BASIC TRIGONOMETRY REVIEWER (Complete!

) by Roemer

Its pretty much done, ill be polishing this over time. Please
comment any revisions, for now ill work on the conic sections
reviewer. Goooooooooooooooooooooood luck!

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TABLE OF CONTENTS:
1. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND APPLICATIONS
Angles, Degrees, and Radians
Trigonometric Functions and Fundamentals
Right Angles and Evaluating Trigonometric Functions
Circular Functions
Graphs of Sine and Cosine
Graphs of Tangent, Cosecant, Secant, and Cotangent
2. TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES AND EQUATIONS
Trigonometric Identities
Sum and Difference Identities
More Identities
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric Equations

Full credit goes to A Graphical Approach to Trigonometry by Hornsby, Lial, and Rockswold
If you have any questions/corrections/need help in general don’t hesitate to contact me

1. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND APPLICATIONS

1.1 Angles, Degrees, and Radians
An angle consists of two rays in a plane with a common endpoint, or two line segments with a common
endpoint. The common endpoint is called a vertex. A counter-clockwise rotation produces an angle of positive
measure, and negative if clockwise. Figure 1

The degree is the most common unit used to measure the size of angles. 360° denotes one full rotation.

Angles can be classified by their size. Figure 2

Acute = 0° < θ < 90°, Right = 90°, Obtuse = 90° < θ < 180°, Straight = 180°
Two angles are complementary if they add up to 90°, and supplementary if they add up to 180°.

An angle is in standard position if the vertex is at the origin and its initial side is along the positive x-axis.
Angles in standard position having their terminal sides along the x-axis or y-axis, such as angles with
measures 90°, 180°, 270°, and so on, are called quadrantal angles.
A complete rotation of a ray results in an angle measuring 360°. By continuing the rotation, angles of measure
larger than 360° can be produced. The angles in Figure 3a with measures 60° and 420° have the same initial
side and the same terminal side, but different amounts of rotation. Such angles are called coterminal
angles—their measures differ by a multiple of 360°. The angles in Figure 3b are also coterminal, because 830°
- 110° = 720° = 2(360°).

An angle with a vertex at the center of a circle that intercepts an arc on the circle equal in length to the radius
of the circle has measured 1 radian. In general, if u is a central angle in a circle of radius r, and u intercepts an
𝑠
arc of length s, the radian measure of u is 𝑏
. Figure 4

To convert between degrees and radians:

π
1. Multiply a degree measure by 180
radian and simplify to convert it into radians.
180
2. Multiply a radian measure by π
and simplify to convert it into degrees.
Exercises
Fill in the blanks.
1. An angle of 360° has an equivalent radian measure of _____.
2. An angle of π radians has an equivalent degree measure of _____.
3. The least positive angle coterminal with -180° has a degree measure _____.
4. The complement of a 40° angle is _____, and the supplement of a 40° angle is _____.
Find the complement and supplement of each angle.
5. 30°
6. 45°
π
7. 3
π
8. 12
Find the angle of the least positive measure that is coterminal with the given angle.
9. − 40°
10. 539°
11π
11. 2
12. − π
Convert each degree measure into radians, and each radian measure into degrees.
π
13. 3
7π
14. 4
11π
15. 3
16. 39°
17. 180°
18. 296°
Fill out the chart below.
1.2 Trigonometric Functions and Fundamentals
To define the six trigonometric functions, we start with an angle θ in the standard position and choose any point
P having coordinates (x, y) on the terminal side of angle θ. (Point P must not be the vertex of the angle.) A
perpendicular from P to the x-axis at point Q determines a right triangle having vertices at O, P, and Q. The
distance r from P(x, y) to the origin, (0, 0), can be found from the distance formula.

The six trigonometric functions of an angle θ are sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant.
In the following definitions, we use the customary abbreviations for the names of these functions. Figure 7.
Trigonometric Functions:

We can also determine the trigonometric functions for any right triangle. Figure 8.
Example:
The terminal side of an angle θ in standard position passes through (-3, -4). Find the values of the six
trigonometric functions of angle θ. Figure 9.

2 2
(− 3) + (− 4) = 25 = 5
Remember that 𝑟 > 0. The following function values are a result of the above definitions of the trigonometric
functions. 𝑥 = − 3, 𝑦 = − 4, 𝑟 = 5

4 3 4
𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ =− 5
𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ =− 5
𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ = 3

5 5 3
𝑐𝑠𝑐 θ =− 4
𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ =− 3
𝑐𝑜𝑡 θ = 4

Find the six trigonometric function values of the angle u in standard position if the terminal side of u has the
equation 𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 ≥ 0. Figure 10.
Let us choose 𝑥 = 2. 2 + 2𝑦 = 0, 𝑦 =− 1.
𝑥= 2
𝑦 =− 1
2 2 2
𝑟 =2 +1
2
𝑟 =5
𝑟 = 5 (choose the positive value because r cannot be negative.
𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 =− 1, 𝑟 = 5

1 5 2 2 5 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ =− =− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ =− 2
5 5 5 5

𝑐𝑠𝑐 θ =− 5 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ =
5 𝑐𝑜𝑡 θ =− 2
2

If the terminal side of an angle in standard position lies along the y-axis, any point on this terminal side has
x-coordinate 0. Similarly, an angle with terminal side on the x-axis has y-coordinate 0 for any point on the
terminal side. Recall that angles with their terminal side on an axis are quadrantal angles. Since the values of x
and y appear in the denominators of some trigonometric functions, some trigonometric function values of
quadrantal angles are undefined.

Example:
Find the values of the six trigonometric functions for each angle, if possible.
(a) An angle of 90°
(b) An angle θ in standard position with terminal side through (− 3, 0)
2 2
90: 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 1, 𝑟 = 0 +1 = 1

𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ = 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ = 0 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ = 0

𝑐𝑠𝑐 θ = 1 1 𝑐𝑜𝑡 θ = 0
𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ = 0

tan θ and sec θ are undefined.

2 2
(− 3, 0): 𝑥 = − 3, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑟 = (− 3) + 0 = 3

𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ = 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ =− 1 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ = 0

3 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ =− 1 −3
𝑐𝑠𝑐 θ = 0
𝑐𝑜𝑡 θ = 0

cot θ and csc θ are undefined.

Here is a summarization for undefined function values and for certain values of angle θ. Figure 11. Figure 12.

The definitions of the trigonometric functions were written to illustrate that certain function pairs are reciprocals
of each other. Figure 13.
In the definitions of the trigonometric functions, r is the distance from the origin to the point (x, y), so r 7 0. If we
choose a point (x, y) in quadrant I, then both x and y will be positive, so the values of all six functions will be
positive in quadrant I. A point (x, y) in quadrant II has x < 0 and y > 0. This makes the values of sine and
cosecant positive for quadrant II angles, while the other four functions take on negative values. Similar results
can be obtained for the other quadrants, as summarized here. Figure 14.

Example:
Identify the quadrant (or possible quadrants) of an angle θ that satisfies the given conditions.
(a) sin θ > 0, tan θ < 0 (b) cos θ < 0, sec θ < 0
For (a), sin θ will only be positive if y is positive, so Quadrant I and II. tan θ will only be negative if only one of x
or y is negative, so Quadrant II and IV.
For (b), cos θ will only be negative if x is negative, so Quadrant II and III. sec θ will only be negative if x is
negative, so Quadrant II and III.

The trigonometric functions have certain ranges that are further illustrated in the image below. Figure 15.

Example:
Decide whether each statement is possible for some angle θ, or impossible.
(a) sin θ = 3 (b) tan θ = 110.47 (c) sec θ = 0.6

sin θ only has range between -1 and 1, 3 > 1, so this value is impossible.
tan θ has range from -∞ to ∞ , so this value is possible
sec θ has a range that does not include between -1 and 1, so this value is impossible.

Here are the Pythagorean Identities. Figure 16.

2 2
Note that you can get equivalent forms. For example, for the first identity 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ = 1, and we subtract
2 2 2
both sides by 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ to get the equivalent identity 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ.

Here are the Quotient Identities. Figure 17.

Example:
4
Find cos θ and sin θ if tan θ = 3
and θ is in quadrant III.
This problem can be solved in two ways.
2 2
We can use the pythagorean identity 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ
4 2 2
1 + ( 3 ) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ
16 2
1 + 9
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ
25 2
9
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ
5
− 3
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ here we have to choose negative sign because of the Quadrant which is III.
3
− 5
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ

2 2
We can use the equivalent pythagorean identity 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
2 3 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ = 1 − (− 5
)
2 9
𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ = 1 − 25
2 16
𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ = 25
4
𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ =− 5
choose the negative square root.

There is also an alternative (and in my opinion, easier) way to solve for this
𝑦
We know that tan θ = 𝑥
So the values of x and y is -3 and -4 respectively. Note that we have to choose negative because of the
quadrant. We can then derive r using the pythagorean theorem, 5. So we know these are the following values
𝑥 =− 3, 𝑦 =− 4, and 𝑟 = 5.
We can then easily get the values of sin θ and cos θ this way.

Exercises
Find the trigonometric functions of the images below.
1.

2.

3. How do the trigonometric functions differ from 1 and 2?

Find the values of the six trigonometric functions for each angle. Rationalize denominators when
applicable.
4. (5, 12)
5. ( 2, 2,)
6. (− 2 3, − 2)
7. (0, -4)
An equation of the terminal side of an angle θ in standard position is given with a restriction on x. Find
the trigonometric functions.
8. 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 ≥ 0
9.− 6𝑥 − 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 ≤ 0
10. − 3𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 ≤ 0
Find the values of the trigonometric function stated for each angle. State if it is undefined.
11. cos 90°
12. cot 90°
13. tan π
3π
14. sin 2
Use the appropriate reciprocal identity to find each function value. Rationalize denominators when
applicable.
2
11. sec θ, given cos θ = 3
5
12. cos θ, given sec θ = − 2
13. tan θ, given cot θ = − 2. 5
14. sin θ, given csc θ = 2
Decide whether each statement is possible for some angle θ.
15. sin θ = 2
16. csc θ = - 1
17. tan θ = 0
18. cot θ = 12
19. sec θ = 0
Find all trigonometric function values for each angle θ.
15
20. tan θ = − 8
given θ in quadrant II
5
21. sin θ = 7
given θ in quadrant I
22. csc θ = 2, given θ in quadrant II
23. sec θ = -3, given cos θ > 0

1.3 Right Triangles and Evaluating Trigonometric Functions

Earlier, we have stated that we can approach the trigonometric functions as ratios of right triangles. Here we
will have a little bit of a more in-depth discussion regarding that.

Example:

Find the values of sin A, cos A and tan A in the right triangle.

The length of side opposite angle A is 7, the length of the side adjacent to angle A is 24, and the
length of the hypotenuse is 25.

7 24 7
sin A = 25
, cos A = 25
, tan A = 25

There are certain special angles 30°, 45°, and 60° which we can understand the trigonometric function values
easily due to the structure of special triangles. Figure 18 and 19.
As you can see here, the values of x, y, and r are apparent. This also applies to similar triangles of different
sizes.

So for these triangles, we always have the trigonometric function values as in the table below. Figure 20.

Associated with every non-quadrantal angle is a corresponding positive acute angle called the reference
angle. A reference angle for an angle θ, written θ′, is the positive acute angle made by the terminal side of
angle θ and the x-axis. Figure 21.

Example
Find the reference angle for each angle.
5π
(a) 218° (b) 1387° (c) 6
(a) 218 - 180 = 38°
(b) 1387 - 1080 = 307° Find coterminal angle
360 - 307 = 53°
5π π
(c) π− 6
= 6

We can combine the two topics learned above to find the values of more trigonometric expressions.
(a) cos(-240°) (b) tan 675°
(a) Find angle coterminal with -240°
-240 + 360° = 120° Quadrant II
Find reference angle
180 - 120° = 60°
Use 30°-60° special triangle
x = 1, y = 3, r = 2
1
cos(-240°) = cos(60°) = − 2
negative because cos(-240°) is in Quadrant II
(a) Find angle coterminal with tan 675°
675 - 360 = 315 Quadrant IV
360 - 315 = 45°
Use 45°-45° special triangle
x = 1, y = 1, r = 2
tan 675° = tan 45° = − 1 negative because tan 675° is in Quadrant IV

In general here is a guideline on how to find trigonometric function values for non quadrantal angles. Figure 22.

Exercises
1. Fill out the table below.
Give the reference angle.
2. 98°
7π
3. − 6
4. -138°
4π
5.− 3

Find exact values of the six trigonometric functions for each angle by hand.
6. 300°
11π
7. 6
4π
8.− 3
19π
9.− 6
10. 405°
11. 420°
Find all values of θ if θ is in the interval [0, π) and has the given function value.
1
12. sin θ = 2

13. sec θ = − 2
3
14. cot θ = − 3
2
15. cos θ = 2

1.4 Circular Functions

We defined the six trigonometric functions so that the domain of each function was a set of angles in standard
position. These angles can be measured in degrees or in radians. In calculus, it is necessary to modify the
trigonometric functions so that their domains consist of real numbers rather than angles. We do this by using
the relationship between an angle θ and an arc of length s on a circle. Figure 23.
The trigonometric functions of angle θ in radians found by choosing a point (x, y) on the unit circle can be
rewritten as functions of the arc length s, a real number. Interpreted this way, they are called circular
functions.

Example:
5π
Evaluate the six circular functions at s = 6
.
Find reference angle.
5π π
π− 6
= 6
Special triangle 30°-60°
x = − 3, y = 1, r = 2 take note of the quadrant

1 3 3
𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ =− 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ =−
2 3

𝑐𝑠𝑐 θ = 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ =−
2 3
𝑐𝑜𝑡 θ =− 3
3

As you can see in the image below, we can summarize the information about trigonometric functions on the
unit circle. Figure 24.
Exercises
Find the exact value for each expression.
7π
1. sin 6
13π
2. csc 3
4π
3. cos − ( 3
)
23π
4. sec 6
Find the exact value for each of the six circular functions by hand.
π
5. 2
6. π
π
7. 3
2π
8. − 3
7π
9. − 4

1.5 Graphs of Sine and Cosine

Let us now discuss the concept of a periodic function. These are functions that repeat their values within a
regular pattern. Periodic functions have the general properties as described below. Figure 25.

The circumference of the unit circle is 2π, so the least value of p for which the sine and cosine functions repeat
is 2π. So sine and cosine are periodic function with period 2π.
Here are the values of sin s and cos s with intervals based on whether they increase or decrease. Figure 26.

These are the values of the sine function when plotted on a graph. Note the repeating pattern across the
period. Figure 27.

● This graph is continuous over its entire domain.

● Its x-intercepts have x-values of the form nπ, where n is an integer.
● It has a period of 2π
● The graph is symmetric with respect to the origin and is an odd function. Where sin (-x) = -sin x.
These are the values of the cosine function when plotted on a graph. Note the repeating pattern across the
π
period. Also note how it is shifted 2
from the sine function Figure 28.

● This graph is continuous over its entire domain.

π
● Its x-intercepts have x-values of the form (2n + 1) 2
where n is an integer
● It has a period of 2π
● The graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. It is an even function. For all x in the domain, cos(-x)
= cos x.
Example:
Graph y = 2 sin x, and compare with the graph of ƒ(x) = sin x.
It is easy to see that the values of y = 2 sin x is twice as large compared to y = sin x. The only change to the
graph would be the range (instead of [-1, 1] it is not [-2, 2]). We can think of it as vertical stretching when a >
1 and vertical shrinking when 0 < a < 1.

The amplitude of a sinusoidal function is half the difference between the maximum and minimum values. It
describes the height of the graph both above and below a horizontal line passing through the “middle” of the
graph. Thus, for the sine and cosine functions, the amplitude is 1. Figure 29.

The value of the amplitude does not affect the period of the function.

Let us now consider y = sin 2x, we can complete a table of values for this function for the interval [0, 2π].
Figure 30.

Note that one complete cycle occurs in π units instead of 2π. So the period of y = sin x is π.

In general, the graph of a function of the form y = sin bx or y = cos bx, for b > 0, will have a period different
2π
from 2π when b ≠ 1. The formula for the period can be found through 𝑏
.
We can also divide the period into 4 equal parts to obtain the maximums, minimums, and x intercepts of sin bx
and cos bx.

Example:
Graph y = sin 2x, and compare with the graph of ƒ(x) = sin x.
For this function, the coefficient of x is 2, which means by using the period formula, we can evaluate the period
to be π. The graph will complete one full period over the interval [0, π]. The endpoints are 0 and π, and the
three points between these endpoints will be:

So the graph of y = sin 2x will be:

We can think of the graph of y = sin bx as a horizontal stretching of the graph of y = sin x when 0 < b < 1 and a
horizontal shrinking when b > 1.

In general the period of sine and cosine graphs can be summarized as such:. Figure 31.

We can also generalize the guidelines for sketching graphs of the sine and cosine graphs. Figure 32.
Example:
Graph y = -2 sin 3x over one period using the preceding guidelines.
2π 2π
For this function b = 3. So the period will be 3
. We can graph this function over the interval [0, 3
].
π π π 2π
We can divide the interval into equal parts to get the x-values 0, 6
, 3
, 2 , and 3
We can now make a table of values from this information.

In general, the graph of a function of the form y = ƒ(x − d ) is translated horizontally compared with the graph of
y = ƒ(x). The translation is |d| units to the right if d > 0 and d units to the left if d < 0. With circular functions, a
horizontal translation is called a phase shift. In the function y = ƒ(x - d), the expression x − d is called the
argument. Figure 33.

Example:
π
Graph y = sin (𝑥 − 3
) over one period.
π
We can easily shift this graph 3
units to the right, but we can also solve this algebraically.
π
For the argument𝑥 − 3
to result in all possible values throughout one period, it must take on all values
between 0 and 2π, inclusive. Therefore, to find an interval of one period, we solve this three-part inequality.

π 7π
We now have the interval [ 3 , 3
] which we can divide into four equal parts to get the x-values
π 5π 4π 11π 7π
3
, 6
, 3
, 6
, and 3
. With this we can have a table of values, and a graph.

In general, the graph of a function of the form y = c + ƒ(x) is translated vertically compared with the graph of y
= ƒ(x). The translation is c units up if c > 0 and |c| units down if c < 0. Figure 34.

Example:
Graph y = 3 - 2 cos 3x.
The values of y will be 3 greater than the corresponding values of y in y = -2 cos 3x. This means that the graph
of y = 3 - 2 cos 3x is the same as the graph of y = -2 cos 3x, vertically translated 3 units up. Since the period of
2π π π π 2π
y = -2 cos 3x is 3
, the key points have x-values 0, 6
, 3
, 2
, and 3
. We can use these x-values to make a
table of values.
We can then combine all of these graphing techniques into an even more generalized guideline. Figure 35.

Example:
Graph 𝑦 = − 1 + 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (4𝑥 + π) over two periods.
First write the expression on the right side in the form c + a sin[b (x - d)] by factoring out 4 in the argument.

We can then find the interval whose length is one period.

π π π π π π
We can then get to the interval [ 4
, 4
] with the key points having x-values − 4
, − 8
, 0, 8
, and 4
. We
can use these x-values to make a table of values.

Exercises
Match each function.
1.

Find the (a) amplitude, (b) period, (c) phase shift (if any), (d) vertical translation (if any), and (e) range of
each function. Then graph the function over at least one period.
2. 𝑦 = − 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2𝑥 − π)
1 π
3. 𝑦 = 2
+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [2(𝑥 + 4
)]
4. 𝑦 = 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (4𝑥 + π)
1
5. 𝑦 = −1+ 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥 − 3π)
Each function graphed is of the form y = a sin bx or y = a cos bx, where b > 0. Determine the equation
of the graph.
6. 7. 8. 9.

Each function graphed is of the form y = c + cos x, y = c + sin x, y = cos (x - d), or y = sin (x - d), where
d is the least possible positive value. Determine the equation of the graph.

10. 11. 12. 13.

1.6 Graphs of Tangent, Cosecant, Secant, and Cotangent

Consider the table of selected points accompanying the graph of the secant function below. These points
include special values between -p and p. The secant function is undefined for odd multiples of p 2 and has
vertical asymptotes for such values. A vertical asymptote is a vertical line that the graph approaches but does
not intersect, while function values increase or decrease without bound as x-values get closer and closer to the
line. Furthermore, since sec (-x) = sec x), the secant function is even and its graph is symmetric with respect to
the y-axis. Figure 36. Figure 37.
Because secant values are reciprocals of corresponding cosine values, the period of the secant function is 2π,
the same as for y = cos x. When cos x = 1, the value of sec x is also 1. Likewise, when cos x = -1, sec x = -1
as well. For all x, -1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1, and thus,|sec x| ≥ 1 for all x in its domain. Figure 38. Figure 39

A similar analysis for selected points between -π and π for the graph of the cosecant function below. The
vertical asymptotes are at x-values that are integer multiples of p. Because csc (-x) = -csc x, the cosecant
function is odd and its graph is symmetric with respect to the origin. Figure 40. Figure 41
π
● The graph is discontinuous at x = (2n + 1) 2 and has vertical asymptotes at these values.
● There are no x-intercepts.
● Its period is 2π. Its graph has no amplitude, since there are no maximum or minimum values.
● The graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
● It is an even function. For all x in the domain, sec (-x) = sec x.

● The graph is discontinuous at x = 𝑛π and has vertical asymptotes at these values.

● There are no x-intercepts.
● Its period is 2π. Its graph has no amplitude, since there are no maximum or minimum values.
● The graph is symmetric with respect to the origin.
● It is an odd function. For all x in the domain, csc (-x) = -csc x.
We can summarize this information into a generalized guideline for sketching secant and cosecant graphs.
Figure 46.

Example:
3 π
Graph 𝑦 = 2
𝑐𝑠𝑐(𝑥 − 2
).
We can find a corresponding guide for this function through the reciprocal.
3 π
𝑦= 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 − 2
).
3 π 3 π
Compared with the graph of y = sin x, the graph of 𝑦 = 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 − 2
) has amplitude 2
and phase shift 2
units
3 π
to the right. The x-coordinates of the x-intercepts of the sinusoidal graph of 𝑦 = 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 − 2
) correspond to
3 π
the vertical asymptotes found in the graph of 𝑦 = 2
𝑐𝑠𝑐(𝑥 − 2
).. These asymptotes are shown as vertical
3 π
dashed lines. Using this guide function, we can easily graph 𝑦 = 2
𝑐𝑠𝑐(𝑥 − 2
). Figure 47

Consider the table of selected points accompanying the graph of the tangent function below. These points
π π π
include special values between − 2
and 2
. The tangent function is undefined for odd multiples of 2
and,
thus, like the secant function, has vertical asymptotes for such values. Furthermore, since tan (-x) = -tan x, the
tangent function is odd and its graph is symmetric with respect to the origin. Figure 48

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
The tangent function has period π. Because tan x = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
, tangent values are 0 when sine values are 0, and
π π
undefined when cosine values are 0. As x-values go from − 2
to 2
, tangent values go from − ∞ to ∞ and
π 3π 3π 5π
increase throughout the interval. Those same values are repeated as x goes from 2
to 2
, 2
to 2
, and so
on. Figure 49.
A similar analysis for selected points between 0 and π for the graph of the cotangent function yields the graph
below. Here the vertical asymptotes are at x-values that are integer multiples of p. Because cot (-x) = -cot x,
the cotangent function is odd and its graph is symmetric with respect to the origin. Figure 50

The cotangent function also has period π. Cotangent values are 0 when cosine values are 0, and undefined
when sine values are 0. As x-values go from 0 to π, cotangent values go from ∞ to − ∞ and decrease
throughout the interval. Those same values are repeated as x goes from π to 2π, 2π to 3π, and so on. The
graph of y = cot x from -π to π is shown below. The graph continues in this pattern. Figure 51

π
● The graph is discontinuous at x = (2n + 1) 2 and has vertical asymptotes at these values.
● There x-intercepts have x-values of the form 𝑛π.
● Its period is π. Its graph has no amplitude, since there are no maximum or minimum values.
● The graph is symmetric with respect to the origin. It is an odd function. For all x in the domain, tan (-x) =
-tan x.
● The graph is discontinuous at x =𝑛π and has vertical asymptotes at these values.
π
● There x-intercepts have x-values of the form x = (2n + 1) 2 .
● Its period is π. Its graph has no amplitude, since there are no maximum or minimum values.
● The graph is symmetric with respect to the origin. It is an odd function. For all x in the domain, tan (-x) =
-tan x.
We can generalize the information into a guideline when graphing the tangent and cotangent functions. Figure
57.

Example:
π
Graph y =− 2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡(𝑥 − 4
)
Here, b = 1, so the period is π. The graph will be translated downward 2 units (because c = -2), will be
reflected across the x-axis (because of the negative sign in front of the cotangent), and will have a phase shift,
π π
or horizontal translation, 4
unit to the right (because of the argument (x - 4
)). To locate adjacent asymptotes,
since this function involves the cotangent, we solve the following equations.
π 5π
Dividing the interval ( 4 , 4
)into four equal parts and evaluating the function at the three key x-values within
π 3π
the interval gives the key points ( 3 , − 3), ( 4
, − 2), and (π, − 1). We can join these points with a smooth
curve.

Exercises
Match each graph with the corresponding function.

Graph each function over a one-period interval.

π
2. 𝑦 = − 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑥 + 2
)
3
3. 𝑦 = − 2
𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑥 − π)
1 π
4. 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 ( 2 𝑥 − 4
)
1 3π
5. 𝑦 = 1 − 2
𝑐𝑠𝑐 (𝑥 − 4
)
1
6. 𝑦 = 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 4 𝑥)
7. 𝑦 =− 2 + 3 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (4𝑥 + π)
8. 𝑦 =− 2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥
1
9. 𝑦 =− 1 + 2
𝑐𝑜𝑡 (2𝑥 − 3π)

Each function is of the form y = a tan bx or y = a cot bx, where b > 0. Determine an equation for the
graph.
10. 11. 12.

Each function is a transformation of the graph of the secant or cosecant function. Determine an
equation for the graph.
13. 14. 15.
2. TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES AND APPLICATIONS

2.1 Trigonometric Identities

The negative-number or negative-angle identities can be derived as such. Similar reasoning applies for the
other identities. Together with the reciprocal, quotient, and Pythagorean identities earlier, these are all called
the fundamental identities. Figure 58, Figure 59, and Figure 60.

Remember that you can derive equivalent identities from the above equations.
Example:
Express cos x in terms of tan x.
2 2
We can check that 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ is related to both and sec by identities so we can start there.
1 1
2 = 2 take reciprocals
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ
1 2
2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ reciprocal identity
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ
1
± 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ take square roots
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ
1
𝑐𝑜𝑠θ =± 2
rewrite
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ
2
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ
𝑐𝑜𝑠θ =± 2 rationalize
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ
Solved
Note that we can choose + or - depending on the quadrant of θ.

Example:
Write tanθ + cotθ in terms of sinθ and cosθ
𝑡𝑎𝑛θ + 𝑐𝑜𝑡θ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛θ + 𝑐𝑜𝑡θ
𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
𝑡𝑎𝑛θ + 𝑐𝑜𝑡θ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
quotient identity, we’re pretty much done, but we just need to simplify.
𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
𝑡𝑎𝑛θ + 𝑐𝑜𝑡θ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
× 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ × 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ lcd
2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
𝑡𝑎𝑛θ + 𝑐𝑜𝑡θ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
𝑡𝑎𝑛θ + 𝑐𝑜𝑡θ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
1
𝑡𝑎𝑛θ + 𝑐𝑜𝑡θ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
pythagorean identity
Solved

NOTA BENE: This reviewer uses the term “verifying identities”, but in MTH101a they use the term
“proving identities”. This distinction is purely semantic, and in this case, synonymous.

Here is a general guideline on how to solve for identities. Figure 61.

Example:
Verify 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) is an identity (RHS)
1
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) reciprocal identity
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 split
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 + 1 quotient identity
Solved

Example:
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑡 2 2
Verify 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑡 − 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑡 is an identity (LHS)
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑡
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡
− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 = expand
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡
− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡
= quotient identity
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡
2 − 2 = simplify
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡
1 1
2 − 2 = simplify
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡
2 2
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑡 − 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑡 = reciprocal identity

In the following example, we will be showcasing the use of the conjugate.

Example:
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 1+𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
Verify 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 is an identity (RHS)
1+𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
1+𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
× 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 multiply by conjugate of the numerator.
1+𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥(1−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥(1−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)
2
1−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥(1−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)
2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥(1−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)
pythagorean identity
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
= 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
simplify
Solved

Example:
2
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 1 + 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
Verify that 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
= 2 is an identity (RHS)
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥+ 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 1
= 2 rearrange
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 1)(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 1)
= 2 factor numerator
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 1)(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 1)
= 2 pythagorean identity
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 1)(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 1)
= (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 1)
DOTS
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 1
= 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
Simplify
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
× 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 Equivalent Form
1− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
× 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
= 1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
Quotient Identity
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
Equivalent Form
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 (𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥)
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 (𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥)
Factor
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
Simplify
Solved

Exercises
Match each expression in Column I with a corresponding expression in Column II
1.

2.

Verify that the given equation is an identity

𝑐𝑜𝑡 θ
3. 𝑐𝑠𝑐 θ
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
2 2
4. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ(𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ + 1) = 1
2
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
5. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
6. 𝑐𝑜𝑡 θ + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 θ
4 4
𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
7. 2 2 =1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
𝑐𝑠𝑐 θ − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 θ
8. 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 θ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 θ
2 2 2 2 2
9. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 θ = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ
𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
10. 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
+ 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 θ + 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 θ
1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
11. 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
− 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
= 4 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ
2 2
12. (2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) + (2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) = 5
3 3
13. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ = (𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ)(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ)

2.2 Sum and Difference Identities

We can derive further identities that are useful in determining arguments which represent real numbers or
degrees.

We start by locating angles A and B in standard position on a unit circle, with B < A. Let S and Q be the points
where the terminal sides of angles A and B, respectively, intersect the circle. Locate point R on the unit circle
so that angle POR equals the difference A - B. Figure 62.

Point Q is on the unit circle, so the x-coordinate of Q is given by the cosine of angle B, while the y-coordinate
of Q is given by the sine of angle B.
In the same way, S has coordinates (cos A, sin A) and R has coordinates (cos(A - B), sin (A - B)).
Angle SOQ also equals A - B. Since the central angles SOQ and POR are equal, chords PR and SQ are equal.
By the distance formula, since PR = SQ: Figure 63.

We can derive similarly for sum identities.

The sum and difference identities for cosine are listed below. Figure 64.
Example:
5π
Find 𝑐𝑜𝑠 12
and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 87°𝑐𝑜𝑠 93° − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 87°𝑐𝑜𝑠 93°
5π π π
We can rewrite 𝑐𝑜𝑠 12
into 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 6 + 4
)
π π π π π π
𝑐𝑜𝑠( 6 + 4
) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6
𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 6
𝑠𝑖𝑛 4
cosine sum identity
π π π π 3 2 1 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 6
𝑐𝑜𝑠 4
− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 6
𝑠𝑖𝑛 4
= 2
× 2
−2 × 2
3 2 1 2
= 2
× 2
− 2
× 2
6− 2
= 4
𝑐𝑜𝑠 87°𝑐𝑜𝑠 93° − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 87°𝑐𝑜𝑠 93° = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(87° + 93°) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(180°) = − 1
We can derive similar identities for sine and tangent. Figure 65, Figure 66.

NOTA BENE: Because we were not taught the concept of a cofunction identity, we will skip over the
proof, however if you’d like to know how it works please leave a comment indicating so!

Example:
Find the exact value of the following:
7π
(a) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 75° (b) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 12
(c) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 40°𝑐𝑜𝑠 160° − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 40°𝑐𝑜𝑠 160°
2 3 2 1
(a) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 75° = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (45° + 30°) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 45° 𝑐𝑜𝑠 30° + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 45° 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30° = ( 2
× 2
+ 2
× 2
)
2 3 2 1 6+ 2
( 2
× 2
+ 2
× 2
) = 4
(b)
π π
7π π π 𝑡𝑎𝑛 3 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 4 3+1 3+1 3+1 1+ 3 3+3+ 1+ 3
𝑡𝑎𝑛 12
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛( 3 + 4
) = π π = = = × = 1−3
=− 2 − 3
1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 3
𝑡𝑎𝑛 4 1 − 3×1 1− 3 1− 3 1+ 3

(c)
3
𝑠𝑖𝑛40°𝑐𝑜𝑠160° − 𝑐𝑜𝑠40°𝑠𝑖𝑛160° = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(40° − 160°) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(− 120°) = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(120°) =− 2
Example:
4 π 5
Suppose that A and B are angles in standard position, with sin A = 5
, 2
< 𝐴 < π, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 = − 13
,
3π
π<𝐵< 2
. Find the following. (a) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴 + 𝐵) (b) 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝐴 + 𝐵) (c) 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 + 𝐵
We can solve this in two ways. We can solve this algebraically or find corresponding values of x, y, and r. We
will be using a mix of ways to solve these problems.
A:
𝑥 = − 3, 𝑦 = 4, 𝑟 = 5 Pythagorean Theorem + Quadrant
B:
𝑥 = − 5, 𝑦 = − 12, 𝑟 = 13 Pythagorean Theorem + Quadrant
(a)
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵
4 5 3 12
= ( 5 )(− 13
) + (− 5
)(− 13
)
20 36
= (− 65
) + ( 65 )
16
= 65
(b)
4
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 5 4
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴
= 3 =− 3
−5
12
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵 − 13 12
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵
= 5 = 5
− 13
4 12
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵 −3 + 5 16
𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝐴 + 𝐵) = 1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵
= 4 12 = 63
1 − (− 3 )( 5
)

(c)
We know 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴 + 𝐵) is positive and so is 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝐴 + 𝐵), so we know 𝐴 + 𝐵 is in Quadrant I.

Exercises
1. Match each expression in Column I with the correct expression in Column II to form an identity.

Use identities to find the exact value of each expression.

π
2. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 12
π
3. 𝑡𝑎𝑛 12
5π
4. 𝑠𝑖𝑛(− 12
)
7π π 7π π
5. 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 8
)𝑐𝑜𝑠( 8 ) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 8
)𝑠𝑖𝑛( 8 )
6. 𝑡𝑎𝑛 105°
7. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 105°
𝑡𝑎𝑛 80° − 𝑡𝑎𝑛(−55°)
8. 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 80° 𝑡𝑎𝑛(−55°)
9. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 40° 𝑐𝑜𝑠 50° + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 40° 𝑠𝑖𝑛 50°
Suppose that A and B are angles in standard position. Use the given information to find (a) sin (A + B),
(b) sin (A - B), (c) tan (A + B), (d) tan (A - B), (e) the quadrant of A + B, and (f) the quadrant of A - B.
3 5 π π
10. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 = 5
, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵 13
, 0 <𝐴 < 2
, 0 <𝐵 < 2
15 4 π π
11. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 =− 17
, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵 5 , 2
< 𝐴 < π, 0 < 𝐵 < 2
Verify each equation is an identity
12. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
13. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 + 𝑦) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑦) = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴−𝐵)
14. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝐵
𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝐴+𝐵) − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵
15. 1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝐴+𝐵) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥−𝑦) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑦
16. 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥+𝑦)
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑦

2.3 More Identities

The double-number identities, or double-angle identities, result from the sum identities when A = B so that
A + B = A + A = 2A. Figure 67.

Example:
3
Given 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ = 5
and 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ < 0, find 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2θ, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2θ, and 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2θ.
The values of x, y, and r is 𝑥 = 3, 𝑦 =− 4, 𝑟 = 5
3 4 4
𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ = 5
, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ =− 5
, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ =− 3
4 3 24
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2θ = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ = 2 (− 5
)( 5 ) =− 25
2 16 7
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2θ = 1 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ = 1 − 2( 25 ) =− 25
24
𝑠𝑖𝑛2θ − 25 24
𝑡𝑎𝑛 2θ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2θ
= 7 = 7
− 25

Example:
Verify that the given equation is an identity.
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 = 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 (RHS)
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
( 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 )2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 quotient identity
2
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 multiply
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 + 1 double number identity
Done
Example:
Simplify each expression
2 2
(a) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 7𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 7𝑥 (b) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 15° 𝑐𝑜𝑠 15°
2 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 7𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 7𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 14𝑥 double angle identity

For part B, we can try to transform the equation into one of the identities, this looks closest to the double angle
identity for sine. We can thus write the equation that way.
1 1
2
(2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 15° 𝑐𝑜𝑠 15°) = 2
(𝑠𝑖𝑛 30) double angle identity
1
= 4

Example:
4
Find the value of 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ given that 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2θ = 5
and 90° < θ < 180°
4 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2θ = 5
= 1 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
1 2
− 5
= − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
1 2
10
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
1
10
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ choose quadrant III because of angle condition
10
− 10
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
Example
Write 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 in terms of 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥 + 𝑥)
𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥 + 𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
2
(2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + (1 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
2 3
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 (2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 1 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)
2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 (2 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) + 1 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)
2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 (2 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 1 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 (3 − 4𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)
3
3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
We also have the half-number identities which are summarized as follows: Figure 68.
Example:
π
Find the exact value of 𝑐𝑜𝑠 12
.
π
π 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠 6
𝑐𝑜𝑠 12
= 2

3
π 1+ 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 12
= 2

π 2+ 3
𝑐𝑜𝑠 12
= 4

π 2+ 3
𝑐𝑜𝑠 12
= 2

Exercises
Use identities to find sin2x and cos2x.
2
1. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 5
and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 < 0
2. 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 > 0
12
3. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = − 13
and 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 > 0
5
4. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = − 7
and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 > 0
Use a half-number identity to find an expression for the exact value for each trigonometric function.
π
5. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 12
π
6. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 8
π
7. 𝑡𝑎𝑛(− 8
)
Use a half-number identity to find an expression for the exact value for each function, given the
information about x.
𝑥 1 π
8. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
given 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = 4
and 0 < 𝑥 < 2
𝑥 3 π
9. 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 given 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 5
and 2
<𝑥< π
𝑥 π
10. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 given 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = 2 and 0 < 𝑥 < 2
5 π
11. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 given 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 = − 12
and 2
<𝑥< π
Use an identity to write each expression as a single trigonometric function value.
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 40°
12. 2
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠 165°
13. 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 165°
1− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 59.74°
14. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 59.74°
Verify that each equation is an identity.
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2α
15. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2α
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 α − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 α
2
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
16. 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝑥 = 2
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
2
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
17. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 = 2
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
2.4 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The inverse trigonometric functions are how we can get values for unknown angles. Recall that for there to
be an inverse, the function must be one-to-one. This is not the case for the trigonometric functions, which are
functions, but not one-to-one as they fail the horizontal line test. Therefore, we must restrict the domain for the
trigonometric functions for it to have an inverse.

π π
For the sine function, we restrict the domain to [− 2
, 2
] this will give it a corresponding range of [-1,1].
Getting the inverse of this function by either reflecting over y = x or by swapping the domain and the range we
−1
get 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 which is read as the inverse sine of x. The domain of this function is [-1,1] and the domain is
π π
[− 2
, 2
]. An alternative notation is 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥. Note that there is no difference between these two notations.
Figure 69.

We can generalize the inverse sine function like below. Figure 70.
Example:
Find y in each equation
1 −1 −1
(a) 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
(b) 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (− 1) (c) 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (− 2)
(a) We can think of inverse trigonometric functions as “What angle values will give this value?” In the case for
1 1 π π
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
we can rewrite it as 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 2
. Restricting over the domain [− 2
, 2
]. We can see that the
π 1 π 1
value 𝑠𝑖𝑛 6
= 2
thus 6
= 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
.
π π
(b) Same with finding (a) we can determine angles which evaluate to -1. From the domain [− 2
, 2
], We can
π
see that − 2
gives a corresponding value of -1.
(c) Rewriting the equation into 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 =− 2 we can see that there is no solution as it falls outside of the range.

Moving on to the other inverse trigonometric functions, we can derive the inverse trigonometric function for
cosine the same way.

−1
The function 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 or 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 is defined by restricting the domain to [0, π]. Figure 71.

Same with the tangent function, we can find the inverse through restricting the domain to the open interval
π π π π
(− 2
, 2
) note that − 2
& 2
are not part of the domain as they are undefined values for tan. Figure 72.
The remaining three trigonometric functions are defined similarly. Figure 73.

We can also list and generalize some information about the six inverse trigonometric functions. Figure 74.

Example:
Find the degree measure of θ in the following.
−1
(a) θ = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 1 (b) θ = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
(a)
𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ = 1
π π π
What values of for 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ in the domain (− 2
, 2
) will give the value of 1? 4
(b)
𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ = 2
π
What values for 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ in the domain [0, π] will give the corresponding value of 2? 3
Example:
Evaluate the following:
−1 3
(a) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡𝑎𝑛 2
)
−1 5
(b) 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑐𝑜𝑠 (− 13
))
−1 3 3
We can represent it to be θ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2
which in turn can be rewritten as 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ = 2
. We can then garner that
2 2 2
the values of y = 3, x = 2, and by pythagorean theorem 𝑟 = 3 +2 we can derive the value of r to be 13.
3 3 13
Using these values, we know 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ to be . Rationalizing this we have the value of 13
.
13

For (b)
−1 5 5
θ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (− 13
) → 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ = − 13
. x = - 5, y = 12, r = 13
12
𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ = − 5

Exercises
Find the exact values of each number.
−1
1. 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 1
−1
2. 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1
3. 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 0
4. 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑐 2
2 3
5. 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑐 3
1
6. 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
)
−1 12
7. 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 5
)
−1 1
8. 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4 )
−1
9. 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (− 2))

2.5 Trigonometric Equations

Earlier, we studied trigonometric equations that were identities. We now consider trigonometric equations that
are conditional—that is, equations that are satisfied by some values but not others. Conditional equations with
trigonometric (or circular) functions can often be solved by using analytic methods and trigonometric identities.

Example:
Solve 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 1 = 0 over the interval [0, 2π) (principal solution) and for all solutions (general solution
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 1
1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 2
π 5π 1
From this we know that from the interval [0, 2π), the values 6
𝑎𝑛𝑑 6
will yield 2
.To find the general solution,
we can just add integer multiples of 2π so we get the general equations
π 5π
{ 6 + 2π𝑥, 6
+ 2π𝑥, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟.}
Example:
Solve 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 1 > 0 over the interval [0, 2π)
1
We can rewrite the equation to 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 > 2
where the graph is above the x-axis, and this lies in between the
two x intercepts (note the concept of critical values).

π 5π
So ( 6 , 6
).
Example:
Here we will illustrate the zero property in solving trigonometric equations..
𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ = 0
𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ (𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ − 1) = 0
𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ (𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ − 1) = 0
Here 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ must be 0 or 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ must be 1.
𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ = 0 for θ values of { 0, π }
π 5π
𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ = 1 for θ values of { 4
, 4 }
π 5π
So the solution is {0, 4
, π, 4
}
Example:
Solve over the interval [0, 2π)
2
(a) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 2 = 0
We can solve this through factoring as this equation is quadratic through the term 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥.
(𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 2) (𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 1) = 0
To find the roots, we must find 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = − 2 and 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = 1 over the interval [0°, 360°).
π 5π
We can see that the values are 4
𝑎𝑛𝑑 4

The methods to solve a trigonometric function can be summarized as follows. Figure 74.
Exercises
Solve the equations (principal solution and general solution)
1. 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 1 = 0
2. 5 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 6 = 0
3. 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 1 = − 1
4. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
5. 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 = 0
2 2
6. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 1
7. (𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 − 3)(2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 3) = 0
2
8. 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥
2 2
9. 0 > 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
2
10. 0 < 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥