Graphics for Urban Design

Second edition
Bally Meeda

Author:
Bally Meeda

Graphic design by:

Seán McGarr
Bally Meeda
James Lewis

Edited by:
Michael Doyle

Reviewed by:
Caroline Brown
Eric Holding

Contributors:
Caroline Brown
Paul Dodd
Paul Drew
Alice Gadney
Robert Huxford
Seán McGarr
Tim Metcalfe
Jon Rowland
Fabio Titmus

Endorsed by:

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Published by ICE Publishing
One Great George Street, Westminster, London SW1P 3AA.
Full details of ICE Publishing representatives and distributors can be found at:
www.icebookshop.com/bookshop_contact.asp

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-0-7277-6171-2
© Thomas Telford Limited 2018

ICE Publishing is a division of Thomas Telford Ltd, a wholly-owned subsidiary of the

Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE).

All rights, including translation, reserved. Except as permitted by the Copyright,

Designs and Patents Act 1988, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the
Publisher, ICE Publishing, One Great George Street, Westminster, London SW1P 3AA.

This book is published on the understanding that the author is solely responsible for
the statements made and opinions expressed in it and that its publication does not
necessarily imply that such statements and/or opinions are or reflect the views or
opinions of the publishers. While every effort has been made to ensure that the
statements made and the opinions expressed in this publication provide a safe and
accurate guide, no liability or responsibility can be accepted in this respect by the
author or publishers.

While every reasonable effort has been undertaken by the author and the publisher to
acknowledge copyright on material reproduced, if there has been an oversight please
contact the publisher and we will endeavour to correct this upon a reprint.

Cover photo: Proposal for the pedestrianisation of Oxford Street, London,

Urban Graphics/Christian Wolmar

Commissioning Editor: James Hobbs

Production Editor: Madhubanti Bhattacharyya
Typeset by: Seán McGarr
Printed and bound in Great Britain by: Bell and Bain, Glasgow

First edition published 2007:

Bally Meeda, Neil Parkyn and the late David Stuart Walton

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Acknowledgements:

The author wishes to thank the following organisations for contributing

their graphics, illustrations, photographs, and other contributions to make
this book possible.

David Lock Associates is an independent town-planning, urban

design and masterplanning consultancy based in Milton Keynes.
Founded over 30 years ago, they advise landowners, developers,
businesses and local authorities. They are responsible for many
of the UK’s most transformative masterplans and urban design
strategies which are changing the way communities and sub-
regions in the UK grow and prosper.

Doyle is an independent town planning and urban design practice

based in London and Brighton. They help create neighbourhoods,
town centres and public places which people value.

Iceni Projects is a multi-skilled team guiding clients through the

fast-changing UK planning system. They take a creative approach
to planning, urban design, sustainability, engagement, delivery,
heritage, transport and EIA management.

Jon Rowlandurban design

Jon Rowland Urban Design is a small practice set up in 1996. The
practice carries out a wide range of urban design projects in the UK
and abroad. It works with a network of similar practices to promote a
cross-professional approach to urban development and regeneration.

JTP is an international placemaking practice of architects and

masterplanners with extensive experience of delivering successful
projects for both private and public sectors throughout the UK,
Europe, China, Russia and the Middle East.

Pollard Thomas Edwards combines design talent, commercial

acumen and social commitment to lift everyday places out of the
ordinary. Their core services are architecture, masterplanning and
urban design, property development and community engagement.

Urban Graphics is a specialist communication and graphic design

consultancy that serves the town planning, urban design and built
environment sectors. They deliver high-quality print, online and
interactive tools that help shape the world we live in.

Wei Yang & Partners is a practice with an international portfolio of

town and country planning, masterplanning, urban design and
architectural projects. Their experience ranges from public to private
sector work, from city-wide masterplans to individual buildings.

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About the author

Bally Meeda has 30 years of professional experience in the many facets of

traditional, digital and interactive design and communication. His knowledge
and expertise extend over graphic and exhibition design, cartography,
desktop publishing, corporate identity, 3D, interactive mapping, digital
design and strategy.

In 1993 he began working as a graphics manager for internationally

renowned planning consultancy Llewelyn Davies, who were most famous for
the planning of Milton Keynes. The masterplan for Granton Waterfront,
Edinburgh, was a project that Bally led on, and it set new heights in computer
graphics in the mid-nineties. Prior to setting up his own company, Bally was
an associate graphic designer at David Lock Associates, responsible for a team
of designers with projects of all scales throughout the UK.

In 2007 Bally wrote the first edition of Graphics for Urban Design, which
was endorsed by CABE, the Urban Design Group and other leading urban
design practices. This book of in-depth practical guidance was the first of
its kind, and was responsible for inspiring a generation of designers and
others working in the built environment.

Over the past decade Bally has lectured at Oxford Brookes University,
University College London (UCL) and the University of Westminster on
graphical communication in urban design, planning and architecture.

He now heads Urban Graphics, one of the UK’s leading communication

and graphic design companies for the built environment. The company has
created some of the world’s most innovative and influential campaigns
within the fields of planning and urban design. In 2010, Urban Graphics put
together a comprehensive communication campaign for Konza Technology
City in Kenya. It was key to attracting the buy-in of international investors
to fund this major new city that is currently under development. Closer to
home, Bally was responsible for the visionary computer-generated image
of the pedestrianisation of Oxford Street in 2014. This vision is now being
considered as a possible reality.

Outside Urban Graphics, Bally spends time writing and producing music.

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FOREWORD
Visual images are a powerful means of communicating
ideas. They can explain ideas and proposals clearly
and swiftly to people with no design training or
understanding of architecture or landscape, and enable
local communities to participate fully in discussions
about new development.
They can provide clients and politicians with vital and sometimes complex
information to help them reach informed decisions. Graphical images provide
a common means of communication that can help multi-disciplinary teams,
with different professional languages, work towards a common vision. It is
unsurprising, therefore, that Graphics for Urban Design is now a specialist
subject in its own right.

There are so many graphical communication tools available nowadays

that the choice can be overwhelming. This guide, now in its second edition,
provides practical help in choosing the best tools for the job; the processes;
the techniques; and how to manage them effectively.

Graphics for Urban Design is a guide on how to create better graphics.

It does not claim to be a guide to good urban design. However, good
graphical communication of good urban design is effective, persuasive
and a force for good. Good graphical communication of bad urban design
can beguile and mislead, and the damage done to a town or city can be
measured in decades and centuries.

The intention of this guide is to help producers of graphical communication

to be more aware of the impact of their work, to understand the power
that they have to shape the world in which we live, and to use that power
responsibly and to the benefit of future generations.

Robert Huxford

Director, Urban Design Group

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CONTENTS

SECTION A: SETTING THE SCENE

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 The importance of graphics in urban design 4

2 THE EVOLUTION OF URBAN GRAPHICS

2.1 The history of urban graphics 10

3 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN DESIGN IMAGES

3.1 Qualities of urban design images 20

SECTION B: THE PROCESS

4 GRAPHICS IN THE URBAN DESIGN PROCESS

4.1 Using graphics in the urban design process 38

4.2 Analysis diagrams 44

4.3 Participation and engagement 50

4.4 The urban design rationale 54

4.5 Final proposals 58

4.6 Supporting final proposals 60

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SECTION C: HOW TO CREATE DRAWINGS
5 PRODUCING DRAWINGS

5.1 How to create urban design drawings 76

5.2 Case studies 88

SECTION D: GOOD PRACTICE

6 GOOD TECHNICAL PRACTICE

6.1 Good practice methods 96

6.2 Urban graphics top tips 100

6.3 Using graphics software 120

7 OUTPUTS

7.1 Physical graphical outputs 132

7.2 Online graphical outputs 137

8 MANAGING PRODUCTION

8.1 Project planning 142

8.2 Useful information 158

Illustration & photography credits 160

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Graphics for Urban Design
INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 The importance of graphics in urban design

Luzhou Wine City, China by JTP

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Graphics for Urban Design
INTRODUCTION

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 The importance of graphics in urban design

Urban design images help us understand how a place
functions, operates and how it could be in the future.
The images are not always about the technical quality
but more about how well they express information
and communicate to the target audience.
The graphical language of urban design has an important role to play
in promoting urban quality; creating visions which inspire and motivate;
engaging communities and those involved in planning and development;
attracting investment; and presenting information objectively and
honestly for assessment purposes.

This book is for:

• urban designers, architects, planners, landscape architects,

surveyors and engineers engaged in urban design projects

• graphic designers, artists and the producers and publishers

of urban design work

• those who commission graphics for urban design

• educators and students in urban design and graphics

• assessors and validators of proposed places.

below:
Aerial CGI masterplan.

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Graphics for Urban Design
INTRODUCTION 1

above:
2D illustrated vision diagram.

Technology provides designers and producers of graphic images

with enormous choice. The graphic vocabulary continues to evolve. This
brings exciting opportunities and challenges in choosing the right mix
of techniques that combines computer-generated images, hand-drawn
plans and sketches, and photography in new ways.

One of the aims of this book is to help urban design teams select the
most appropriate form of graphic communication for the type of project,
and at each distinct stage of a project. This book is intended to provide
such a guide, but it is not the last word. Techniques will continue to evolve
through practice. We hope this guide will be widely used and help those
involved to develop better graphic techniques in urban design, furthering
the communication of ideas.

There are people and organisations who use the techniques in this book
very well. They have provided the body of work from which we have
drawn to illustrate this book, and offer examples of good practice for all
of us to follow.

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Graphics for Urban Design
INTRODUCTION

1.1.1 Effective communication

Realising successful urban projects depends upon effective communication.
Planning regimes place a strong emphasis on the full involvement of local
communities at every stage of policy and project development. This requires
first-rate communication throughout the consultation and development
process — from the initial concepts to the detailed proposals. The effective
communication of information and ideas depends on several interrelated
factors, including:

• the message • the technique

• the target audiences • the media.

THE MESSAGE THE TARGET AUDIENCES

WHAT WE ARE TRYING TO SAY WHO WE ARE COMMUNICATING WITH

Communicating your message graphically does not need to be Audiences can have differing levels of awareness and
overly sophisticated. Simple hand-drawn sketches can be very understanding. The message needs to be correctly pitched
effective irrespective of the technical quality. using a range of graphic techniques for the different audiences.
Communicating in the right way with the right media helps to
engage the viewer.

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Graphics for Urban Design
INTRODUCTION 1
...Visual techniques The teams involved in the design and delivery of urban design projects
include a wide range of professions and specialists who need to communicate
play an important effectively and speedily with one another. Projects can be compromised or
role in transferring even fail when this communication breaks down.
knowledge and There are two sides to the process: firstly, information and vision need to
creating a basis be transmitted to the target audience using the right media and techniques;
and in turn, the audience must be able to understand and engage with the
for debate... message. It is important to choose the right visual techniques that
effectively transfer knowledge and create a common understanding. The
combination of methods and media can be overwhelming, but irrespective
of how well these techniques have been mastered, selecting the right form
of presentation for a particular audience at a particular stage in the urban
design process is the key to success.

THE TECHNIQUE THE MEDIA

ARTISTIC MEANS FOR EXPRESSING A MESSAGE OUTPUTS USED TO EXPLAIN THE MESSAGE

It is important to choose graphic techniques that can best The choice of media available to present information can be
express the ideas and information you want to communicate overwhelming at first. Making an early distinction between
at each stage of your project, from the simplest and quickest printed, electronic and online outputs is essential. If using
to the most sophisticated. printed media a further distinction between hand-drawn or
computer-generated graphics should also be made.

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Graphics for Urban Design
INTRODUCTION

1.1.2 Roles and responsibilities

Urban design project teams consist of a number of different roles:
...A creative brief
is normally issued
• Clients and project leaders
by the client for
the designers to • ‘Project designers’ (architects, planners/urban designers, landscape
architects, bioclimatic and environmental designers, etc.)
work to...
• ‘Information designers’ (graphic designers, illustrators, cartographers,
GIS operatives, photographers, etc.).

The success of the project depends on how well the team members perform
in their roles and understand and respect the roles of others. A creative brief
is normally issued by the client and that is what the urban designers and the
graphic designers work to. Project leaders must offer strong leadership and
understand when to deploy the right skills at the right time. The urban
designers must be able to recognise when to engage with graphics and there
is no definitive point at which this should happen; it depends on the mix of
skills in the team, the stage of the project and the messages to be conveyed.
Equally, the graphic designers need the freedom to exercise their skills and
imagination but not to the extent that the graphics, however attractive,
detract from the essential urban design message. As the range of urban
design techniques and products grows, so does the range of specialists
involved: perspective artists, computer-aided design (CAD) designers,
photographic and photo-editing specialists, cartographers, GIS operatives,
artists, even cartoonists, may need to be called upon to support the core
professionals and graphic designers on the team.

1.1.3 Talking visually

...Talking visually Urban design graphics are mainly a visual form of communication. They
should be self-explanatory and encourage debate and discussion. They
is an accessible communicate ideas very quickly in ways that can be grasped intuitively by
language that a wide-ranging audience.
most people can
relate to quickly...

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Graphics for Urban Design
INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER 2

THE EVOLUTION OF URBAN GRAPHICS

2.1 The history of urban graphics

Slumless, Smokeless Cities diagram by Ebenezer Howard

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Graphics for Urban Design
THE EVOLUTION OF URBAN GRAPHICS

2 THE EVOLUTION OF URBAN GRAPHICS

2.1 The history of urban graphics

Graphic design techniques have been employed through
the ages to explain how neighbourhoods, towns and
cities work and how they can be made better.

Urban design ideas conveyed graphically have ranged in scale from practical
remedies for specific urban problems and areas through to utopian visions
of the perfect future city.

Whilst urban graphics have become increasingly sophisticated, the basic

graphic techniques employed have not fundamentally changed in the face
of radical shifts in urban design theory and technological advances.

This chapter examines common types of urban graphics that have been
employed through time in the communication of urban design ideas.

2.1.1 Plans
Two-dimensional plans have been used to describe visions of whole new
cities and urban redevelopment schemes for more than 500 years.
below left: Plans are the foundation of urban design graphics, they depict spatial
Map of Borgo, Rome, 1779. Map printed
by Monaldini. relationships between all elements. When drawn to scale they give us
precise dimensions, areas and distances. The two-dimensional aspect
bottom left:
Sir Frederick Gibberd’s plan for Harlow, 1952.
of creating a plan ensures that the subsequent stages, from detailed
design through to architecture, are possible.
below right:
Pierre Charles L’Enfant’s design for
Washington, D.C., 1791.

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Graphics for Urban Design
THE EVOLUTION OF URBAN GRAPHICS 2

top right:
Christopher Wren’s plan for rebuilding
London, 1666.

middle right:
Walter Burley Griffin and Marion Mahony
Griffin’s design for Canberra, 1912.

bottom right:
Masterplan for Milton Keynes, 1970.

below:
Extract from the Commissioners’ Plan of
New York, 1811.

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Graphics for Urban Design
THE EVOLUTION OF URBAN GRAPHICS

2.1.2 Process, analysis and abstraction

Renowned urban design theorists such as Ebenezer Howard, Leon Krier and
Kevin Lynch have used abstract diagrams to convey both spatial and non-
spatial concepts of the city. These often simple graphic design techniques are
still in use today.

Patrick Abercrombie’s 1944 Greater London Plan incorporated a series of

beautiful maps that conveyed different aspects of the city’s make-up and
planning strategy. The wonderfully evocative social and functional analysis,
perhaps the first bubble diagram, was instrumental in shaping the way
London is perceived as a collection of villages.

top left:
The ‘Nolli’ plan of Rome is named after the
Italian architect and surveyor Giambattista
Nolli. The plan differentiates between
buildings and the public and private spaces
in between.

top right:
Ebenezer Howard’s conceptual diagram of
the ‘Slumless, Smokeless Cities’.

bottom:
Ebenezer Howard’s conceptual diagram
of the ‘Three Magnets’ or three urban
challenges of ‘Where will the people go?’
the choices being ‘Town’, ‘Country’ or
‘Town-Country’.

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Graphics for Urban Design
THE EVOLUTION OF URBAN GRAPHICS 2
top:
Social and Functional Analysis diagram
from the County of London Plan by
Patrick Abercrombie, 1943.

middle:
The iconic Copenhagen Finger Plan,
devised in 1947, has been instrumental
in guiding the city’s growth strategy ever
since. This strong visual graphic became
a powerful means of engaging everyone
in the shared endeavour of city building.
It conveyed a simple premise – that green
wedges would provide each of the suburbs
with access to nature. It has been
tremendously influential elsewhere.

bottom:
Kevin Lynch’s ‘Visual Form of Boston’, a
brilliant hand-drawn graphic in black and
white. Utilising graphic techniques of
lines, tones, textures, patterns and
symbols, these elements utilise rhythm,
frequency and density to communicate
elements of townscape analysis.

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Graphics for Urban Design
THE EVOLUTION OF URBAN GRAPHICS

2.1.3 Views
Some of the earliest views of cities recognised that distant objects could be
shown smaller than those close at hand for increased realism. Perspective
drawings that used geometric lines and vanishing points to give depth and
space were first developed (or possibly adapted) by Filippo Brunelleschi
around 1413. The intention of these views was to convey the experience
of a city as you travelled through it.

Simple ‘thumbnail’ sketch views have been employed by theorists such

as Camillo Sitte (1889) and Ebenezer Howard (1898) to communicate
powerful and influential urban design ideas. Extensive and highly detailed
views of new-concept cities were developed by Frank Lloyd Wright for his
‘Broadacre City’ of 1932 and later for the new city of Milton Keynes in
1965-70. Views in the 20th century are increasingly characterised by
photo-realism, animation and virtual-reality techniques. This contrasts
with the continuing use of abstract representations such as Ron Herron’s
radical idea for a ‘Walking City’.

right:
View of the Piazza del Popolo, Rome,
c.1678, by Caspar van Wittel.

far right:
View of Rome from Nova Urbis Romae
Descriptio, 1577, by Etienne Dupérac.

below:
Ron Herron’s Archigram Walking City,
1964. Images montaged on to existing
photographic backgrounds.

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Graphics for Urban Design
THE EVOLUTION OF URBAN GRAPHICS 2

top:
Sketch of Broadacre City by Frank
Lloyd Wright, 1932.

middle:
Aerial view of Central Milton Keynes
by Helmut Jacoby, 1970s.

bottom:
Aerial sketch of Poundbury by Leon
Krier, 1989. The traditional nature of
the new town is deliberately reflected
in the style of the drawing.

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Graphics for Urban Design
THE EVOLUTION OF URBAN GRAPHICS

2.1.4 Time
The graphic technique of sequential images devised by Gordon Cullen
allowed the viewer to experience revelations of townscape while walking
along a route through the city.

The development of computer modelling, animation and fly-throughs

now captures graphically what once could only be conveyed by physical
models and serial visions.

Gordon Cullen’s ‘Serial Vision’ from the

book Townscape, 1961. A series of views VIEW 8
through the townscape illustrates the
experience at key points.
VIEW 7

VIEW 6

VIEW 5

VIEW 4

VIEW 3

VIEW 2

VIEW 1

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Graphics for Urban Design
THE EVOLUTION OF URBAN GRAPHICS 2
VIEW 1 VIEW 2

VIEW 3 VIEW 4

VIEW 5 VIEW 6

VIEW 7 VIEW 8

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Graphics for Urban Design
THE EVOLUTION OF URBAN GRAPHICS

2.1.6 Timeline of contemporary

graphic techniques PRE 1970s
PRE-COMPUTERS
Graphic techniques have evolved in • Hand-drawn, rendered techniques.
line with technological advances. • Equipment used included pens, pencils, watercolour, crayons, felt
pens, markers, etc.
Today’s practitioners see computer • Photography widely used for visual reference as well as underlays
technology as the most significant to trace from.
• Transfer film applied to drawings used to create even tone, textures
example of rapid technological and patterns.
change. Satellite imaging and LIDAR • Transfer tape used to create lines, borders and directional symbols.
(Light Detection and Ranging) radar • Measuring tools used included drawing boards, scale rules, adjustable
squares, railway curves, circle templates, protractors, compasses, etc.
scanning allow us to explore and • Reproduction of drawings included print presses, photocopiers, colour
explain cities in three dimensions copiers, blueprints and large-format copiers.
and with increasing photo-realism.
However, earlier technological 1970s – 90s
advances have also triggered new INITIAL COMPUTER ERA
ways of seeing and analysing cities, • Typesetting used for creating formatted text pages. These were
from the discovery of perspective manually pasted with traditional artwork to create page layouts for
documents. The artwork was then photographed to make plates
drawing to the first aerial views
from which offset litho printing was possible.
of the city from hot-air balloons.
These early technological advances
complement the digital technology 1980s – 90s
we now take for granted. EARLY COMPUTER ERA
• The mid-1980s saw the introduction of computer desktop publishing
(DTP) programmes. This allowed us to combine words and pictures
together creatively on page layouts and documents.
• Combining typography and page layout skills gave us enormous flexibility
on the eventual look and feel of published reports and documents.
• Desktop publishing was undertaken by specialist graphic designers
within design agencies.

1990s
COMPUTERS DEVELOP
• DTP computer programmes became widely available and allowed design
offices to create this work in-house.
• Although high-end DTP was still undertaken by specialist graphic
designers, most design professionals had the means to desktop publish
documents. In-house colour laser printing became affordable.
• The combination of in-house DTP and colour laser printing meant most
everyday reports and documents could be published in-house. This saved
enormous amounts of time and expense.
• Towards the end of the 1990s, online and digital methods became more
and more popular and temporarily dented the need for printed documents.
However, these methods were proven not to be a replacement for the
desktop-published printed document.

PRESENT DAY
ONLINE 2000s
• Online technology and capability increase, allowing more internet
communication methods.
• Interactive mapping introduced.
• Social networks and easy information sharing enabled.
• Participatory, consultation and community feedback.

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Graphics for Urban Design
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN DESIGN IMAGES 3
CHAPTER 3

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF
URBAN DESIGN IMAGES
3.1 Qualities of urban design images

Southall Waterside by JTP

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Graphics for Urban Design
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN DESIGN IMAGES

3 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN DESIGN IMAGES

3.1 Qualities of urban design images

Selecting the most appropriate type of image
is not always straightforward. There are many
different types and styles of urban design image,
which can be confusing.

It is helpful to think of every urban design image as made up from

a mix of basic characteristics, features or qualities.

You can determine what type of image you are looking at by

identifying the mix of characteristics from the diagram below.

These basic characteristics should be considered simultaneously

and applied to both hand-drawn and computer-aided images.

The basic characteristics of • CONCEPTUAL

urban design images. • ANALYTICAL PAGES
• MEASURABLE 22 – 27
• PERCEPTUAL

TECHNIQUE • HAND DRAWN PAGES

• COMPUTER GRAPHICS 28 – 29
METHOD
• REGION
• CITY
SCALE PAGES
• DISTRICT
30 – 31
• NEIGHBOURHOOD
DIMENSION • PLACE

ACCURACY • 2D
• 3D PAGES
• 4D 32 – 33

• INDICATIVE PAGES
• DEFINITIVE 34 – 35

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Graphics for Urban Design
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN DESIGN IMAGES 3
Three examples of urban design
image and their characteristics.

3D computer-detailed model showing high

levels of accuracy and material specifications.

TECHNIQUE PERCEPTUAL

METHOD COMPUTER GRAPHICS

SCALE PLACE

DIMENSION 3D

ACCURACY DEFINITIVE

A CAD-drawn masterplan overlaid on to an

aerial base and coloured using a computer
rendering program.

TECHNIQUE MEASURABLE

METHOD COMPUTER GRAPHICS

SCALE NEIGHBOURHOOD

DIMENSION 2D

ACCURACY DEFINITIVE

A hand-drawn artist’s perspective of a

proposed development coloured on a
bitmap editing program.

TECHNIQUE PERCEPTUAL

METHOD HAND DRAWN

SCALE PLACE

DIMENSION 3D

ACCURACY INDICATIVE

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3.1.8 The four graphic techniques

Graphics for urban design projects are usually based on one of four
graphic techniques:

• Conceptual • Measurable

• Analytical • Perceptual.

CONCEPTUAL GRAPHICS ANALYTICAL GRAPHICS

USED TO ENCAPSULATE AND CONVEY GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF ANALYSIS,
A PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT IDEA STATISTICS OR DATA THAT CAN HELP IDENTIFY
OR NOTION. THE NATURE OF PROBLEMS.

59
0
240

620
360
15
0
17
0
160

390
0

60 17
0

90
520

270

0
43
90 200 70 450
0

30
40

190
300
330
220

270
720

680
240

390
100 110 120
240

158

250 520 580

0

320
320 310 510

370
290

60
890
470

310
60 210
4160
180

0
37
550

20

80
0

1250

1660
760

2710 2110
1190 2460 10
80 250
68
1540

80 280
2050

0
4310

120
41
340

70

50
1350

8460 7970 60
100

7960
50

0
10
48 25
1570 3400 0
3020

780 30 60 730
1110 0 1200 2620 450
29

570 730 590

10

1080

180
66

0
350

37
0

50
90

12 350
124

40
61

3920
0
0
14

0
53
120

60
70

43
210

200

0
10 0 10
56
0 170
58
70
85

820

270 210 200

0

200
150
120

170

210
900

0 140
120

130

10

0 20
53 400
30

360
0

0
47
14

340
0

19
180

0 290
0

0
39

0 22 180
37
0 11
50
0

0
21

400
32

360
0

390 160
360

0
10

350 36
370
40

33
47
0

720
24

220
0

390
610
520
34

330
80
32

70
0

90
0

57

460
0
60

690
30

40

420
190

0
0
90

0
39
18

0 0
230

32
0

0 20
160

23

0
11
70
120

0
30

370

22
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5,001+ 2,001 - 2,500
Graphics for Urban Design
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN DESIGN IMAGES 3

The four graphics techniques are explored in more detail on the following
pages. Whilst there are hybrids, the four basic techniques are a useful way
of understanding the type of information that is communicated.

MEASURABLE GRAPHICS PERCEPTUAL GRAPHICS

2D SPATIAL DATA ALLOWING PRECISE 3D AND 4D IMAGES THAT HELP AN AUDIENCE
MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES, HEIGHTS UNDERSTAND HOW PROPOSED PLACES MIGHT
AND AREAS. LOOK AND FEEL. THE DEGREES OF ACCURACY
AND REALISM CAN VARY.

187
188
189

190

149
150
151

BCP 153
152

189

190

BCP 189

149
150

151
190 188
148
148
189
149
129 152 150 190
148 186
151 149 166 167
128
129 153 165
152
147
150 164

129
153 151 162
163
161 165
103
129
147 164
166 185
128
130
104

BCP BCP 163

128 163
105 130 162
161
106 130
CAR-PORTS
165
184
152 162 166

127 153 164

128
126 131 147 154
154
125 147 161
BCP
154

146
125
148 160
103
104
127
146 159 168

BCP
101
131 132 145 155 155 158 160 168

89
103
127
125
131
146 168

104 167
145 CAR-PORTS
105 155 167
132
87 106
132

145 144
156 169
169
87

105
103
106 133 144 170
18
104 160 169
105 126 144 143 157 170

BCP 101
107
126 156
156
102
106 124
143
170
160 171
124 157
133 171

101 133
134 143 157 158 158 159 159
142 142
102 157
88 134 180
89 107 108
84
101
134 142 171
172
107
121
141 142
88 100
124 140 172
89 102 100
122
123
172
108
85
87 100 121 135
84
88 108 109 123
100 109
109 123
84
90 122 173 173
85 83 89 139 179
83 122 120
84 121 135
135
235
173

83
91 109
115 235 174
99 110 114 120
120
235
90
99
113 116 117 136 141
118 136
174
90 119 119 138 175
92
83 136 137 141 236
235
174 178
91

99 119 236
234 175
82 110
110 237
176
91
93
110
111
71
140 237
234
82 82
92
138
140 238
234 175
82
98 112
238 233
176
98 112
92 139
81
98 111
137
138 139 233 233
177
176
111 232
81 96
97 137 240
232

239
93 240 177
80 177
81 95 232
112
71
80
93
113 114 114 115 115 116 116 117 117 118 118
241
239
236 177
113
97 241
96
79 242
80 94
94 237
72 242
79
94 97 243
238 230
96 231
79 243

77
95
239
77
231
76
76
75
75 95 96
244 240
229 BCP
231
255 260 254 241 231
74 95
255-260
5no. 2Bed Flats 245 242 230

78 1no. 1Bed Flat 254

230
78 470
244 244
243
246 230 470

3 330-333 273
75-78 4no. 1Bed Flats 255
244
470
4no. 2Bed Flats 247 470

Bins
261 254 253 229
74 261 261 259
248
258
335 257 245
329 256 25
3
229
329 245
337 259 229 469
73 258
336 335 246
74 257 253
74 256
262 246

73
337 329 253 250 247
336

334 251
247
272
250 273

335 262 263 252

273
251
328 328
273
469

BCP
262 263 252
328 248

339
336 248 416
469

338
341 340 337 327
263
264 249

350
330
252
339 338 349
331 249
351 332 263
339 333
271
338 348 334
334
265
272 468
341 340
353 251
272
347 468
272
342
352 264
264
415
327 250
342 340 266
353 264 416
352
342 341 327
467

342
327
249 270
414

416 467
346 353
265
271
352
265
271 416 417

343 266
267 271
267
351

BCP
351 417
266 466
350
349 350
349 267
415
343 348
343 348
270
346 347 414
343
345
347
268 269 269
415
415
346 282 270 418
282 414
281 268
346
283
283 269
415
417
418
344 284
284
280 268 414
356
285 281 281
285
345 286 279 418
286 270
BC
280
355 344
288
287 279 420
345
345
289 288
287 414
344 290
289
286
279
419
290 419
279 421
291 280 413
420
291

BCP
354
292 287
419
292
413 413 460
269 422 420

355
344
278 413 459

293 282 268 459 460

BCP
355 293 278
354
283
284 277 CAR-PORTS ESS 459

BCP
354 278 421
293
286 285 278 412
422

412
287
423
421 459
288 276 277

293 422 425

458
289 275
276
294 BCP
412
290 423 425

291 BCP
277
354 274 276
292 275 276
326
BCP
411
412
411
274
295 275
411
458
294
423 424
274
294
274
277 411 424
425
458

295 326
424 425 426 426
410
298 325 429
295 325 429
429
298 325
426
300
326
326
431 430
299
298 296 325
430
275
300
410 427

23
410
296
297 430
299
296
297 410
409
297 431
409
L.E.A.P.
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409
431
428 428
427 427

432

BCP 432 428

CAR-PORTS
299
BCP 408 433

300 432
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409
BCP
324 324
324
296 407
433
386

323 385
433
455 455 454
385 387

323 324 388

434
389 408 434 447 448
449 449
Graphics for Urban Design
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN DESIGN IMAGES

3.1.9 Conceptual techniques

Conceptual techniques are used to encapsulate and convey a particularly
important or strong idea. At their simplest, they may be a cartoon, an
ideogram or a visual ‘sound bite’. More complex means include painted
artworks or mood boards, which convey atmosphere or precedent without
committing to built form. Such techniques can present provisional and
unresolved ideas in a way that encourages the audience to engage in their
further development. They should aid thinking about the built environment
in terms of concepts and aspirations.

A conceptual diagram communicating

investment in a town.

TECHNIQUE CONCEPTUAL

METHOD HAND DRAWN

SCALE TOWN

DIMENSION 2D & 3D

ACCURACY INDICATIVE

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THE CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN DESIGN IMAGES 3
3.1.10 Analytical techniques
Graphic representation can help identify the nature of problems and possible
solutions. Techniques can display patterns of behaviour and activity that are
influenced by the spatial layout.

The illustration shown below is a heat map of pedestrian flows. The information
it conveys is far more effective presented graphically rather than in text or data.

Analysis of pedestrian flows

and accessibility in Boston,
Massachusetts, USA.

TECHNIQUE ANALYTICAL

METHOD COMPUTER GRAPHICS

SCALE CITY

DIMENSION 2D

ACCURACY DEFINITIVE

Average hourly pedestrian flow, weekdays:

1,900 or greater
1,750 to 1,900
1,600 to 1,750
1,500 to 1,600
1,400 to 1,500
1,300 to 1,400
1,100 to 1,300
1,000 to 1,100
850 to 1,000
750 to 850
625 to 750
500 to 625
400 to 500
275 to 400
150 to 275
50 to 150

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3.1.11 Measurable techniques

Measurable information is usually presented in two-dimensional forms such
as plans and sections. This allows precise data to be conveyed and can provide
an accurate baseline from which detailed design of discrete components can
be reliably coordinated and measured.

TECHNIQUE MEASURABLE

METHOD COMPUTER GRAPHICS

SCALE NEIGHBOURHOOD

DIMENSION 2D

ACCURACY DEFINITIVE
CAD masterplan to scale and therefore measurable.

N
0m 50m 1:1,250

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THE CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN DESIGN IMAGES 3
3.1.12 Perceptual techniques
Perceptual techniques help a general audience to quickly understand how
proposed designs might look and feel. They are generally based upon forms
of perspective and can be conveyed with varying degrees of realism. Eye-level
views give the observer the sense of being in a space, while aerial perspectives
can bring places to life and make it easier for people to orientate themselves
within the proposals. These techniques are often useful in visioning processes
because they present an exciting, coherent image of a future place. However,
TECHNIQUE PERCEPTUAL
caution should be exercised when using aerial perspectives, as very few people
METHOD COMPUTER GRAPHICS are likely to experience this perspective in reality.

SCALE PLACE

DIMENSION 3D

ACCURACY DEFINITIVE
Photo-montage showing definitive proposals.

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THE CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN DESIGN IMAGES

3.1.1 Hand-drawn images

Hand-drawn images are usually produced on paper using pencils, crayons, felt
pens, marker pens, ink and watercolour paint. Typical paper types used include
detail, sketch, tracing or heavyweight paper. The paper is largely selected by
matching it to the media used and the need for a rough or smooth texture of
the final image.

These media can convey a lively impression without being too definitive. The
act of drawing itself can be shared among members of a group. Hand-drawn
images are familiar to non-professionals, encouraging their participation, and
can be used anywhere.

With the increasing availability of computers and design software applications,

it is now possible to combine traditional hand-drawn methods with computer
imaging, affecting or colouring. This allows the artist to maintain the quality
and distinctiveness of the work while introducing modern methods of
production and visual appearance.

A street scene showing a development

proposal, hand drawn with pencil in a
‘sketchy’ style and coloured on a computer.

TECHNIQUE PERCEPTUAL

METHOD HAND DRAWN

SCALE PLACE

DIMENSION 3D

ACCURACY INDICATIVE

A street scene showing public realm

improvements, hand drawn with pen
and painted using watercolours.

TECHNIQUE PERCEPTUAL

METHOD HAND DRAWN

SCALE PLACE

DIMENSION 3D

ACCURACY INDICATIVE

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3.1.2 Computer graphics
Computer-generated graphics are generally turned to when either a level of
accuracy is required that cannot be achieved by hand, or when complex tools
are needed to speed up the design process. For example, Geographic Information
Systems (GIS) can store enormous amounts of data that are represented as
spatial maps. These types of maps can only be created on computers due to the
complexity of the source data. In three-dimensional images, accurate visual
representations can also be achieved through the use of computers.

Computer software programs have now developed ways of making images

look indicative or abstract. However, they rarely provide a substitute for
hand-drawn sketches and illustrations, particularly in the early stages of a
project. The greatest strength of the computer image still lies in its accuracy
and definitive nature. Computer graphics provide an enormous range of
communication techniques and devices. Data can be converted to images
very quickly. Ideas can be easily saved, amended, duplicated, transmitted
and displayed.

An example of multiple GIS layers combined

to show the various existing and potential
sites of development in London.

TECHNIQUE MEASURABLE

METHOD COMPUTER GRAPHICS

SCALE CITY

DIMENSION 2D

ACCURACY DEFINITIVE

A computer-generated montage made

to look sketchy to illustrate the overall
impression of designs rather than the
fully finished proposals.

TECHNIQUE PERCEPTUAL

METHOD COMPUTER GRAPHICS

SCALE PLACE

DIMENSION 3D

ACCURACY INDICATIVE

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THE CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN DESIGN IMAGES

3.1.3 Scale
The scale of an image is quite simply how close or far back we are viewing
it from. The further out we zoom, the more area we cover and therefore
the larger the scale. It is the ratio used to represent actual size. In other
words, a 1:10,000 scale means the image on the page is 10,000 times
smaller than actual 1:1 real-life scale. In urban planning, another way of
looking at scale is by:

• region

• city

• district

• neighbourhood

• place.

TECHNIQUE CONCEPTUAL TECHNIQUE CONCEPTUAL TECHNIQUE CONCEPTUAL

METHOD COMPUTER GRAPHICS METHOD COMPUTER GRAPHICS METHOD COMPUTER GRAPHICS

SCALE REGION SCALE CITY SCALE DISTRICT

DIMENSION 2D DIMENSION 2D DIMENSION 2D

ACCURACY INDICATIVE ACCURACY INDICATIVE ACCURACY INDICATIVE

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THE CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN DESIGN IMAGES 3

As we zoom from regional to place scale, the more measurable and definitive
the image can become. The regional scale is viewed from such a height that it
can only achieve a certain level of accuracy, whereas the place scale is viewed
close-up and can be illustrated precisely.

TECHNIQUE MEASURABLE TECHNIQUE MEASURABLE

METHOD COMPUTER GRAPHICS METHOD COMPUTER GRAPHICS

SCALE NEIGHBOURHOOD SCALE PLACE

DIMENSION 2D DIMENSION 2D

ACCURACY DEFINITIVE ACCURACY DEFINITIVE

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THE CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN DESIGN IMAGES

3.1.4 2D graphics
Two-dimensional (2D) plans are images that convey spatial relationships and
distances between elements. They can be used to present geography, layers,
patterns and distances effectively. Working in two dimensions is an essential
part of the urban design process. Spaces, places, streets and plots are usually
analysed and designed in 2D plan form, which then informs the design in 3D.
Designing indicatively early on in the process or definitively in the final design
stages, layering information in 2D can help to order and decipher complex
information. With the recent advent of online 2D mapping, information can be
zoomed, dragged or de-layered to get much closer to the details more quickly.

Building quality ranked

from dark to light.

TECHNIQUE MEASURABLE

METHOD COMPUTER GRAPHICS

SCALE DISTRICT

DIMENSION 2D

ACCURACY DEFINITIVE

Town centre experience.

TECHNIQUE MEASURABLE

METHOD COMPUTER GRAPHICS

SCALE DISTRICT

DIMENSION 2D

ACCURACY DEFINITIVE

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THE CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN DESIGN IMAGES 3
3.1.5 3D graphics
Three-dimensional (3D) images can help to convey how a place may look
and feel. In design terms, these images can demonstrate how people may
interact with buildings and open spaces and how well they work aesthetically.
3D images can convey qualities such as scale and massing, a sense of
enclosure, views, and details of where shadows may fall. They are invaluable
in demonstrating the visual and spatial impact of proposals. They can range
from ‘sketchy’ to depict atmosphere and the spirit of a place through to
‘accurate visual representations’ to illustrate the nature of a design, the
material and the details. 3D images use forms of perspective such as
foreshortening and vanishing points and are therefore difficult to measure
from. However, ‘axonometric’ projections can convey dimensions accurately.

A street scene showing a development

and landscape proposals, hand drawn
with pencil in a ‘sketchy’ style and
coloured on a computer.

TECHNIQUE PERCEPTUAL

METHOD HAND DRAWN

SCALE PLACE

DIMENSION 3D

ACCURACY INDICATIVE

3.1.6 4D graphics
Four-dimensional (4D) images supplement the three typical urban design
graphic spatial dimensions of length, width and height with a fourth, non-
visual dimension such as time and movement.

These can now be combined with techniques that simulate further sensory
dimensions such as touch, sound and smell. These methods are used today
mainly in interactive and virtual arenas such as gaming.

Virtual reality headsets are becoming

increasingly common for displaying visual
data and have become important tools for
architects, urban designers and planners
in how they visualise the development of
neighbourhoods and places.

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THE CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN DESIGN IMAGES

3.1.7 Indicative through to definitive

The process of urban design is similar to all creative design processes: the
topic area may be different but the basic principles remain the same. Early
stages are very broad and intentionally kept loose, sketchy and unresolved.
There are several stages that designs go through to get the ‘buy-in’ of others
to allow for feedback and comment.

Urban design images generally look indicative at the early stages. As options
are narrowed and refined, the images begin to look more resolved, polished
and technically competent.

Computer software programs are increasingly able to generate high-end

images with relatively little effort even at the earliest stages of the design
process. High-end polished marketing and vision images are sometimes
necessary early on in the process to excite stakeholders and attract investors.
However, this can sometimes have a negative impact. High-end images more
often look like final building proposals and suggest to audiences that most
design decisions have already been made and cannot be altered. The example
below shows a masterplan being developed from an early conceptual sketch
into a measurable final plan with an example of the eventual place.

Early masterplan concept sketch intentionally Emerging hand-drawn illustrative masterplan Having established the masterplan principles,
drawn loosely and mapped out to encourage setting out the overall concept, layout and the diagrams and plans become more accurate.
feedback and involvement. land uses.

TECHNIQUE CONCEPTUAL TECHNIQUE CONCEPTUAL TECHNIQUE CONCEPTUAL

METHOD HAND DRAWN METHOD HAND DRAWN METHOD COMPUTER GRAPHICS

SCALE NEIGHBOURHOOD SCALE NEIGHBOURHOOD SCALE NEIGHBOURHOOD

DIMENSION 2D DIMENSION 2D DIMENSION 2D

ACCURACY INDICATIVE ACCURACY INDICATIVE ACCURACY INDICATIVE

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THE CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN DESIGN IMAGES 3

Final definitive masterplan drawn by hand and

rendered on the computer and stitched into an
aerial photographic base. It is still measurable
and drawn in a recognisable scale.

TECHNIQUE MEASURABLE

METHOD COMPUTER GRAPHICS

SCALE NEIGHBOURHOOD

DIMENSION 2D

ACCURACY DEFINITIVE

At this stage the detail becomes definitive and

there is also the ability to zoom in and look at
areas of the plan in more detail – this applies
to both 2D and 3D.

TECHNIQUE PERCEPTUAL

METHOD COMPUTER GRAPHICS

SCALE PLACE

DIMENSION 3D

ACCURACY DEFINITIVE

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Graphics for Urban Design
INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER 4

GRAPHICS IN THE URBAN DESIGN PROCESS

4.1 Using graphics in the urban design process
4.2 Analysis diagrams
4.3 Participation and engagement
4.4 The urban design rationale
4.5 Final proposals
4.6 Supporting final proposals Masterplan for New Lubbesthorpe by David Lock Associates

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GRAPHICS IN THE URBAN DESIGN PROCESS

4 GRAPHICS IN THE URBAN DESIGN PROCESS

4.1 Using graphics in the urban design process

Urban graphics help to facilitate the urban design
process at every stage, from project inception
through to final proposals. They help to connect and
promote a common understanding between urban
design teams, their clients, the communities and the
stakeholders they serve at each stage of a project.

Urban design processes are many and varied. It is therefore helpful to

break down the process into four of the most common stages and then
to look at the broad range of graphical techniques suitable for each.

1 2

3 4

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GRAPHICS IN THE URBAN DESIGN PROCESS 4
4.1.1 Developing and communicating an understanding of a site
and its wider context
Urban design projects and schemes typically focus on specific urban areas
or sites. However, successful projects are founded upon the development
of a shared understanding of the wider context beyond the project or scheme
boundary. The structure, character and qualities of the wider context can be
explored and communicated graphically. Such images can convey:

• the overall urban/rural structure

• districts and areas: uses, amenities, routes, open spaces and landscape

• opportunities and constraints arising from the setting and how they
might be addressed

• special features of the area to be addressed.

A sequence of maps at successively larger scales helps guide the user through
increasing levels of detail, from the strategic to the local and then the site-
specific. At each level, the graphics should be appropriate to the detail
required at that scale.

Different contextual issues may often need to be illustrated at different

scales and in different ways. There are three broad categories of contextual
analysis corresponding to the strategic, local or district and immediate setting:

• locating the site in its wider, strategic context

• district contextual appraisal

• local contextual appraisal of the site and its immediate setting.

The definition of strategic, district and local context will vary according to the
scale and extent of the study area, project or scheme.

From the regional to the local context, maps, plans, diagrams and photos will
present different levels of information. Where images at widely differing
scales are used, graphic devices to link them, such as inset maps or blow-ups,
help orientate the audience and increase understanding.

Wider, strategic context. District context - zoom level 1. Local context - zoom level 2.
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4.1.2 The strategic or wider context

Strategic context shows the location of the site related to:

• transport links

• neighbouring places

• geographical features.

Maps, satellite imagery and aerial photography can all be used to show
the regional context. Regional maps, photographs and especially satellite
photographs are already graphically rich. This can ‘crowd’ the image and
confuse the audience. It is often necessary to strip away unwanted details
from base maps and to make aerial photographs softer or more transparent,
so that the information you want to convey is clear and prominent.

right:
Satellite image showing the location
of Canterbury, UK.
CANTERBURY

below:
A drawn map that clearly shows the
strategic location of Canterbury,
nearby towns and main road links.

Margate
Whitstable
A28

Chatham A299
Ramsgate
A299

M2 A28

Faversham A256

Canterbury
A2
M26
Sevenoaks
Maidstone M20 A2

A28 Deal
A256

A2 A258

A260

Ashford
Royal Tunbridge Wells A20 Dover
M20
Folkestone

Crowborough

n-Avon
40
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4.1.3 The immediate or local context
Graphic techniques can be used to explore the immediate setting of a site.
This can provide important local and contextual clues on constraints and
opportunities and the overall development potential. This is an essential
early component of the urban design process.

The main or special features of a site and its setting can be encapsulated in
a series of diagrams. These include the geography and topography, features
of historic significance, views, connections with other places and elements
of local distinctiveness.

These diagrams show how the site is located in relation to:

• transport links and local hierarchy of routes

• urban density and scale

• general features, including rivers and the main green spaces.

below: Understanding the spatial and built form of the immediate surroundings
A map showing the location of a and the history that has shaped it can help design teams create new
site in Canterbury and the immediate
local context.
developments that reinforce local character and distinctiveness.

te

eal

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4.1.4 Site analysis

Site analysis diagrams help identify the existing features that may influence
design development. At this stage, photography is also used as a visual
reference of the existing site and its surrounding context, which allows visual
assessment and appraisal of the current situation.

Plan of view towards the site shown right. Panoramic view over site towards city centre.

Plan showing existing site features.

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4.1.5 Typical analysis plans
The site plan can be overlaid with a wide variety of analytical information. This
can quickly become complex and confusing to the viewer. It is helpful to group
the analysis into categories or themes and to produce a series of plans using
the same base plan.

Typical urban design analysis plans in a series might include the following:

• opportunities and • existing buildings and

constraints building heights

• topography, levels and • landscape and open

site contours space analysis

• property boundaries, land • movement plans

ownership, areas available
for development • landmarks and views.

Opportunities and constraints plan. Development area plan.

Open space analysis plan. Movement plan.

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4.2 Analysis diagrams

Having established the site context and prepared a series of general site
analysis plans, it is possible to dig deeper and gauge a more detailed
understanding of the site. Each site is unique and therefore may require
specific analyses of the most relevant issues. A variety of diagrammatic
analysis techniques can be used to do this. The most common are
described below.

4.2.1 Figure ground and reversed figure ground

This graphical technique differentiates between built-
up areas and the public realm and open spaces in
between, in order to emphasise development patterns,
density and scale. Buildings are shown in solid colour
in figure ground drawings (far-left image) in order to
contrast with the spaces in between, which are usually
shown in white or another light colour. Reverse figure
ground drawings (left image) emphasise the public realm
and open spaces by showing them as solid colours with
buildings shown in white or light colours.

4.2.2 Nolli plan

This differentiates between public and private
accessible spaces, showing public areas as white,
including areas within buildings such as churches
or courtyards, and privately owned buildings and
land parcels in a solid colour.

1900 4.2.3 Historic evolution

A sequence of maps of a place from earlier periods in its
history can emphasise how a settlement or landscape
has evolved over time. They can be presented as a set
of individual historic Ordnance Survey maps in their
original form, but can be more easily compared if
1990 presented on a common base to a common scale.
Digital storage of historic maps enables them to be
superimposed. This is particularly useful for historic
landscape and urban characterisation.

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4.2.4 Character areas

This plan identifies areas of character within a wider urban
or rural area such as local neighbourhoods, shopping
districts, or the core of a historic town centre. It focuses
attention on areas of particular interest and may be used
to emphasise historic development patterns. It can be
presented on a map base or a figure ground with each area
annotated. The emphasis is on the broad characterisation
of urban grain. Character areas may include transitional
and buffer zones, indicated by overlapping semi-
transparent colours, blurred edges or by the colour fading
from the centre to the boundary of each area.

4.2.5 Landmarks and monuments

Marking prominent buildings, building features and
monuments on a plan not only illustrates and emphasises
areas/points of great importance or sensitivity but also
helps orientate those familiar with the area. Signs or
symbols indicate the location of each landmark, with
colour and scale used to indicate which landmarks are
of greater or lesser significance.

4.2.6 Nodes and edges

Nodes are points of intense activity such as urban squares
and busy street intersections. They can be represented
graphically on a base-map or figure ground plan with bold
circles of varying sizes, line styles or colours to suggest
the order of intensity. Routes are the major and minor
connections between nodes and are represented by
continuous or dashed lines and sometimes arrows. Their
relative importance is indicated with bolder colours or
thicker lines. Edges are the barriers to movement such as
busy roads or railway lines that are difficult to cross and
are usually represented graphically with jagged lines.
Graphical analysis techniques using nodes, paths, edges
and landmarks are sometimes referred to as ‘Lynchian
Analysis’ after the urban design theorist Kevin Lynch.

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4.2.7 Designated areas

Designated area plans show areas of protection,
preservation, management, or restoration of historic
importance, natural or scientific interest, or resources
such as forests, soils and water. They are normally
presented on a base-map with definitive boundary
lines or semi-transparent colours, tones, patterns
or textures.

4.2.8 Listed buildings and structures

These plans identify buildings, structures and
monuments that are statutorily or locally protected
for their architectural or historic interest. Buildings
are shown in a solid, bold colour, usually red (colours
can be graded according to listing status). Such plans
can be combined with conservation area plans on
the condition that the amount of information is not
likely to confuse the user.

4.2.9 Views and visibility

Plans highlight lines of visibility, view corridors and
panorama vantage points. Some views may be
protected. They are normally presented on a base-
map or figure ground.

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4.2.10 Building heights

Key
2 storey Building heights are often represented by the number
3 storey of floors of each building block and the distribution of
building heights across the scheme. This information can
4 storey
be presented on a base-map or a figure ground as keyed
categories or by annotation on to each zone.

4.2.11 Land use patterns

Plans identify the existing or proposed land uses for
specific areas or plots of land across the study area,
usually on a base-map. At larger scales, additional plans
may be required to indicate different ground floor and
upper floor uses.

4.2.12 Active frontages

These plans indicate buildings with ground floor
frontages that face or open on to the street, such as
shop fronts, public buildings and entrances to busy
commercial buildings. These are likely to generate a
relatively higher intensity of activity in the street
itself. Information is often presented on a map or
figure ground with the strength of lines or colour
indicating different levels of activity.

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TO
CLAPTON

TO
HACKNEY
TO CENTRAL
DALSTON

TO STRATFORD

VICTORIA
PARK

20
mi
4.2.13 Transport network analysis
ns LEA
RIVER
These plans identify transport routes, junctions, stops
PARK

10
mi
and main interchanges. The plans will often indicate the
ns
frequency or capacity of services, the time it takes to
TO travel between stops using a service, and walking
ERKENWELL
distances between stops. Differentiated lines represent
MILE
END
the different modes of transport such as road, rail,
PARK
metros and trams. Standard symbols are used for the TO
TO
THE CITY
stops or stations. A base-map sets the services providedCANNING
TOWN
OF LONDON in the wider urban context, indicating the level of
penetration of services and their accessibility. TO
THE ROYAL DOCKS &
THE EXCEL CENTRE
RIVE
R LE
A

TO
THE CITY
OF LONDON
IV
ER
TH A
ME S
4.2.14 Footpaths and cycleways proposed
R
TO
proposed
This shows existing and proposed footpaths and LONDON
CITY
TO
AIRPORT
LONDON BRIDGE cycleways in relation to the places and spaces they
TO
SOUTHWARK TO serve – open spaces, parks, public transport, etc.
ROTHERHITHE
Information is presented as continuous or broken lines
on a generalised base-map. Lines are not toNORTH
scaleGREENWICH
as
TO RI
VE
R T
H AME S
they would appear too narrow. Footpaths and cycleways
& GREENWICH

are generally coloured green to imply their sustainable

mode of travel. WhenMUDCHUTE
showing separate cycleways and
pedestrian routes, complementary
PARK
colours are required.

4.2.15 Pedestrian movement

This illustrates ‘fundamental use patterns’ in an area
where people move on foot and where they stop.
Information is presented on a single plan or a series to
illustrate changes in patterns of activity over different
time periods. Lines represent the pedestrian flow and
dots indicate where people are stationary.

To build up a true representation of pedestrian

movement, a series of plans should be used over
a set period of time to evaluate any trend.

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4.2.16 Road/street hierarchy

These plans portray the hierarchy of streets within the
built form and urban environment. This is presented as
a series of lines representing the road/street type and its
position in the hierarchy. The colours are graded in terms
of their classification. The thickness of lines can also
represent the relative rank.
Key
Primary route
Secondary route
Tertiary route

4.2.17 Spatial accessibility analysis

Such plans illustrate the relative accessibility of different
areas of a place, which exerts a powerful influence on
pedestrian, cyclist and vehicular movement patterns and,
by extension, on the social and economic characteristics
of urban areas. The information for different modes of
travel can be presented individually or as a series of maps
to illustrate changes in patterns of spatial accessibility at
different scales, or before and after a design intervention.
Base-maps may be included for local studies but are
usually omitted for broader, strategic studies.

4.2.18 Densities
This plan illustrates an existing or proposed range
of residential densities as part of an area study or
masterplan. It is generally presented as a graded range
of colours or tones on a base-plan to indicate bands of
density, with higher densities made the most prominent.

The principles of this map can be applied to all graduated

classification diagrams.

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4.3 Participation and engagement

Participation and engagement are key elements in preparing most plans
and projects, whether for a local development framework, an action plan for
an area or a masterplan for a proposed development. Graphic techniques
can help engage a very wide group or can be tailored to specific groups, such
as a local community affected by proposals.

For those not familiar with them, two-dimensional plans can be difficult to
grasp. Rendering two-dimensional images can help, as can aerial photography.
Most people have some knowledge of maps and are familiar with this format,
but three-dimensional plans are much easier to understand.

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4.3.1 Communication tools for participation and engagement
The public generally has a strong understanding of an area: what is good,
bad, works or does not work. However, they will need help in expressing their
ideas visually and so it is important to select the right communication tools:

• Keep them simple, clear and focused on the main messages; this is
not the arena for overly technical information.

• Think about what covers the messages best: written lists, annotated
photographs, etc. Sketches may have a stronger role than plans.

The following graphic presentation styles are often used for public consultation
because they are accessible and readily understood.

top:
Sketched tracing overlays.

middle:
Early conceptual preliminary sketch.

bottom:
Bright, bold marker pens make
elements on sketches and drawings
easily identifiable.

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4.3.2 Plans
Most people are not trained in map and plan reading.
Many know their locality well but may read a map of
it with difficulty. Illustrating landmarks and familiar
features on maps, such as churches, monuments, parks,
schools and public art, will help people relate to them.
Keep plans clear and uncluttered; keys/legends, notes,
scales and north points must be read easily. Tracing
overlays on aerial photography help orientate the viewer.

4.3.3 Aerial/satellite photographs

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, two-dimensional
plans can be tricky to fully understand. Aerial
photography with key features marked can help.

4.3.4 Physical models

Making a simple physical block model on an Ordnance Survey
base jointly with members of the public is a worthwhile
exercise. A 3D model is often easier to understand.

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4.3.5 Photographs
Use photographs, including historic photographs,
if possible. Community memory can be a powerful
contribution and visual references are easier to understand.

4.3.6 Workshop materials

Graphics can help to encapsulate ideas generated ‘in the
moment’ during consultation events. It is therefore
important that materials are available to help generate
and record ideas. Materials include:

• pens, markers, crayons

• sketch and tracing paper, acetates
• masking tape, glue, sticky notes
• audio-visual and recording equipment.

4.3.7 Online participation

Those unable to attend consultation events may be able
to provide feedback via online portals. The feedback can
be submitted in many different ways:

• as questionnaires
• as online notes
• via interactive mapping.

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4.4 The urban design rationale

The urban design rationale is a simple visual and sometimes written
expression of the reasons why a certain design direction has been taken and
the main arguments in support of the approach. The rationale will often be
produced at an early stage in the urban design process in order to guide the
development of more detailed proposals. Key concepts and themes will
usually emerge during the contextual and spatial analysis stages and may
be clarified, reinforced and validated through option development and
participation stages in order to shape and justify the detailed proposals.

The graphical expression of the rationale can take many forms but the key
is that it contains a clear and simple explanation of the approach.

The rationale is sometimes presented as a ‘storyboard’ of photographs,

diagrams, sketches, images and cartoons, each identifying a theme so that
the evolving project can be seen to build upon them. Whatever the style of
images used, the process of setting them down in a graphical form that
can be easily shared is an essential part of the process.

The development of ideas to enable the rationale.

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Public realm framework. Street network. Pedestrian movement.

A streetscape analysis using photographs to help identify

the characteristics of buildings in a particular area.

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4.4.1 Preliminary proposals

The project team will identify early ideas gathered in the analysis stages and
synthesise these into one or more early proposals based upon the principles
set out in the rationale.
...The principles It is essential that the graphical techniques used to express preliminary
must be clear, proposals convey a sense of ‘work in progress’. The public and stakeholders
avoiding too much have a role to play in testing and validating preliminary proposals and may
be put off by highly polished and apparently final proposals.
detail. A sense of
‘work in progress’ Technical working drawings produced by surveyors, engineers and architects
can be complex and highly detailed with many layers of information in a
is important... single drawing. Such complex plans may have to be redrawn, simplified or
‘de-layered’ in order to convey issues and opportunities in a clear way.

Early concept sketch. Preliminary proposals sketch.

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4.4.2 Option generation and testing
Presenting options is an important stage in project development.
The range of alternatives must be presented consistently and with equal
graphical qualities in order to ensure that a fair comparison can be made
...The range of during consultation and review.

alternatives must Each option may comprise a series of plans, perspectives and diagrams at
be presented a variety of scales that help to capture and compare issues and opportunities
from the general to the specific. Option drawings may include land use plans,
consistently to massing diagrams, the open space framework, traffic circulation, details of
ensure useful specific elements of the option and phasing drawings.
and reliable In some cases, an informal graphic style with the options presented as simple
consultation diagrams can highlight points of difference between the range of options.

and review...

Option A. Option B, with a closer look at the detail in the south.

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4.5 Final proposals

The option generation and testing process will help to define one or more
preferred options or perhaps even a new option that combines the best
qualities from two or more options.
...the graphics
The graphical style will become more definitive as the urban design process
style becomes moves towards the development of the final proposals. The proposals will
more definitive... need to be resolved at an increasingly detailed scale and drawings may need
to be produced at a recognised scale.

Below and opposite are typical examples of how graphical styles and
techniques become more definitive and measurable.

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4.6 Supporting final proposals

Once the final proposals have been chosen, further supplementary work may
need to be produced in order to fully appreciate how the proposals might look
and operate in reality. Accuracy, clarity and ease of interpretation are
paramount when presenting these details.

Final urban design drawings such as illustrative masterplans will often be

made up of a series of layers such as background and contextual imagery,
proposed buildings, plot boundaries, open spaces, landscape and greenery,
water spaces and roads. These can be ‘de-layered’ to provide a series of
thematic drawings on specific topics.
Examples of printed final proposals.

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4.6.1 Framework diagrams

The main purpose of the framework diagram is to present or explain the
organisation of elements of the development such as roads and other
infrastructure, ensuring that interconnections are identified and understood.
...Diagrams can Exact coordination with the physical layout is not always necessary. Diagrams
be presented as can be presented as a series to avoid overcomplication. Although a diagram
may be drawn to the correct scale, it generally requires graphic simplicity and
a series to avoid the removal of extraneous elements, as well as careful selection of colour
over-complication... and line weight to strengthen the primary message.

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4.6.2 3D computer block models
The computer block model gives an accurate impression of the massing and
building heights. When texture and materials are applied to a block model of
an urban design proposal, it should be made clear that these are for illustrative
...When texture purposes and are not architectural specifications. With the computer
and materials are programs now available, alternative urban forms, different densities and
building form options can be rapidly modelled and presented as an aid to
applied to a block audience understanding, without needing to design the buildings in detail.
model, it should
be made clear
that these are
not architectural
specifications...

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4.6.3 Masterplans
Masterplans typically include a series of themed drawings which together
define the principal elements of a proposed development. These may include
land use, built form, roads, communications, surface drainage, open space/
...Principal landscape structure and construction phasing. The plans can form part of
elements are a larger document that gives detailed explanations of the proposals.

combined together The main elements are combined together to illustrate the overall masterplan.
These elements typically include development plots, road layouts, building
to illustrate the
blocks, open spaces, footpaths and cycleways, etc. The technique used can be
overall masterplan... either hand drawn or computer generated, depending on the accuracy required
and the relative indicative or definitive nature of the presentation.

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4.6.4 Hand-drawn eye-level perspectives

The hand-drawn perspective remains a very effective way of conveying
the intended character and feel of a place that is yet to be designed in
any great detail.
...Computer
The eye-level perspective is a particularly effective graphical
generated technique because it is from a realistic viewpoint. It can help to convey
wire-frames or an impressionistic vision of what is to be achieved, to the widest
possible audience.
photographs
are often used Hand-drawn perspective drawings are often produced by tracing over
a photograph or computer-generated wire-frame image.
as bases for
the drawings...

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4.6.5 Hand-drawn aerial perspectives

Aerial perspectives, sometimes called ‘birds-eye’ views, can bring a two-
dimensional plan to life. They provide a good impression from a high viewpoint
to explain the relationship between different parts of the urban fabric, existing
...Aerial and proposed. In skilled hands, this form of perspective can convey the broad
perspectives sweep of a masterplan, or the way in which a group of buildings will occupy
their site. With careful control of detail, key areas can be emphasised and
can bring a two- others suppressed. As with the eye-level perspective, the base for the drawing
dimensional may be provided by an aerial photograph or computer-generated wire-frame.
plan to life...

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4.6.6 Cross sections

A cross section can be used in a variety of ways. Typically in urban design
they are used to look through an intersection of an area or building. Whether
hand drawn or computer generated, they are created to depict horizontal
...Illustrative and vertical dimensions. Illustrative sections through buildings, streets and
sections through spaces, especially when they include a variety of uses arranged vertically,
help explain the relationship between these uses in context. They can explain
buildings and how internal spaces spill out into the public realm and how the profile of
spaces, especially a building responds to its setting or has the flexibility to change uses over
when they include time. Even a simple sketch section can help explain the complexities of
levels, especially on a sloping site or when levels are split. Cross sections
a variety of uses are drawn to scale and are measurable.
arranged vertically,
help explain the
relationship
between these
uses in context...

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4.6.7 Elevations
When included in planning presentations, conventional architectural
elevations are a very effective way of explaining existing or intended
streetscape. Their primary role is accurately to illustrate vertical and
...conventional horizontal dimensions of a building façade and associated elements.
architectural They can show scale, character, materials and detailing, especially that
of a terrace, cluster or group of buildings in their context. Hand-drawn
elevations are a elevations traced over a scale base are a common form of presentation,
very effective way conveying a softer, more informal feel. Whichever graphic technique
of explaining is used, elevations are measurable.

existing or intended
streetscape...

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4.6.8 3D computer detail models

Computer-generated images of buildings and spaces can achieve high levels
of realism through increasingly sophisticated modelling techniques, which
allow viewpoints, lighting conditions and architectural detail to be varied
...An element of according to the purpose of the presentation.
artistic licence is An element of artistic licence is always applied to make these images of
always applied to future places more appealing. It is important to understand whether or not
the detailed model is an accurate visual representation.
make these images
of future places
more appealing...

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AVR Level 0 AVR Level 1

AVR Level 2 AVR Level 3

AVR Level 0 - Location and size of proposal AVR Level 1 - Location, size and degree of
(in this case as a toned area superimposed on visibility of proposal (in this case as an
the photograph). occluded ‘wireline’ image).

AVR Level 2 - As level 1 + description of AVR Level 3 - As level 2 + use of materials (in
architectural form (in this case as a simply this case using a ‘photorealistic’ rendering
shaded render in a uniform opaque material). technique).

4.6.9 Accurate visual representations (AVRs)

AVRs are prepared by combining images generated from a three-dimensional
computer model of the proposals within their context. The need for AVRs
arose due to the increasing ability of designers to adapt and distort
...The level of detail computer-generated images. This has resulted in measures to verify their
now available in accuracy and honesty.

computer-generated There is a classification for AVRs which is essentially a sliding scale in

which each stage incorporates all the properties of the previous stage plus
images requires
additional information building the level of realism. The above categories are
measures to proposed as a useful working guide to the information and visual properties
verify their accuracy of each distinct level of presentation.

and honesty... AVRs are undertaken by specialist professionals as they require seamless
coordination between photography, surveys and computer modelling. These
images are corrected or verified to compensate for distortions and
perspective captured by camera lenses. Technical information should be
provided to enable the full interrogation of position, heights, materials,
weather and lighting conditions.

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4.6.10 Before-and-after images

With increasingly sophisticated computer packages, photomontage is a
good way of showing before-and-after images of new development proposals.
Very precise representations of a proposal can help designers and audiences
...photomontage to compare and evaluate the impact. Before-and-after images can be created
is a good way using computer or hand-drawn images. This will depend on the indicative or
definitive nature of the image being portrayed.
of showing
A rigorous and auditable set-up procedure is vital to ensure images are not
before-and-after
over-manipulated or distorted in a way that would misrepresent what exists
images of new and/or the impact of the proposals.
development
proposals...

top:
Proposed view of town
centre high street.

bottom:
Scene as existing.

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4.6.11 Photomontage
In this technique of combining images with existing photography, the
images can be either hand drawn or computer generated. Photomontage
is particularly useful in demonstrating the visual impact of a development
...This is a on the existing environment and showing how a place will be transformed.
technique of Photomontage can also be used to enhance particular elements of an
combining images image, such as replacing an overcast or uninteresting sky with something
more attractive. Any human figures inserted must be correctly sized
with existing
according to their position in the perspective. Any anomalies will be
photography... immediately obvious to the eye and the composition will lose credibility.

top:
Proposed view showing the
pedestrianisation of Oxford
Street, London.

bottom:
Scene as existing.

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Dwellings on corners. Axonometric section through ‘avenue’ street type.

Apartments ‘seen in the round’. Public space of mews streets. Plan and section of a ‘local’ street type.

Overlooking public spaces. Mixed-use buildings.

4.6.12 Design code drawings

A design code is a document or sometimes a suite of drawings and diagrams
that sets rules for the design of a new development. Design code documents
typically include diagrams defining the parameters for layout and buildings.
...These diagrams Illustrations for design code documents should express key concepts in a way
define the that is readily understood by non-specialists as well as by the professional
parameters teams involved in planning and designing new developments.

for layout
and buildings...

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4.6.13 Cartoons
There are cases where a broad planning concept can best be expressed
through a loose freehand sketch or cartoon. These can sometimes gain
greater importance as an icon of the project. Cartoons have no scale or
...Cartoons have geographic base. They are essentially fresh and spontaneous in character,
no scale or presenting key relationships rather than precise information, either singly
or as a set of images conveying project themes, a sense of humour or irony.
geographic base...

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