in
Highly relevant to relevance to the
Data the specific current research
Relevance research purpose. project.
Accuracy and
reliability depend
Likely to have on the quality of
Data higher accuracy and the original data
Accuracy reliability. source.

PREPARED BY: DIPESH LAMICHHANE

Primary Data Secondary Data
Sources Sources
Government
reports, census
Surveys, interviews, data, published
experiments, field research studies,
Examples measurements. online sources.

4. What do you understand by georeferencing and

Map projection? Which projection system is used for
topographical Mapping of Nepal? Explain it in brief.
[1 + 1 + 1 + 2]
Ans:
Geo-referencing is the process of aligning a scanned
or digitized map to a known geographic coordinate
system. Geo-referencing involves identifying
common reference points between the scanned map
and a georeferenced dataset.

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A map projection is a process of transforming location
on the curved surface of the Earth with the geodetic
coordinates (lat, lng) to planar map coordinates (x, y).

In Projected Coordinate System (PCS) of Nepal the

projection system used is universal transverse
Mercator (UTM) which may be based on either
WGS84 or Everest 1830. Considering the WGS84
Nepal lies in two zones of UTM projection system
which are 44 north and 45 north zones. The former
zone covers western half of Nepal whereas latter
zone covers the eastern half of the country. Similarly,
when UTM is based on Everest 1830 the two zones
are modified into three zones differentiated by
longitude of the coordinate as 81, 84, and 87. Each of
these three zones of modified UTM (MUTM) covers
west, central and eastern Nepal respectively, each
with its own central meridian and scale factor, in
order to minimize distortion across the country.
Nepal lies within a relatively narrow longitudinal
range, from approximately 80°E to 88°E, and extends
latitudinally from around 26°N to 31°N. The
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Transverse Mercator projection is chosen for
topographical mapping because it minimizes
distortion in the representation of the terrain. It is a
conformal projection, which means that it preserves
local angles and shapes. This is particularly important
for accurate depiction of features such as slopes,
contours, and elevation information on topographic
maps.

5. What is digitization? Differentiate between heads

up digitization and Heads down digitization. [1 + 4]
Ans:
This is a process of converting the geographic
features on an analog map into digital format using a
digitizing tablet, or digitizer, which is connected to a
computer. Features on a paper map are traced with a
digitizer puck, a device similar to a mouse, and the x,y
coordinates of these features are automatically
recorded and stored as spatial data.

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Heads-Up Heads-Down
Digitization Digitization
Heads-up
digitization involves Heads-down
the manual tracing digitization involves
or digitizing of map the manual
features directly on interpretation and
a computer screen data entry of map
using specialized features from analog
software or or paper maps into a
Geographic computer system
Information using digitizing
Systems (GIS) tablets or other input
Definition applications. devices.

Interactively clicking Tracing and inputting

or drawing features features using
Method on-screen. digitizing tablets.

Precision High precision and

and accuracy due to on- Lower precision and
Accuracy screen interaction. accuracy compared

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Heads-Up Heads-Down
Digitization Digitization
to heads-up
digitization.
Time-consuming
process due to
Time and manual tracing and Faster process due to
Effort digitizing. manual data entry.

Suitable for high- Suitable for large-

precision scale digitization
requirements and projects or less
Application complex maps. critical precision.

6. What do you understand by digitization? Explain its

types.[5]
Ans:
This is a process of converting the geographic
features on an analog map into digital format using a
digitizing tablet, or digitizer, which is connected to a
PREPARED BY: DIPESH LAMICHHANE
computer. Features on a paper map are traced with a
digitizer puck, a device similar to a mouse, and the x,y
coordinates of these features are automatically
recorded and stored as spatial data. There are
multiple ways of digitizing a map.These are:
a. Manual digitization …Explain
b. Semi-automatic digitization …Explain
c. Automatic digitization …Explain

How do you create attribute data of digitized

features?[5+]
Ans:
To create attribute data of digitized features, you
typically follow these steps:
1. Identify the attributes: Determine the specific
information or characteristics you want to
associate with each digitized feature. This could

PREPARED BY: DIPESH LAMICHHANE

include attributes such as names, IDs, descriptions,
dates, measurements, or any other relevant data.
2. Design the attribute schema: Define the structure
or schema for organizing the attribute data. Decide
on the data types (e.g., text, number, date) and the
field names that will represent each attribute.
3. Attribute data entry: Enter the attribute values
for each digitized feature. Depending on the
software or tools you are using, this can be done
through a form or table-based interface where you
input the values for each attribute field. You may
also have the option to import attribute data from
external sources.
4. Data validation and quality control: Review the
attribute data to ensure accuracy, completeness,
and consistency. Validate the entered values
against predefined constraints or rules to maintain
data integrity. Perform data quality checks to
identify and correct any errors or inconsistencies.
5. Attribute editing and updates: Attribute data
may require modifications or updates over time.
Use editing tools provided by your software or GIS
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application to make changes to attribute values
when needed. This could involve adding new
attributes, modifying existing values, or deleting
obsolete data.
6. Attribute joins and relates: Establish relationships
between attribute data and spatial features, if
necessary. This can be done by linking the attribute
data to a unique identifier or key field in the spatial
data. This allows for data analysis and visualization
based on the attributes.
7. Documentation and metadata: Document the
attribute data, including its source, methodology,
definitions, and any other relevant information.
Create metadata that describes the attribute data
and its characteristics to facilitate understanding
and sharing.

PREPARED BY: DIPESH LAMICHHANE

7. How do you create attribute data of digitized
features? A hardcopy map prepared at scale 1:500
was scanned at 300 dpi. Calculate the resultant cell
size. [2 + 3]
Ans:
To create attribute data for digitized features:
i. Identify the attributes: Determine the
information you want to associate with each
feature.
ii. Design the attribute schema: Define the structure
for organizing attribute data.
iii. Enter attribute values: Input the attribute values
for each feature using a form or table interface.
iv. Validate and quality control: Review and ensure
accuracy, completeness, and consistency of the
entered data.
v. Edit and update attributes: Make modifications or
updates as needed using editing tools.
vi. Establish relationships: Link attribute data to
spatial features for analysis and visualization.

PREPARED BY: DIPESH LAMICHHANE

vii. Document and provide metadata: Document the
attribute data and create metadata for
understanding and sharing.

To calculate the resultant cell size (resolution) after

scanning a hardcopy map at a specific scale and scanning
resolution, you can use the following formula:
Resultant Cell Size = (Scanning Resolution / Map Scale) *
Conversion Factor
Where:
Scanning Resolution: 300 dpi (dots per inch)
Map Scale: 1:500 (unitless, represents the ratio of
map distance to real-world distance)
Conversion Factor: A constant to convert inches to
the desired unit for cell size (e.g., meters,
centimeters, etc.)
In this case, since the scanning resolution is in dpi and the
map scale is unitless, we'll use a conversion factor of 1
inch = 2.54 centimeters.
Let's calculate the resultant cell size in centimeters:
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Resultant Cell Size (in centimeters) = (300 dpi / 500) *
1 inch / 2.54 centimeters
Resultant Cell Size ≈ 0.6 centimeters
So, the resultant cell size after scanning the hardcopy
map at 1:500 scale and 300 dpi resolution is
approximately 0.6 centimeters.

8. What do you mean by Topology? Write any three

topological rule for polygon feature.[5]
Ans:
Topology refers to the spatial relationships and
connectivity between geographic features in a GIS
(Geographic Information System). It defines the rules
and constraints that govern the relationships
between different spatial objects, such as points,
lines, and polygons.
Three topological rules for polygon features are:
1. No Overlapping Polygons:
 This rule states that two polygons should not

overlap or share the same area.

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 It ensures that each polygon represents a unique
and non-overlapping geographic entity.
 Overlapping polygons can lead to ambiguities and

inaccuracies in spatial analysis and modeling.

2. No Gaps between Polygons:
 This rule states that there should be no gaps or

spaces between adjacent polygons.

 It ensures that the entire area is covered by

polygons without any areas being unaccounted

for.
 Gaps between polygons can result in incomplete

representations of geographic features.

3. No Self-Intersecting Polygons:
 This rule states that a polygon should not cross or

intersect itself.
 It ensures that polygons have well-defined
boundaries and do not contain internal
inconsistencies.
 Self-intersecting polygons can cause problems in

geometric calculations and spatial analysis.

These topological rules help maintain the integrity
and consistency of spatial data, ensuring that the
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relationships between polygon features are
accurately represented and can be used for spatial
analysis, modeling, and decision-making.

9. What are spatial data? How do you acquire them?

How do you check and repair the geometry of spatial
data?[5]
Ans:
Spatial data refers to data that represents the
geographical location and characteristics of objects or
phenomena on the Earth's surface. It includes
information about points, lines, polygons, and other
spatial features.
Acquiring Spatial Data: There are several methods to
acquire spatial data:
1. Field Surveys: Data can be collected directly in the
field using GPS (Global Positioning System) devices
or other surveying equipment. This method is
commonly used for capturing precise location
information.
2. Remote Sensing: Satellite imagery, aerial
photography, LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging),
PREPARED BY: DIPESH LAMICHHANE
and other remote sensing techniques are used to
acquire spatial data from a distance. These methods
capture large-scale and high-resolution data for
various applications.
3. Existing Paper Maps: Spatial data can be acquired
by scanning and digitizing existing base maps and
thematic maps.
We can check and repair the geometry of spatial data
using the following tools and techniques:
• Topology checks: GIS software provides tools to
identify and resolve topological errors in spatial
data.
• Snapping and editing tools: Snapping features
together or manually editing vertices can fix gaps,
overlaps, or dangling features.
• Buffering and simplification: Buffering can be
used to resolve self-intersection issues, and
simplification techniques can remove slivers.
• Geometric transformation and resampling:
Advanced techniques such as resampling or
rubber sheeting can correct geometries with
distortions or misalignments.
PREPARED BY: DIPESH LAMICHHANE
10. Short Notes: Clearinghouse and online sources
Ans:
Clearinghouses are online platforms that provide
access to geospatial data from various sources and
organizations.They serve as centralized repositories
for discovering and accessing spatial data, facilitating
data sharing and integration. Clearinghouses often
provide search functionalities, metadata
descriptions, and download options for spatial
datasets.
Online sources include websites and databases that
offer geospatial data. These sources may include
government portals, research institutions, and
commercial providers, offering a wide range of spatial
data, such as satellite imagery, digital maps, and
geospatial datasets. Online sources provide
convenient access to spatial data, enabling users to
download or access data through web services.

PREPARED BY: DIPESH LAMICHHANE

11. Short Notes: Map Scanning and scanning
resolution
Ans:
Map scanning is the process of converting analog
paper maps into digital format for use in GIS
applications. Scanned maps are typically saved as
raster images, where each pixel represents a specific
color or shade. Scanning maps allows for easy
storage, retrieval, and manipulation of spatial data.
Scanning resolution refers to the level of detail
captured during the scanning process. The
appropriate scanning resolution depends on the
intended use of the scanned map and the level of
detail required. Factors to consider to determine
scanning resolution include the map scale, the size of
the original map, and the desired level of accuracy.

PREPARED BY: DIPESH LAMICHHANE

12. Short Notes: GIS Operations
Ans:
GIS operations involve manipulating, analyzing, and
deriving new information from spatial data.GIS
operations can be broadly categorized into two types:
spatial data operations and spatial analysis
operations.

Spatial data operations include data input, data

editing, data storage, and data output
processes.Spatial analysis operations involve
querying, buffering, overlaying, network analysis,
terrain analysis, and other advanced analytical
techniques.

PREPARED BY: DIPESH LAMICHHANE

Chapter 4: GIS Operations and Map
Composition
1. Explain the output of following geoprocessing
operation in brief. [5x1=5]
i) Clippin
ii) Intersection
iii) Union
iv) Merge
v) Dissolve
2. Differentiate between spatial query and attribute
query with example. [5]
3. If you are given a polygon in GIS environment.
How can you calculate its area and perimeter.(15)
4. What do you understand by SQL? Write about
types of query which is used for vector data in GIS.
[1+4]
5. Consider you are working on a company and
your responsibility Is GIS operator, If your manager
give a task to prepare a chloropleth map then how
do you prepare explain every steps in briefly. [10]
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6. Describe with clear steps for Map composition in
GIS environment.[5]
7. Differentiate between spatial and attribute
query.[5]
8. Explain various overlay operations with
example.[6]
9. What is map symbolization? What are the
elements of a map? Explain in brief.[1+4]
10. Suppose you have to prepare a topographical
map of your town/village. What are the steps you
follow to prepare good map design.[6]
11. SN: Importance of Map elements
12. SN: Overlay operation

PREPARED BY: DIPESH LAMICHHANE