What is Python?

Python is a popular programming language. It was created by Guido van Rossum, and released
in 1991.

It is used for:

 web development (server-side),

 software development,
 mathematics,
 system scripting.
 Big data handling

What can Python do?

 Python can be used on a server to create web applications.

 Python can be used alongside software to create workflows.
 Python can connect to database systems. It can also read and modify files.
 Python can be used to handle big data and perform complex mathematics.
 Python can be used for rapid prototyping, or for production-ready software development.

Why Python?

 Python works on different platforms (Windows, Mac, Linux, Raspberry Pi, etc).
 Python has a simple syntax similar to the English language.
 Python has syntax that allows developers to write programs with fewer lines than some
other programming languages.
 Python runs on an interpreter system, meaning that code can be executed as soon as it is
written. This means that prototyping can be very quick.
 Python can be treated in a procedural way, an object-oriented way or a functional way.

Good to know

 The most recent major version of Python is Python 3, which we shall be using in this
tutorial. However, Python 2, although not being updated with anything other than
security updates, is still quite popular.
 In this tutorial Python will be written in a text editor. It is possible to write Python in an
Integrated Development Environment, such as Thonny, Pycharm, Netbeans or Eclipse
which are particularly useful when managing larger collections of Python files.

Python Syntax compared to other programming languages

 Python was designed for readability, and has some similarities to the English language
with influence from mathematics.
 Python uses new lines to complete a command, as opposed to other programming
languages which often use semicolons or parentheses.
 Python relies on indentation, using whitespace, to define scope; such as the scope of
loops, functions and classes. Other programming languages often use curly-brackets for
this purpose.

Python Install

Many PCs and Macs will have python already installed.

To check if you have python installed on a Windows PC, search in the start bar for Python or run
the following on the Command Line (cmd.exe):

C:\Users\Your Name>python --version

To check if you have python installed on a Linux or Mac, then on linux open the command line
or on Mac open the Terminal and type:

python --version

If you find that you do not have Python installed on your computer, then you can download it for
free from the following website: https://www.python.org/

Python Quickstart

Python is an interpreted programming language, this means that as a developer you write Python
(.py) files in a text editor and then put those files into the python interpreter to be executed.

The way to run a python file is like this on the command line:

C:\Users\Your Name>python helloworld.py

Where "helloworld.py" is the name of your python file.

Let's write our first Python file, called helloworld.py, which can be done in any text editor.

helloworld.py
print("Hello, World!")

Simple as that. Save your file. Open your command line, navigate to the directory where you
saved your file, and run:

C:\Users\Your Name>python helloworld.py

The output should read:

Hello, World!

Python Syntax

Execute Python Syntax

As we learned in the previous page, Python syntax can be executed by writing directly in the
Command Line:

>>> print("Hello, World!")

Hello, World!

On this page

Execute Python Syntax Python Indentation Python Variables Python Comments Exercises

Or by creating a python file on the server, using the .py file extension, and running it in the
Command Line:

C:\Users\Your Name>python myfile.py

Python Indentation

Indentation refers to the spaces at the beginning of a code line.

Where in other programming languages the indentation in code is for readability only, the
indentation in Python is very important.

Python uses indentation to indicate a block of code.

Example.

if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

Python will give you an error if you skip the indentation:

Example

Syntax Error:
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

The number of spaces is up to you as a programmer, the most common use is four, but it has to
be at least one.

Example

if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

You have to use the same number of spaces in the same block of code, otherwise Python will
give you an error:

Example

Syntax Error:

if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
print("Five is greater than two!")

Python Comments

Comments can be used to explain Python code.

Comments can be used to make the code more readable.

Comments can be used to prevent execution when testing code.

Creating a Comment

Comments starts with a #, and Python will ignore them:

Example.

#This is a comment
print("Hello, World!")

Comments can be placed at the end of a line, and Python will ignore the rest of the line:
Example

print("Hello, World!") #This is a comment

A comment does not have to be text that explains the code, it can also be used to prevent Python
from executing code:

Example

#print("Hello, World!")
print("Cheers, Mate!")

Python Variables

Variables

Variables are containers for storing data values.

Creating Variables

Python has no command for declaring a variable.

A variable is created the moment you first assign a value to it.

Example.

x=5
y = "John"
print(x)
print(y)

Variables do not need to be declared with any particular type, and can even change type after
they have been set.

Example

x=4 # x is of type int

x = "Sally" # x is now of type str
print(x)

Casting
If you want to specify the data type of a variable, this can be done with casting.

Example

x = str(3) # x will be '3'

y = int(3) # y will be 3
z = float(3) # z will be 3.0

Python - Variable Names

Variable Names

A variable can have a short name (like x and y) or a more descriptive name (age, carname,
total_volume). Rules for Python variables:

 A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character

 A variable name cannot start with a number
 A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and underscores (A-z, 0-9,
and _ )
 Variable names are case-sensitive (age, Age and AGE are three different variables)
 A variable name cannot be any of the Python keywords.

Example.

Legal variable names:

myvar = "John"
my_var = "John"
_my_var = "John"
myVar = "John"
MYVAR = "John"
myvar2 = "John"

Example

Illegal variable names:

2myvar = "John"
my-var = "John"
my var = "John"

Python Variables - Assign Multiple Values

Many Values to Multiple Variables

Python allows you to assign values to multiple variables in one line:

Example.

x, y, z = "Orange", "Banana", "Cherry"

print(x)
print(y)
print(z)

Note: Make sure the number of variables matches the number of values, or else you will get an
error.

One Value to Multiple Variables

And you can assign the same value to multiple variables in one line:

Example

x = y = z = "Orange"
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)

Unpack a Collection

If you have a collection of values in a list, tuple etc. Python allows you to extract the values into
variables. This is called unpacking.

Example

Unpack a list:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

x, y, z = fruits
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)

Python - Output Variables

Output Variables

The Python print() function is often used to output variables.

Example.

x = "Python is awesome"
print(x)

In the print() function, you output multiple variables, separated by a comma:

Example

x = "Python"
y = "is"
z = "awesome"
print(x, y, z)

You can also use the + operator to output multiple variables:

Example

x = "Python "
y = "is "
z = "awesome"
print(x + y + z)

Notice the space character after "Python " and "is ", without them the result would be
"Pythonisawesome".

For numbers, the + character works as a mathematical operator:

Example

x=5
y = 10
print(x + y)

In the print() function, when you try to combine a string and a number with the + operator,
Python will give you an error:

Example

x=5
y = "John"
print(x + y)

The best way to output multiple variables in the print() function is to separate them with
commas, which even support different data types:
Example

x=5
y = "John"
print(x, y)

Python - Global Variables

Global Variables

Variables that are created outside of a function (as in all of the examples above) are known as
global variables.

Global variables can be used by everyone, both inside of functions and outside.

Example.

Create a variable outside of a function, and use it inside the function

x = "awesome"

def myfunc():
print("Python is " + x)

myfunc()

If you create a variable with the same name inside a function, this variable will be local, and can
only be used inside the function. The global variable with the same name will remain as it was,
global and with the original value.

Example

Create a variable inside a function, with the same name as the global variable

x = "awesome"

def myfunc():
x = "fantastic"
print("Python is " + x)

myfunc()

print("Python is " + x)
Python Data Types

Built-in Data Types

In programming, data type is an important concept.

Variables can store data of different types, and different types can do different things.

Python has the following data types built-in by default, in these categories:

Text Type: str

Numeric Types: int, float, complex

Sequence Types: list, tuple, range

Mapping Type: dict

Set Types: set, frozenset

Boolean Type: bool

Binary Types: bytes, bytearray, memoryview

None Type: NoneType

Getting the Data Type

You can get the data type of any object by using the type() function:

Example.

Print the data type of the variable x:

x=5
print(type(x))

Setting the Data Type

In Python, the data type is set when you assign a value to a variable:

Example Data Type Try it

x = "Hello World" str

x = 20 int

x = 20.5 float

x = 1j complex

x = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"] list

x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry") tuple

x = range(6) range

x = {"name" : "John", "age" : 36} dict

x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"} set

x = frozenset({"apple", "banana", "cherry"}) frozenset

x = True bool

x = b"Hello" bytes

x = bytearray(5) bytearray

x = memoryview(bytes(5)) memoryview

x = None NoneType

Python Numbers

Python Numbers

There are three numeric types in Python:

 int
 float
 complex

Variables of numeric types are created when you assign a value to them:

Example.

x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex

To verify the type of any object in Python, use the type() function:

Example
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Int

Int, or integer, is a whole number, positive or negative, without decimals, of unlimited length.

Example

Integers:

x=1
y = 35656222554887711
z = -3255522

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Float

Float, or "floating point number" is a number, positive or negative, containing one or more
decimals.

Example

Floats:

x = 1.10
y = 1.0
z = -35.59

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Float can also be scientific numbers with an "e" to indicate the power of 10.

Example

Floats:
x = 35e3
y = 12E4
z = -87.7e100

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

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Complex

Complex numbers are written with a "j" as the imaginary part:

Example

Complex:

x = 3+5j
y = 5j
z = -5j

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Type Conversion

You can convert from one type to another with the int(), float(), and complex() methods:

Example

Convert from one type to another:

x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex

#convert from int to float:

a = float(x)

#convert from float to int:

b = int(y)
#convert from int to complex:
c = complex(x)

print(a)
print(b)
print(c)

print(type(a))
print(type(b))
print(type(c))

Note: You cannot convert complex numbers into another number type.

Random Number

Python does not have a random() function to make a random number, but Python has a built-in
module called random that can be used to make random numbers:

Example

Import the random module, and display a random number between 1 and 9:

import random

print(random.randrange(1, 10))

Python Casting

Specify a Variable Type

There may be times when you want to specify a type on to a variable. This can be done with
casting. Python is an object-orientated language, and as such it uses classes to define data types,
including its primitive types.

Casting in python is therefore done using constructor functions:

 int() - constructs an integer number from an integer literal, a float literal (by removing all
decimals), or a string literal (providing the string represents a whole number)
 float() - constructs a float number from an integer literal, a float literal or a string literal
(providing the string represents a float or an integer)
 str() - constructs a string from a wide variety of data types, including strings, integer
literals and float literals

Example.
Integers:

x = int(1) # x will be 1
y = int(2.8) # y will be 2
z = int("3") # z will be 3

Example

Floats:

x = float(1) # x will be 1.0

y = float(2.8) # y will be 2.8
z = float("3") # z will be 3.0
w = float("4.2") # w will be 4.2

Example

Strings:

x = str("s1") # x will be 's1'

y = str(2) # y will be '2'
z = str(3.0) # z will be '3.0'

Python Strings

Strings

Strings in python are surrounded by either single quotation marks, or double quotation marks.

'hello' is the same as "hello".

You can display a string literal with the print() function:

Example.

print("Hello")
print('Hello')

Assign String to a Variable

Assigning a string to a variable is done with the variable name followed by an equal sign and the
string:

Example
a = "Hello"
print(a)

Multiline Strings

You can assign a multiline string to a variable by using three quotes:

Example

You can use three double quotes:

a = """Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,

consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua."""
print(a)

Or three single quotes:

Example

a = '''Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,

consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.'''
print(a)

Python - Slicing Strings

Slicing

You can return a range of characters by using the slice syntax.

Specify the start index and the end index, separated by a colon, to return a part of the string.

Example.

Get the characters from position 2 to position 5 (not included):

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[2:5])

Note: The first character has index 0.

Slice From the Start

By leaving out the start index, the range will start at the first character:

Example

Get the characters from the start to position 5 (not included):

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[:5])

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Slice To the End

By leaving out the end index, the range will go to the end:

Example

Get the characters from position 2, and all the way to the end:

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[2:])

Negative Indexing

Use negative indexes to start the slice from the end of the string:

Example

Get the characters:

From: "o" in "World!" (position -5)

To, but not included: "d" in "World!" (position -2):

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[-5:-2])
Python - Modify Strings

Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on strings.

Upper Case

Example.

The upper() method returns the string in upper case:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.upper())

Lower Case

Example

The lower() method returns the string in lower case:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.lower())

Remove Whitespace

Whitespace is the space before and/or after the actual text, and very often you want to remove
this space.

Example

The strip() method removes any whitespace from the beginning or the end:

a = " Hello, World! "

print(a.strip()) # returns "Hello, World!"

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Replace String
Example

The replace() method replaces a string with another string:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.replace("H", "J"))

Split String

The split() method returns a list where the text between the specified separator becomes the list
items.

Example

The split() method splits the string into substrings if it finds instances of the separator:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.split(",")) # returns ['Hello', ' World!']

Python - String Concatenation

String Concatenation

To concatenate, or combine, two strings you can use the + operator.

Example

Merge variable a with variable b into variable c:

a = "Hello"
b = "World"
c=a+b
print(c)

Example

To add a space between them, add a " ":

a = "Hello"
b = "World"
c=a+""+b
print(c)
Python - Format - Strings

String Format

As we learned in the Python Variables chapter, we cannot combine strings and numbers like this:

Example.

age = 36
txt = "My name is John, I am " + age
print(txt)

But we can combine strings and numbers by using the format() method!

The format() method takes the passed arguments, formats them, and places them in the string
where the placeholders {} are:

Example

Use the format() method to insert numbers into strings:

age = 36
txt = "My name is John, and I am {}"
print(txt.format(age))

The format() method takes unlimited number of arguments, and are placed into the respective
placeholders:

Example

quantity = 3
itemno = 567
price = 49.95
myorder = "I want {} pieces of item {} for {} dollars."
print(myorder.format(quantity, itemno, price))

You can use index numbers {0} to be sure the arguments are placed in the correct placeholders:

Example

quantity = 3
itemno = 567
price = 49.95
myorder = "I want to pay {2} dollars for {0} pieces of item {1}."
print(myorder.format(quantity, itemno, price))
Python - Escape Characters

Escape Character

To insert characters that are illegal in a string, use an escape character.

An escape character is a backslash \ followed by the character you want to insert.

An example of an illegal character is a double quote inside a string that is surrounded by double
quotes:

Example.

You will get an error if you use double quotes inside a string that is surrounded by double
quotes:

txt = "We are the so-called "Vikings" from the north."

To fix this problem, use the escape character \":

Example

The escape character allows you to use double quotes when you normally would not be allowed:

txt = "We are the so-called \"Vikings\" from the north."

Escape Characters

Other escape characters used in Python:

Code Result Try it

\' Single Quote
\\ Backslash
\n New Line
\r Carriage Return
\t Tab
\b Backspace
\f Form Feed
\ooo Octal value
\xhh Hex value

Python - String Methods

String Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on strings.

Note: All string methods return new values. They do not change the original string.

Method Description
capitalize() Converts the first character to upper case
casefold() Converts string into lower case
center() Returns a centered string
count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a string
encode() Returns an encoded version of the string
endswith() Returns true if the string ends with the specified value
expandtabs() Sets the tab size of the string
Searches the string for a specified value and returns the position of where it was
find()
found
format() Formats specified values in a string
format_map() Formats specified values in a string
Searches the string for a specified value and returns the position of where it was
index()
found
isalnum() Returns True if all characters in the string are alphanumeric
isalpha() Returns True if all characters in the string are in the alphabet
isascii() Returns True if all characters in the string are ascii characters
isdecimal() Returns True if all characters in the string are decimals
isdigit() Returns True if all characters in the string are digits
isidentifier() Returns True if the string is an identifier
islower() Returns True if all characters in the string are lower case
isnumeric() Returns True if all characters in the string are numeric
isprintable() Returns True if all characters in the string are printable
isspace() Returns True if all characters in the string are whitespaces
istitle() Returns True if the string follows the rules of a title
isupper() Returns True if all characters in the string are upper case
join() Joins the elements of an iterable to the end of the string
ljust() Returns a left justified version of the string
lower() Converts a string into lower case
lstrip() Returns a left trim version of the string
maketrans() Returns a translation table to be used in translations
partition() Returns a tuple where the string is parted into three parts
replace() Returns a string where a specified value is replaced with a specified value
Searches the string for a specified value and returns the last position of where it
rfind()
was found
Searches the string for a specified value and returns the last position of where it
rindex()
was found
rjust() Returns a right justified version of the string
rpartition() Returns a tuple where the string is parted into three parts
rsplit() Splits the string at the specified separator, and returns a list
rstrip() Returns a right trim version of the string
split() Splits the string at the specified separator, and returns a list
splitlines() Splits the string at line breaks and returns a list
startswith() Returns true if the string starts with the specified value
strip() Returns a trimmed version of the string
swapcase() Swaps cases, lower case becomes upper case and vice versa
title() Converts the first character of each word to upper case
translate() Returns a translated string
upper() Converts a string into upper case
zfill() Fills the string with a specified number of 0 values at the beginning

Python Booleans

Booleans represent one of two values: True or False.

Boolean Values

In programming you often need to know if an expression is True or False.

You can evaluate any expression in Python, and get one of two answers, True or False.

When you compare two values, the expression is evaluated and Python returns the Boolean
answer:

Example.

print(10 > 9)
print(10 == 9)
print(10 < 9)

When you run a condition in an if statement, Python returns True or False:

Example

Print a message based on whether the condition is True or False:

a = 200
b = 33

if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
else:
print("b is not greater than a")

Evaluate Values and Variables

The bool() function allows you to evaluate any value, and give you True or False in return,

Example

Evaluate a string and a number:

print(bool("Hello"))
print(bool(15))

Example

Evaluate two variables:

x = "Hello"
y = 15

print(bool(x))
print(bool(y))

Python Operators

Python Operators

Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.

In the example below, we use the + operator to add together two values:

Example.

print(10 + 5)

Python divides the operators in the following groups:

 Arithmetic operators
 Assignment operators
 Comparison operators
 Logical operators
 Identity operators
 Membership operators
 Bitwise operators
Python Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators are used with numeric values to perform common mathematical operations:

Operator Name Example Try it

+ Addition x+y

- Subtraction x-y

* Multiplication x * y

/ Division x/y

% Modulus x%y

** Exponentiation x ** y

// Floor division x // y

Python Assignment Operators

Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables:

Operator Example Same As Try it

= x=5 x=5

+= x += 3 x = x + 3

-= x -= 3 x=x-3

*= x *= 3 x = x * 3

/= x /= 3 x=x/3

%= x %= 3 x = x % 3

//= x //= 3 x = x // 3

**= x **= 3 x = x ** 3

&= x &= 3 x = x & 3

|= x |= 3 x=x|3
^= x ^= 3 x = x ^ 3

>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3

<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3

Python Lists
mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

List

Lists are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

Lists are one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other 3 are
Tuple, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.

Lists are created using square brackets:

Example.

Create a List:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist)

List Items

List items are ordered, changeable, and allow duplicate values.

List items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has index [1] etc.

Ordered

When we say that lists are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order, and that order
will not change.

If you add new items to a list, the new items will be placed at the end of the list.

Note: There are some list methods that will change the order, but in general: the order of the
items will not change.
Changeable

The list is changeable, meaning that we can change, add, and remove items in a list after it has
been created.

Allow Duplicates

Since lists are indexed, lists can have items with the same value:

Example

Lists allow duplicate values:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry"]

print(thislist)

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List Length

To determine how many items a list has, use the len() function:

Example

Print the number of items in the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(len(thislist))

List Items - Data Types

List items can be of any data type:

Example

String, int and boolean data types:

list1 = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
list2 = [1, 5, 7, 9, 3]
list3 = [True, False, False]

A list can contain different data types:

Example

A list with strings, integers and boolean values:

list1 = ["abc", 34, True, 40, "male"]

type()

From Python's perspective, lists are defined as objects with the data type 'list':

<class 'list'>

Example

What is the data type of a list?

mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(type(mylist))

The list() Constructor

It is also possible to use the list() constructor when creating a new list.

Example

Using the list() constructor to make a List:

thislist = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets

print(thislist)

Python Collections (Arrays)

There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:

 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate members.

 Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows duplicate members.
 Set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed. No duplicate
members.
 Dictionary is a collection which is ordered** and changeable. No duplicate members.

*Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove and/or add items whenever you like.

**As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier, dictionaries are
unordered.

When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of that type. Choosing
the right type for a particular data set could mean retention of meaning, and, it could mean an
increase in efficiency or security.

Python - Access List Items

Access Items

List items are indexed and you can access them by referring to the index number:

Example.

Print the second item of the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist[1])

Note: The first item has index 0.

Negative Indexing

Negative indexing means start from the end

-1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.

Example

Print the last item of the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist[-1])

Range of Indexes

You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to end the range.
When specifying a range, the return value will be a new list with the specified items.

Example

Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]

print(thislist[2:5])

Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not included).

Remember that the first item has index 0.

By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item:

Example

This example returns the items from the beginning to, but NOT including, "kiwi":

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]

print(thislist[:4])

By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the list:

Example

This example returns the items from "cherry" to the end:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]

print(thislist[2:])

Python Tuples
mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

Tuple

Tuples are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

Tuple is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other 3 are
List, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.

A tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable.

Tuples are written with round brackets.

Example.

Create a Tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple)

Tuple Items

Tuple items are ordered, unchangeable, and allow duplicate values.

Tuple items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has index [1] etc.

Ordered

When we say that tuples are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order, and that order
will not change.

Unchangeable

Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change, add or remove items after the tuple
has been created.

Allow Duplicates

Since tuples are indexed, they can have items with the same value:

Example

Tuples allow duplicate values:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry")

print(thistuple)

Python - Access Tuple Items

Access Tuple Items

You can access tuple items by referring to the index number, inside square brackets:
Example.

Print the second item in the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple[1])

Note: The first item has index 0.

Negative Indexing

Negative indexing means start from the end.

-1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.

Example

Print the last item of the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple[-1])

Range of Indexes

You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to end the range.

When specifying a range, the return value will be a new tuple with the specified items.

Example

Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")

print(thistuple[2:5])

Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not included).

Remember that the first item has index 0.

By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item:

Example
This example returns the items from the beginning to, but NOT included, "kiwi":

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")

print(thistuple[:4])

By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the tuple:

Example

This example returns the items from "cherry" and to the end:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")

print(thistuple[2:])

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Range of Negative Indexes

Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the tuple:

Example

This example returns the items from index -4 (included) to index -1 (excluded)

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")

print(thistuple[-4:-1])

Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a tuple use the in keyword:

Example

Check if "apple" is present in the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

if "apple" in thistuple:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits tuple")

Python - Update Tuples

Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that you cannot change, add, or remove items once the tuple
is created.
But there are some workarounds.

Change Tuple Values

Once a tuple is created, you cannot change its values. Tuples are unchangeable, or immutable
as it also is called.

But there is a workaround. You can convert the tuple into a list, change the list, and convert the
list back into a tuple.

Example.

Convert the tuple into a list to be able to change it:

x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(x)
y[1] = "kiwi"
x = tuple(y)

print(x)

Add Items

Since tuples are immutable, they do not have a built-in append() method, but there are other
ways to add items to a tuple.

1. Convert into a list: Just like the workaround for changing a tuple, you can convert it into a
list, add your item(s), and convert it back into a tuple.

Example

Convert the tuple into a list, add "orange", and convert it back into a tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(thistuple)
y.append("orange")
thistuple = tuple(y)

2. Add tuple to a tuple. You are allowed to add tuples to tuples, so if you want to add one item,
(or many), create a new tuple with the item(s), and add it to the existing tuple:

Example
Create a new tuple with the value "orange", and add that tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = ("orange",)
thistuple += y

print(thistuple)

Python - Join Tuples

Join Two Tuples

To join two or more tuples you can use the + operator:

Example.

Join two tuples:

tuple1 = ("a", "b" , "c")

tuple2 = (1, 2, 3)

tuple3 = tuple1 + tuple2

print(tuple3)

Multiply Tuples

If you want to multiply the content of a tuple a given number of times, you can use the *
operator:

Example

Multiply the fruits tuple by 2:

fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

mytuple = fruits * 2

print(mytuple)

Python - Tuple Methods

Tuple Methods

Python has two built-in methods that you can use on tuples.

Method Description
count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a tuple
Searches the tuple for a specified value and returns the position of where it
index()
was found

Python Sets
myset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

Set

Sets are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

Set is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other 3 are List,
Tuple, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.

A set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed.

* Note: Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove items and add new items.

Sets are written with curly brackets.

Example.

Create a Set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(thisset)

Note: Sets are unordered, so you cannot be sure in which order the items will appear.

Set Items

Set items are unordered, unchangeable, and do not allow duplicate values.

Unordered

Unordered means that the items in a set do not have a defined order.

Set items can appear in a different order every time you use them, and cannot be referred to by
index or key.
Unchangeable

Set items are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change the items after the set has been
created.

Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can remove items and add new items.

Duplicates Not Allowed

Sets cannot have two items with the same value.

Example

Duplicate values will be ignored:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple"}

print(thisset)

Note: The values True and 1 are considered the same value in sets, and are treated as duplicates:

Example

True and 1 is considered the same value:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry", True, 1, 2}

print(thisset)

Note: The values False and 0 are considered the same value in sets, and are treated as duplicates:

Example

False and 0 is considered the same value:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry", False, True, 0}

print(thisset)

Python - Access Set Items

Access Items

You cannot access items in a set by referring to an index or a key.

But you can loop through the set items using a for loop, or ask if a specified value is present in a
set, by using the in keyword.

Example.

Loop through the set, and print the values:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

for x in thisset:
print(x)

Example

Check if "banana" is present in the set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print("banana" in thisset)

Example

Check if "banana" is NOT present in the set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print("banana" not in thisset)

Change Items

Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new items.

Python - Add Set Items

Add Items

Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new items.

To add one item to a set use the add() method.

Example.

Add an item to a set, using the add() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.add("orange")

print(thisset)

Add Sets

To add items from another set into the current set, use the update() method.

Example

Add elements from tropical into thisset:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

tropical = {"pineapple", "mango", "papaya"}

thisset.update(tropical)

print(thisset)

Add Any Iterable

The object in the update() method does not have to be a set, it can be any iterable object (tuples,
lists, dictionaries etc.).

Example

Add elements of a list to at set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

mylist = ["kiwi", "orange"]

thisset.update(mylist)

print(thisset)

Python - Remove Set Items

Remove Item

To remove an item in a set, use the remove(), or the discard() method.

Example.
Remove "banana" by using the remove() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.remove("banana")

print(thisset)

Note: If the item to remove does not exist, remove() will raise an error.

Example

Remove "banana" by using the discard() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.discard("banana")

print(thisset)

Note: If the item to remove does not exist, discard() will NOT raise an error.

You can also use the pop() method to remove an item, but this method will remove a random
item, so you cannot be sure what item that gets removed.

The return value of the pop() method is the removed item.

Example

Remove a random item by using the pop() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

x = thisset.pop()

print(x)

print(thisset)

Note: Sets are unordered, so when using the pop() method, you do not know which item that
gets removed.

Example

The clear() method empties the set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.clear()

print(thisset)

Example

The del keyword will delete the set completely:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

del thisset

print(thisset)

Python - Loop Sets

Loop Items

You can loop through the set items by using a for loop:

Example.

Loop through the set, and print the values:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

for x in thisset:
print(x)

Python - Set Methods

Set Methods

Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on sets.

Method Shortcut Description

add() Adds an element to the set
clear() Removes all the elements from the set
copy() Returns a copy of the set
Returns a set containing the difference between two or
difference() -
more sets
Removes the items in this set that are also included in
difference_update() -=
another, specified set
discard() Remove the specified item
intersection() & Returns a set, that is the intersection of two other sets
Removes the items in this set that are not present in
intersection_update() &=
other, specified set(s)
isdisjoint() Returns whether two sets have a intersection or not
issubset() <= Returns whether another set contains this set or not
Returns whether all items in this set is present in other,
<
specified set(s)
issuperset() >= Returns whether this set contains another set or not
Returns whether all items in other, specified set(s) is
>
present in this set
pop() Removes an element from the set
remove() Removes the specified element
Returns a set with the symmetric differences of two
symmetric_difference() ^
sets
Inserts the symmetric differences from this set and
symmetric_difference_update() ^=
another
union() | Return a set containing the union of sets
update() |= Update the set with the union of this set and others

Python Dictionaries
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

Dictionary

Dictionaries are used to store data values in key:value pairs.

A dictionary is a collection which is ordered*, changeable and do not allow duplicates.

As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier, dictionaries are
unordered.

Dictionaries are written with curly brackets, and have keys and values:

Example.

Create and print a dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict)

Dictionary Items

Dictionary items are ordered, changeable, and do not allow duplicates.

Dictionary items are presented in key:value pairs, and can be referred to by using the key name.

Example

Print the "brand" value of the dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict["brand"])

Ordered or Unordered?

As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier, dictionaries are
unordered.

When we say that dictionaries are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order, and that
order will not change.

Unordered means that the items do not have a defined order, you cannot refer to an item by using
an index.

Changeable

Dictionaries are changeable, meaning that we can change, add or remove items after the
dictionary has been created.

Duplicates Not Allowed

Dictionaries cannot have two items with the same key:

Example

Duplicate values will overwrite existing values:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964,
"year": 2020
}
print(thisdict)

Python If ... Else

Python Conditions and If statements

Python supports the usual logical conditions from mathematics:

 Equals: a == b
 Not Equals: a != b
 Less than: a < b
 Less than or equal to: a <= b
 Greater than: a > b
 Greater than or equal to: a >= b

These conditions can be used in several ways, most commonly in "if statements" and loops.

An "if statement" is written by using the if keyword.

Example.

If statement:

a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")

In this example we use two variables, a and b, which are used as part of the if statement to test
whether b is greater than a. As a is 33, and b is 200, we know that 200 is greater than 33, and so
we print to screen that "b is greater than a".

Indentation
Python relies on indentation (whitespace at the beginning of a line) to define scope in the code.
Other programming languages often use curly-brackets for this purpose.

Example

If statement, without indentation (will raise an error):

a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a") # you will get an error

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Elif

The elif keyword is Python's way of saying "if the previous conditions were not true, then try this
condition".

Example

a = 33
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")

In this example a is equal to b, so the first condition is not true, but the elif condition is true, so
we print to screen that "a and b are equal".

Else

The else keyword catches anything which isn't caught by the preceding conditions.

Example

a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")
else:
print("a is greater than b")

In this example a is greater than b, so the first condition is not true, also the elif condition is not
true, so we go to the else condition and print to screen that "a is greater than b".

You can also have an else without the elif:

Example

a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
else:
print("b is not greater than a")

Short Hand If

If you have only one statement to execute, you can put it on the same line as the if statement.

Example

One line if statement:

if a > b: print("a is greater than b")

Short Hand If ... Else

If you have only one statement to execute, one for if, and one for else, you can put it all on the
same line:

Example

One line if else statement:

a=2
b = 330
print("A") if a > b else print("B")
This technique is known as Ternary Operators, or Conditional Expressions.

You can also have multiple else statements on the same line:

Example

One line if else statement, with 3 conditions:

a = 330
b = 330
print("A") if a > b else print("=") if a == b else print("B")

And

The and keyword is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional statements:

Example

Test if a is greater than b, AND if c is greater than a:

a = 200
b = 33
c = 500
if a > b and c > a:
print("Both conditions are True")

Or

The or keyword is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional statements:

Example

Test if a is greater than b, OR if a is greater than c:

a = 200
b = 33
c = 500
if a > b or a > c:
print("At least one of the conditions is True")
Not

The not keyword is a logical operator, and is used to reverse the result of the conditional
statement:

Example

Test if a is NOT greater than b:

a = 33
b = 200
if not a > b:
print("a is NOT greater than b")

Nested If

You can have if statements inside if statements, this is called nested if statements.

Example

x = 41

if x > 10:
print("Above ten,")
if x > 20:
print("and also above 20!")
else:
print("but not above 20.")

The pass Statement

if statements cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have an if statement with no content,
put in the pass statement to avoid getting an error.

Example

a = 33
b = 200

if b > a:
pass
Python While Loops

Python Loops

Python has two primitive loop commands:

 while loops
 for loops

The while Loop

With the while loop we can execute a set of statements as long as a condition is true.

Example.

Print i as long as i is less than 6:

i=1
while i < 6:
print(i)
i += 1

Note: remember to increment i, or else the loop will continue forever.

The while loop requires relevant variables to be ready, in this example we need to define an
indexing variable, i, which we set to 1.

The break Statement

With the break statement we can stop the loop even if the while condition is true:

Example

Exit the loop when i is 3:

i=1
while i < 6:
print(i)
if i == 3:
break
i += 1
ADVERTISEMENT

The continue Statement

With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration, and continue with the next:

Example

Continue to the next iteration if i is 3:

i=0
while i < 6:
i += 1
if i == 3:
continue
print(i)

The else Statement

With the else statement we can run a block of code once when the condition no longer is true:

Example

Print a message once the condition is false:

i=1
while i < 6:
print(i)
i += 1
else:
print("i is no longer less than 6")

Python For Loops

Python For Loops

A for loop is used for iterating over a sequence (that is either a list, a tuple, a dictionary, a set, or
a string).
This is less like the for keyword in other programming languages, and works more like an
iterator method as found in other object-orientated programming languages.

With the for loop we can execute a set of statements, once for each item in a list, tuple, set etc.

Example.

Print each fruit in a fruit list:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
print(x)

The for loop does not require an indexing variable to set beforehand.

Looping Through a String

Even strings are iterable objects, they contain a sequence of characters:

Example

Loop through the letters in the word "banana":

for x in "banana":
print(x)

The break Statement

With the break statement we can stop the loop before it has looped through all the items:

Example

Exit the loop when x is "banana":

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
print(x)
if x == "banana":
break

Example

Exit the loop when x is "banana", but this time the break comes before the print:
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
break
print(x)

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The continue Statement

With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration of the loop, and continue with the
next:

Example

Do not print banana:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
continue
print(x)

The range() Function

To loop through a set of code a specified number of times, we can use the range() function,

The range() function returns a sequence of numbers, starting from 0 by default, and increments
by 1 (by default), and ends at a specified number.

Example

Using the range() function:

for x in range(6):
print(x)

Note that range(6) is not the values of 0 to 6, but the values 0 to 5.

The range() function defaults to 0 as a starting value, however it is possible to specify the starting
value by adding a parameter: range(2, 6), which means values from 2 to 6 (but not including 6):

Example
Using the start parameter:

for x in range(2, 6):

print(x)

The range() function defaults to increment the sequence by 1, however it is possible to specify
the increment value by adding a third parameter: range(2, 30, 3):

Example

Increment the sequence with 3 (default is 1):

for x in range(2, 30, 3):

print(x)

Else in For Loop

The else keyword in a for loop specifies a block of code to be executed when the loop is
finished:

Example

Print all numbers from 0 to 5, and print a message when the loop has ended:

for x in range(6):
print(x)
else:
print("Finally finished!")

Note: The else block will NOT be executed if the loop is stopped by a break statement.

Example

Break the loop when x is 3, and see what happens with the else block:

for x in range(6):
if x == 3: break
print(x)
else:
print("Finally finished!")

Nested Loops

A nested loop is a loop inside a loop.

The "inner loop" will be executed one time for each iteration of the "outer loop":

Example

Print each adjective for every fruit:

adj = ["red", "big", "tasty"]

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in adj:
for y in fruits:
print(x, y)

The pass Statement

for loops cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have a for loop with no content, put in the
pass statement to avoid getting an error.

Example

for x in [0, 1, 2]:

pass

Python Functions

A function is a block of code which only runs when it is called.

You can pass data, known as parameters, into a function.

A function can return data as a result.

Creating a Function

In Python a function is defined using the def keyword:

Example.

def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")

Calling a Function
To call a function, use the function name followed by parenthesis:

Example

def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")

my_function()

Arguments

Information can be passed into functions as arguments.

Arguments are specified after the function name, inside the parentheses. You can add as many
arguments as you want, just separate them with a comma.

The following example has a function with one argument (fname). When the function is called,
we pass along a first name, which is used inside the function to print the full name:

Example

def my_function(fname):
print(fname + " Refsnes")

my_function("Emil")
my_function("Tobias")
my_function("Linus")

Arguments are often shortened to args in Python documentations.

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Parameters or Arguments?

The terms parameter and argument can be used for the same thing: information that are passed
into a function.

From a function's perspective:

A parameter is the variable listed inside the parentheses in the function definition.

An argument is the value that is sent to the function when it is called.

Number of Arguments

By default, a function must be called with the correct number of arguments. Meaning that if your
function expects 2 arguments, you have to call the function with 2 arguments, not more, and not
less.

Example

This function expects 2 arguments, and gets 2 arguments:

def my_function(fname, lname):

print(fname + " " + lname)

my_function("Emil", "Refsnes")
If you try to call the function with 1 or 3 arguments, you will get an error:

Example

This function expects 2 arguments, but gets only 1:

def my_function(fname, lname):

print(fname + " " + lname)

my_function("Emil")

Arbitrary Arguments, *args

If you do not know how many arguments that will be passed into your function, add a * before
the parameter name in the function definition.

This way the function will receive a tuple of arguments, and can access the items accordingly:

Example

If the number of arguments is unknown, add a * before the parameter name:

def my_function(*kids):
print("The youngest child is " + kids[2])

my_function("Emil", "Tobias", "Linus")

Arbitrary Arguments are often shortened to *args in Python documentations.

Keyword Arguments

You can also send arguments with the key = value syntax.

This way the order of the arguments does not matter.

Example

def my_function(child3, child2, child1):

print("The youngest child is " + child3)

my_function(child1 = "Emil", child2 = "Tobias", child3 = "Linus")

The phrase Keyword Arguments are often shortened to kwargs in Python documentations.

Arbitrary Keyword Arguments, **kwargs

If you do not know how many keyword arguments that will be passed into your function, add
two asterisk: ** before the parameter name in the function definition.

This way the function will receive a dictionary of arguments, and can access the items
accordingly:

Example

If the number of keyword arguments is unknown, add a double ** before the parameter name:

def my_function(**kid):
print("His last name is " + kid["lname"])

my_function(fname = "Tobias", lname = "Refsnes")

Arbitrary Kword Arguments are often shortened to **kwargs in Python documentations.

Default Parameter Value

The following example shows how to use a default parameter value.

If we call the function without argument, it uses the default value:

Example

def my_function(country = "Norway"):

print("I am from " + country)

my_function("Sweden")
my_function("India")
my_function()
my_function("Brazil")

Passing a List as an Argument

You can send any data types of argument to a function (string, number, list, dictionary etc.), and
it will be treated as the same data type inside the function.

E.g. if you send a List as an argument, it will still be a List when it reaches the function:

Example

def my_function(food):
for x in food:
print(x)

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

my_function(fruits)

Return Values

To let a function return a value, use the return statement:

Example

def my_function(x):
return 5 * x

print(my_function(3))
print(my_function(5))
print(my_function(9))

The pass Statement

function definitions cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have a function definition with
no content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting an error.

Example

def myfunction():
pass

Positional-Only Arguments

You can specify that a function can have ONLY positional arguments, or ONLY keyword
arguments.

To specify that a function can have only positional arguments, add , / after the arguments:

Example

def my_function(x, /):

print(x)

my_function(3)

Without the , / you are actually allowed to use keyword arguments even if the function expects
positional arguments:

Example

def my_function(x):
print(x)

my_function(x = 3)

But when adding the , / you will get an error if you try to send a keyword argument:

Example

def my_function(x, /):

print(x)

my_function(x = 3)

Keyword-Only Arguments

To specify that a function can have only keyword arguments, add *, before the arguments:
Example

def my_function(*, x):

print(x)

my_function(x = 3)

Without the *, you are allowed to use positionale arguments even if the function expects
keyword arguments:

Example

def my_function(x):
print(x)

my_function(3)

But when adding the *, / you will get an error if you try to send a positional argument:

Example

def my_function(*, x):

print(x)

my_function(3)

Combine Positional-Only and Keyword-Only

You can combine the two argument types in the same function.

Any argument before the / , are positional-only, and any argument after the *, are keyword-only.

Example

def my_function(a, b, /, *, c, d):

print(a + b + c + d)

my_function(5, 6, c = 7, d = 8)

Recursion

Python also accepts function recursion, which means a defined function can call itself.
Recursion is a common mathematical and programming concept. It means that a function calls
itself. This has the benefit of meaning that you can loop through data to reach a result.

The developer should be very careful with recursion as it can be quite easy to slip into writing a
function which never terminates, or one that uses excess amounts of memory or processor power.
However, when written correctly recursion can be a very efficient and mathematically-elegant
approach to programming.

In this example, tri_recursion() is a function that we have defined to call itself ("recurse"). We
use the k variable as the data, which decrements (-1) every time we recurse. The recursion ends
when the condition is not greater than 0 (i.e. when it is 0).

To a new developer it can take some time to work out how exactly this works, best way to find
out is by testing and modifying it.

Example

Recursion Example

def tri_recursion(k):
if(k > 0):
result = k + tri_recursion(k - 1)
print(result)
else:
result = 0
return result

print("\n\nRecursion Example Results")

tri_recursion(6)

Python Lambda

A lambda function is a small anonymous function.

A lambda function can take any number of arguments, but can only have one expression.

Syntax

lambda arguments : expression

The expression is executed and the result is returned:

Example.
Add 10 to argument a, and return the result:

x = lambda a : a + 10
print(x(5))

Lambda functions can take any number of arguments:

Example

Multiply argument a with argument b and return the result:

x = lambda a, b : a * b
print(x(5, 6))

Example

Summarize argument a, b, and c and return the result:

x = lambda a, b, c : a + b + c
print(x(5, 6, 2))

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Why Use Lambda Functions?

The power of lambda is better shown when you use them as an anonymous function inside
another function.

Say you have a function definition that takes one argument, and that argument will be multiplied
with an unknown number:

def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

Use that function definition to make a function that always doubles the number you send in:

Example

def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

mydoubler = myfunc(2)

print(mydoubler(11))
Or, use the same function definition to make a function that always triples the number you send
in:

Example

def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

mytripler = myfunc(3)

print(mytripler(11))

Or, use the same function definition to make both functions, in the same program:

Example

def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

mydoubler = myfunc(2)
mytripler = myfunc(3)

print(mydoubler(11))
print(mytripler(11))

Python Arrays

Note: Python does not have built-in support for Arrays, but Python Lists can be used instead.

Arrays

Note: This page shows you how to use LISTS as ARRAYS, however, to work with arrays in
Python you will have to import a library, like the NumPy library.

Arrays are used to store multiple values in one single variable:

Example.

Create an array containing car names:

cars = ["Ford", "Volvo", "BMW"]

What is an Array?

An array is a special variable, which can hold more than one value at a time.

If you have a list of items (a list of car names, for example), storing the cars in single variables
could look like this:

car1 = "Ford"
car2 = "Volvo"
car3 = "BMW"

However, what if you want to loop through the cars and find a specific one? And what if you had
not 3 cars, but 300?

The solution is an array!

An array can hold many values under a single name, and you can access the values by referring
to an index number.

Access the Elements of an Array

You refer to an array element by referring to the index number.

Example

Get the value of the first array item:

x = cars[0]

Example

Modify the value of the first array item:

cars[0] = "Toyota"

The Length of an Array

Use the len() method to return the length of an array (the number of elements in an array).

Example

Return the number of elements in the cars array:

x = len(cars)

Note: The length of an array is always one more than the highest array index.

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Looping Array Elements

You can use the for in loop to loop through all the elements of an array.

Example

Print each item in the cars array:

for x in cars:
print(x)

Adding Array Elements

You can use the append() method to add an element to an array.

Example

Add one more element to the cars array:

cars.append("Honda")

Removing Array Elements

You can use the pop() method to remove an element from the array.

Example

Delete the second element of the cars array:

cars.pop(1)

You can also use the remove() method to remove an element from the array.

Example

Delete the element that has the value "Volvo":

cars.remove("Volvo")

Note: The list's remove() method only removes the first occurrence of the specified value.

Array Methods

Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists/arrays.

Method Description
append() Adds an element at the end of the list
clear() Removes all the elements from the list
copy() Returns a copy of the list
count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value
extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the current list
index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value
insert() Adds an element at the specified position
pop() Removes the element at the specified position
remove() Removes the first item with the specified value
reverse() Reverses the order of the list
sort() Sorts the list

Note: Python does not have built-in support for Arrays, but Python Lists can be used instead.

Python Classes and Objects

Python Classes/Objects

Python is an object oriented programming language.

Almost everything in Python is an object, with its properties and methods.

A Class is like an object constructor, or a "blueprint" for creating objects.

Create a Class

To create a class, use the keyword class:

Example.

Create a class named MyClass, with a property named x:

class MyClass:
x=5

Create Object

Now we can use the class named MyClass to create objects:

Example

Create an object named p1, and print the value of x:

p1 = MyClass()
print(p1.x)

The __init__() Function

The examples above are classes and objects in their simplest form, and are not really useful in
real life applications.

To understand the meaning of classes we have to understand the built-in __init__() function.

All classes have a function called __init__(), which is always executed when the class is being
initiated.

Use the __init__() function to assign values to object properties, or other operations that are
necessary to do when the object is being created:

Example

Create a class named Person, use the __init__() function to assign values for name and age:

class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

p1 = Person("John", 36)

print(p1.name)
print(p1.age)

Note: The __init__() function is called automatically every time the class is being used to create
a new object.
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The __str__() Function

The __str__() function controls what should be returned when the class object is represented as a
string.

If the __str__() function is not set, the string representation of the object is returned:

Example

The string representation of an object WITHOUT the __str__() function:

class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

p1 = Person("John", 36)

print(p1)

Example

The string representation of an object WITH the __str__() function:

class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

def __str__(self):
return f"{self.name}({self.age})"

p1 = Person("John", 36)

print(p1)

Object Methods

Objects can also contain methods. Methods in objects are functions that belong to the object.

Let us create a method in the Person class:

Example

Insert a function that prints a greeting, and execute it on the p1 object:

class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

def myfunc(self):
print("Hello my name is " + self.name)

p1 = Person("John", 36)
p1.myfunc()

Note: The self parameter is a reference to the current instance of the class, and is used to access
variables that belong to the class.

The self Parameter

The self parameter is a reference to the current instance of the class, and is used to access
variables that belongs to the class.

It does not have to be named self , you can call it whatever you like, but it has to be the first
parameter of any function in the class:

Example

Use the words mysillyobject and abc instead of self:

class Person:
def __init__(mysillyobject, name, age):
mysillyobject.name = name
mysillyobject.age = age

def myfunc(abc):
print("Hello my name is " + abc.name)

p1 = Person("John", 36)
p1.myfunc()

Modify Object Properties

You can modify properties on objects like this:

Example

Set the age of p1 to 40:

p1.age = 40

Delete Object Properties

You can delete properties on objects by using the del keyword:

Example

Delete the age property from the p1 object:

del p1.age

Delete Objects

You can delete objects by using the del keyword:

Example

Delete the p1 object:

del p1

The pass Statement

class definitions cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have a class definition with no
content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting an error.

Example

class Person:
pass

Python Inheritance

Python Inheritance
Inheritance allows us to define a class that inherits all the methods and properties from another
class.

Parent class is the class being inherited from, also called base class.

Child class is the class that inherits from another class, also called derived class.

Create a Parent Class

Any class can be a parent class, so the syntax is the same as creating any other class:

Example.

Create a class named Person, with firstname and lastname properties, and a printname method:

class Person:
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
self.firstname = fname
self.lastname = lname

def printname(self):
print(self.firstname, self.lastname)

#Use the Person class to create an object, and then execute the printname method:

x = Person("John", "Doe")
x.printname()

Create a Child Class

To create a class that inherits the functionality from another class, send the parent class as a
parameter when creating the child class:

Example

Create a class named Student, which will inherit the properties and methods from the Person
class:

class Student(Person):
pass

Note: Use the pass keyword when you do not want to add any other properties or methods to the
class.
Now the Student class has the same properties and methods as the Person class.

Example

Use the Student class to create an object, and then execute the printname method:

x = Student("Mike", "Olsen")
x.printname()

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Add the __init__() Function

So far we have created a child class that inherits the properties and methods from its parent.

We want to add the __init__() function to the child class (instead of the pass keyword).

Note: The __init__() function is called automatically every time the class is being used to create
a new object.

Example

Add the __init__() function to the Student class:

class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
#add properties etc.

When you add the __init__() function, the child class will no longer inherit the parent's
__init__() function.

Note: The child's __init__() function overrides the inheritance of the parent's __init__()
function.

To keep the inheritance of the parent's __init__() function, add a call to the parent's __init__()
function:

Example

class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
Person.__init__(self, fname, lname)

Now we have successfully added the __init__() function, and kept the inheritance of the parent
class, and we are ready to add functionality in the __init__() function.
Use the super() Function

Python also has a super() function that will make the child class inherit all the methods and
properties from its parent:

Example

class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
super().__init__(fname, lname)

By using the super() function, you do not have to use the name of the parent element, it will
automatically inherit the methods and properties from its parent.

Add Properties

Example

Add a property called graduationyear to the Student class:

class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
super().__init__(fname, lname)
self.graduationyear = 2019

In the example below, the year 2019 should be a variable, and passed into the Student class when
creating student objects. To do so, add another parameter in the __init__() function:

Example

Add a year parameter, and pass the correct year when creating objects:

class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname, year):
super().__init__(fname, lname)
self.graduationyear = year

x = Student("Mike", "Olsen", 2019)

Add Methods
Example

Add a method called welcome to the Student class:

class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname, year):
super().__init__(fname, lname)
self.graduationyear = year

def welcome(self):
print("Welcome", self.firstname, self.lastname, "to the class of", self.graduationyear)
If you add a method in the child class with the same name as a function in the parent class, the
inheritance of the parent method will be overridden.

Python Iterators

Python Iterators

An iterator is an object that contains a countable number of values.

An iterator is an object that can be iterated upon, meaning that you can traverse through all the
values.

Technically, in Python, an iterator is an object which implements the iterator protocol, which
consist of the methods __iter__() and __next__().

Iterator vs Iterable

Lists, tuples, dictionaries, and sets are all iterable objects. They are iterable containers which you
can get an iterator from.

All these objects have a iter() method which is used to get an iterator:

Example.

Return an iterator from a tuple, and print each value:

mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

myit = iter(mytuple)

print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
Even strings are iterable objects, and can return an iterator:

Example

Strings are also iterable objects, containing a sequence of characters:

mystr = "banana"
myit = iter(mystr)

print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))

Looping Through an Iterator

We can also use a for loop to iterate through an iterable object:

Example

Iterate the values of a tuple:

mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

for x in mytuple:
print(x)

Example

Iterate the characters of a string:

mystr = "banana"

for x in mystr:
print(x)

The for loop actually creates an iterator object and executes the next() method for each loop.

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Create an Iterator
To create an object/class as an iterator you have to implement the methods __iter__() and
__next__() to your object.

As you have learned in the Python Classes/Objects chapter, all classes have a function called
__init__(), which allows you to do some initializing when the object is being created.

The __iter__() method acts similar, you can do operations (initializing etc.), but must always
return the iterator object itself.

The __next__() method also allows you to do operations, and must return the next item in the
sequence.

Example

Create an iterator that returns numbers, starting with 1, and each sequence will increase by one
(returning 1,2,3,4,5 etc.):

class MyNumbers:
def __iter__(self):
self.a = 1
return self

def __next__(self):
x = self.a
self.a += 1
return x

myclass = MyNumbers()
myiter = iter(myclass)

print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))

StopIteration

The example above would continue forever if you had enough next() statements, or if it was used
in a for loop.

To prevent the iteration from going on forever, we can use the StopIteration statement.

In the __next__() method, we can add a terminating condition to raise an error if the iteration is
done a specified number of times:
Example

Stop after 20 iterations:

class MyNumbers:
def __iter__(self):
self.a = 1
return self

def __next__(self):
if self.a <= 20:
x = self.a
self.a += 1
return x
else:
raise StopIteration

myclass = MyNumbers()
myiter = iter(myclass)

for x in myiter:
print(x)

Python Polymorphism

The word "polymorphism" means "many forms", and in programming it refers to

methods/functions/operators with the same name that can be executed on many objects or
classes.

Function Polymorphism

An example of a Python function that can be used on different objects is the len() function.

String

For strings len() returns the number of characters:

Example.

x = "Hello World!"

print(len(x))

Tuple
For tuples len() returns the number of items in the tuple:

Example

mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(len(mytuple))

Dictionary

For dictionaries len() returns the number of key/value pairs in the dictionary:

Example

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

print(len(thisdict))

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Class Polymorphism

Polymorphism is often used in Class methods, where we can have multiple classes with the same
method name.

For example, say we have three classes: Car, Boat, and Plane, and they all have a method called
move():

Example

Different classes with the same method:

class Car:
def __init__(self, brand, model):
self.brand = brand
self.model = model

def move(self):
print("Drive!")

class Boat:
def __init__(self, brand, model):
self.brand = brand
self.model = model

def move(self):
print("Sail!")

class Plane:
def __init__(self, brand, model):
self.brand = brand
self.model = model

def move(self):
print("Fly!")

car1 = Car("Ford", "Mustang") #Create a Car class

boat1 = Boat("Ibiza", "Touring 20") #Create a Boat class
plane1 = Plane("Boeing", "747") #Create a Plane class

for x in (car1, boat1, plane1):

x.move()

Look at the for loop at the end. Because of polymorphism we can execute the same method for
all three classes.

Inheritance Class Polymorphism

What about classes with child classes with the same name? Can we use polymorphism there?

Yes. If we use the example above and make a parent class called Vehicle, and make Car, Boat,
Plane child classes of Vehicle, the child classes inherits the Vehicle methods, but can override
them:

Example

Create a class called Vehicle and make Car, Boat, Plane child classes of Vehicle:

class Vehicle:
def __init__(self, brand, model):
self.brand = brand
self.model = model

def move(self):
print("Move!")
class Car(Vehicle):
pass

class Boat(Vehicle):
def move(self):
print("Sail!")

class Plane(Vehicle):
def move(self):
print("Fly!")

car1 = Car("Ford", "Mustang") #Create a Car object

boat1 = Boat("Ibiza", "Touring 20") #Create a Boat object
plane1 = Plane("Boeing", "747") #Create a Plane object

for x in (car1, boat1, plane1):

print(x.brand)
print(x.model)
x.move()

Child classes inherits the properties and methods from the parent class.

In the example above you can see that the Car class is empty, but it inherits brand, model, and
move() from Vehicle.

The Boat and Plane classes also inherit brand, model, and move() from Vehicle, but they both
override the move() method.

Because of polymorphism we can execute the same method for all classes.

Python Scope

A variable is only available from inside the region it is created. This is called scope.

Local Scope

A variable created inside a function belongs to the local scope of that function, and can only be
used inside that function.

Example.

A variable created inside a function is available inside that function:

def myfunc():
x = 300
print(x)

myfunc()

Function Inside Function

As explained in the example above, the variable x is not available outside the function, but it is
available for any function inside the function:

Example

The local variable can be accessed from a function within the function:

def myfunc():
x = 300
def myinnerfunc():
print(x)
myinnerfunc()

myfunc()

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Global Scope

A variable created in the main body of the Python code is a global variable and belongs to the
global scope.

Global variables are available from within any scope, global and local.

Example

A variable created outside of a function is global and can be used by anyone:

x = 300

def myfunc():
print(x)

myfunc()

print(x)
Naming Variables

If you operate with the same variable name inside and outside of a function, Python will treat
them as two separate variables, one available in the global scope (outside the function) and one
available in the local scope (inside the function):

Example

The function will print the local x, and then the code will print the global x:

x = 300

def myfunc():
x = 200
print(x)

myfunc()

print(x)

Global Keyword

If you need to create a global variable, but are stuck in the local scope, you can use the global
keyword.

The global keyword makes the variable global.

Example

If you use the global keyword, the variable belongs to the global scope:

def myfunc():
global x
x = 300

myfunc()

print(x)

Also, use the global keyword if you want to make a change to a global variable inside a function.

Example

To change the value of a global variable inside a function, refer to the variable by using the
global keyword:
x = 300

def myfunc():
global x
x = 200

myfunc()

print(x)

Python Inheritance

Python Inheritance

Inheritance allows us to define a class that inherits all the methods and properties from another
class.

Parent class is the class being inherited from, also called base class.

Child class is the class that inherits from another class, also called derived class.

Create a Parent Class

Any class can be a parent class, so the syntax is the same as creating any other class:

Example.

Create a class named Person, with firstname and lastname properties, and a printname method:

class Person:
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
self.firstname = fname
self.lastname = lname

def printname(self):
print(self.firstname, self.lastname)

#Use the Person class to create an object, and then execute the printname method:

x = Person("John", "Doe")
x.printname()

Create a Child Class

To create a class that inherits the functionality from another class, send the parent class as a
parameter when creating the child class:

Example

Create a class named Student, which will inherit the properties and methods from the Person
class:

class Student(Person):
pass

Note: Use the pass keyword when you do not want to add any other properties or methods to the
class.

Now the Student class has the same properties and methods as the Person class.

Example

Use the Student class to create an object, and then execute the printname method:

x = Student("Mike", "Olsen")
x.printname()

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Add the __init__() Function

So far we have created a child class that inherits the properties and methods from its parent.

We want to add the __init__() function to the child class (instead of the pass keyword).

Note: The __init__() function is called automatically every time the class is being used to create
a new object.

Example

Add the __init__() function to the Student class:

class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
#add properties etc.

When you add the __init__() function, the child class will no longer inherit the parent's
__init__() function.
Note: The child's __init__() function overrides the inheritance of the parent's __init__()
function.

To keep the inheritance of the parent's __init__() function, add a call to the parent's __init__()
function:

Example

class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
Person.__init__(self, fname, lname)

Now we have successfully added the __init__() function, and kept the inheritance of the parent
class, and we are ready to add functionality in the __init__() function.

Use the super() Function

Python also has a super() function that will make the child class inherit all the methods and
properties from its parent:

Example

class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
super().__init__(fname, lname)

By using the super() function, you do not have to use the name of the parent element, it will
automatically inherit the methods and properties from its parent.

Add Properties

Example

Add a property called graduationyear to the Student class:

class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
super().__init__(fname, lname)
self.graduationyear = 2019

In the example below, the year 2019 should be a variable, and passed into the Student class when
creating student objects. To do so, add another parameter in the __init__() function:
Example

Add a year parameter, and pass the correct year when creating objects:

class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname, year):
super().__init__(fname, lname)
self.graduationyear = year

x = Student("Mike", "Olsen", 2019)

Add Methods

Example

Add a method called welcome to the Student class:

class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname, year):
super().__init__(fname, lname)
self.graduationyear = year

def welcome(self):
print("Welcome", self.firstname, self.lastname, "to the class of", self.graduationyear)
If you add a method in the child class with the same name as a function in the parent class, the
inheritance of the parent method will be overridden.

Python Modules

What is a Module?

Consider a module to be the same as a code library.

A file containing a set of functions you want to include in your application.

Create a Module

To create a module just save the code you want in a file with the file extension .py:

Example.

Save this code in a file named mymodule.py

def greeting(name):
print("Hello, " + name)

Use a Module

Now we can use the module we just created, by using the import statement:

Example

Import the module named mymodule, and call the greeting function:

import mymodule

mymodule.greeting("Jonathan")

Note: When using a function from a module, use the syntax: module_name.function_name.

Variables in Module

The module can contain functions, as already described, but also variables of all types (arrays,
dictionaries, objects etc):

Example

Save this code in the file mymodule.py

person1 = {
"name": "John",
"age": 36,
"country": "Norway"
}

Example

Import the module named mymodule, and access the person1 dictionary:

import mymodule

a = mymodule.person1["age"]
print(a)

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Naming a Module

You can name the module file whatever you like, but it must have the file extension .py

Re-naming a Module

You can create an alias when you import a module, by using the as keyword:

Example

Create an alias for mymodule called mx:

import mymodule as mx

a = mx.person1["age"]
print(a)

Built-in Modules

There are several built-in modules in Python, which you can import whenever you like.

Example

Import and use the platform module:

import platform

x = platform.system()
print(x)

Using the dir() Function

There is a built-in function to list all the function names (or variable names) in a module. The
dir() function:

Example

List all the defined names belonging to the platform module:

import platform

x = dir(platform)
print(x)
Note: The dir() function can be used on all modules, also the ones you create yourself.

Import From Module

You can choose to import only parts from a module, by using the from keyword.

Example

The module named mymodule has one function and one dictionary:

def greeting(name):
print("Hello, " + name)

person1 = {
"name": "John",
"age": 36,
"country": "Norway"
}

Example

Import only the person1 dictionary from the module:

from mymodule import person1

print (person1["age"])

Python Datetime

Python Dates

A date in Python is not a data type of its own, but we can import a module named datetime to
work with dates as date objects.

Example.

Import the datetime module and display the current date:

import datetime

x = datetime.datetime.now()
print(x)
Date Output

When we execute the code from the example above the result will be:

2024-04-03 22:56:43.001393

The date contains year, month, day, hour, minute, second, and microsecond.

The datetime module has many methods to return information about the date object.

Here are a few examples, you will learn more about them later in this chapter:

Example

Return the year and name of weekday:

import datetime

x = datetime.datetime.now()

print(x.year)
print(x.strftime("%A"))

Creating Date Objects

To create a date, we can use the datetime() class (constructor) of the datetime module.

The datetime() class requires three parameters to create a date: year, month, day.

Example

Create a date object:

import datetime

x = datetime.datetime(2020, 5, 17)

print(x)

The datetime() class also takes parameters for time and timezone (hour, minute, second,
microsecond, tzone), but they are optional, and has a default value of 0, (None for timezone).

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The strftime() Method

The datetime object has a method for formatting date objects into readable strings.

The method is called strftime(), and takes one parameter, format, to specify the format of the
returned string:

Example

Display the name of the month:

import datetime

x = datetime.datetime(2018, 6, 1)

print(x.strftime("%B"))

A reference of all the legal format codes:

Directive Description Example Try it

%a Weekday, short version Wed
%A Weekday, full version Wednesday
%w Weekday as a number 0-6, 0 is Sunday 3
%d Day of month 01-31 31
%b Month name, short version Dec
%B Month name, full version December
%m Month as a number 01-12 12
%y Year, short version, without century 18
%Y Year, full version 2018
%H Hour 00-23 17
%I Hour 00-12 05
%p AM/PM PM
%M Minute 00-59 41
%S Second 00-59 08
%f Microsecond 000000-999999 548513
%z UTC offset +0100
%Z Timezone CST
%j Day number of year 001-366 365
%U Week number of year, Sunday as the first day of week, 00-53 52
%W Week number of year, Monday as the first day of week, 00-53 52
%c Local version of date and time Mon Dec 31 17:41:00 2018
%C Century 20
%x Local version of date 12/31/18
%X Local version of time 17:41:00
%% A % character %
%G ISO 8601 year 2018
%u ISO 8601 weekday (1-7) 1
%V ISO 8601 weeknumber (01-53) 01

Python Math

Python has a set of built-in math functions, including an extensive math module, that allows you
to perform mathematical tasks on numbers.

Built-in Math Functions

The min() and max() functions can be used to find the lowest or highest value in an iterable:

Example.

x = min(5, 10, 25)

y = max(5, 10, 25)

print(x)
print(y)

The abs() function returns the absolute (positive) value of the specified number:

Example

x = abs(-7.25)

print(x)

The pow(x, y) function returns the value of x to the power of y (xy).

Example

Return the value of 4 to the power of 3 (same as 4 * 4 * 4):

x = pow(4, 3)

print(x)

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The Math Module

Python has also a built-in module called math, which extends the list of mathematical functions.

To use it, you must import the math module:

import math

When you have imported the math module, you can start using methods and constants of the
module.

The math.sqrt() method for example, returns the square root of a number:

Example

import math

x = math.sqrt(64)

print(x)

The math.ceil() method rounds a number upwards to its nearest integer, and the math.floor()
method rounds a number downwards to its nearest integer, and returns the result:

Example

import math

x = math.ceil(1.4)
y = math.floor(1.4)

print(x) # returns 2
print(y) # returns 1

The math.pi constant, returns the value of PI (3.14...):

Example

import math

x = math.pi

print(x)

Python PIP

What is PIP?
PIP is a package manager for Python packages, or modules if you like.

Note: If you have Python version 3.4 or later, PIP is included by default.

What is a Package?

A package contains all the files you need for a module.

Modules are Python code libraries you can include in your project.

Check if PIP is Installed

Navigate your command line to the location of Python's script directory, and type the following:

Example.

Check PIP version:

C:\Users\Your Name\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python36-32\Scripts>pip --version

Install PIP

If you do not have PIP installed, you can download and install it from this page:
https://pypi.org/project/pip/

Download a Package

Downloading a package is very easy.

Open the command line interface and tell PIP to download the package you want.

Navigate your command line to the location of Python's script directory, and type the following:

Example

Download a package named "camelcase":

C:\Users\Your Name\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python36-32\Scripts>pip install

camelcase
Now you have downloaded and installed your first package!

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Using a Package

Once the package is installed, it is ready to use.

Import the "camelcase" package into your project.

Example

Import and use "camelcase":

import camelcase

c = camelcase.CamelCase()

txt = "hello world"

print(c.hump(txt))

Find Packages

Find more packages at https://pypi.org/.

Remove a Package

Use the uninstall command to remove a package:

Example

Uninstall the package named "camelcase":

C:\Users\Your Name\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python36-32\Scripts>pip uninstall

camelcase

The PIP Package Manager will ask you to confirm that you want to remove the camelcase
package:
Uninstalling camelcase-02.1:
Would remove:
c:\users\Your Name\appdata\local\programs\python\python36-32\lib\site-packages\camelcase-
0.2-py3.6.egg-info
c:\users\Your Name\appdata\local\programs\python\python36-32\lib\site-packages\camelcase\
*
Proceed (y/n)?

Press y and the package will be removed.

List Packages

Use the list command to list all the packages installed on your system:

Example

List installed packages:

C:\Users\Your Name\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python36-32\Scripts>pip list

Result:

Package Version
-----------------------
camelcase 0.2
mysql-connector 2.1.6
pip 18.1
pymongo 3.6.1
setuptools 39.0.1

Python Try Except

The try block lets you test a block of code for errors.

The except block lets you handle the error.

The else block lets you execute code when there is no error.

The finally block lets you execute code, regardless of the result of the try- and except blocks.

Exception Handling
When an error occurs, or exception as we call it, Python will normally stop and generate an error
message.

These exceptions can be handled using the try statement:

Example.

The try block will generate an exception, because x is not defined:

try:
print(x)
except:
print("An exception occurred")

Since the try block raises an error, the except block will be executed.

Without the try block, the program will crash and raise an error:

Example

This statement will raise an error, because x is not defined:

print(x)

Many Exceptions

You can define as many exception blocks as you want, e.g. if you want to execute a special block
of code for a special kind of error:

Example

Print one message if the try block raises a NameError and another for other errors:

try:
print(x)
except NameError:
print("Variable x is not defined")
except:
print("Something else went wrong")

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Else
You can use the else keyword to define a block of code to be executed if no errors were raised:

Example

In this example, the try block does not generate any error:

try:
print("Hello")
except:
print("Something went wrong")
else:
print("Nothing went wrong")

Finally

The finally block, if specified, will be executed regardless if the try block raises an error or not.

Example

try:
print(x)
except:
print("Something went wrong")
finally:
print("The 'try except' is finished")

This can be useful to close objects and clean up resources:

Example

Try to open and write to a file that is not writable:

try:
f = open("demofile.txt")
try:
f.write("Lorum Ipsum")
except:
print("Something went wrong when writing to the file")
finally:
f.close()
except:
print("Something went wrong when opening the file")

The program can continue, without leaving the file object open.
Raise an exception

As a Python developer you can choose to throw an exception if a condition occurs.

To throw (or raise) an exception, use the raise keyword.

Example

Raise an error and stop the program if x is lower than 0:

x = -1

if x < 0:
raise Exception("Sorry, no numbers below zero")

The raise keyword is used to raise an exception.

You can define what kind of error to raise, and the text to print to the user.

Example

Raise a TypeError if x is not an integer:

x = "hello"

if not type(x) is int:

raise TypeError("Only integers are allowed")

Python User Input

User Input

Python allows for user input.

That means we are able to ask the user for input.

The method is a bit different in Python 3.6 than Python 2.7.

Python 3.6 uses the input() method.

Python 2.7 uses the raw_input() method.

The following example asks for the username, and when you entered the username, it gets
printed on the screen:
Python 3.6.

username = input("Enter username:")

print("Username is: " + username)

Python 2.7

username = raw_input("Enter username:")

print("Username is: " + username)

Python String Formatting

To make sure a string will display as expected, we can format the result with the format()
method.

String format()

The format() method allows you to format selected parts of a string.

Sometimes there are parts of a text that you do not control, maybe they come from a database, or
user input?

To control such values, add placeholders (curly brackets {}) in the text, and run the values
through the format() method:

Example.

Add a placeholder where you want to display the price:

price = 49
txt = "The price is {} dollars"
print(txt.format(price))

You can add parameters inside the curly brackets to specify how to convert the value:

Example

Format the price to be displayed as a number with two decimals:

txt = "The price is {:.2f} dollars"

Check out all formatting types in our String format() Reference.

Multiple Values

If you want to use more values, just add more values to the format() method:

print(txt.format(price, itemno, count))

And add more placeholders:

Example

quantity = 3
itemno = 567
price = 49
myorder = "I want {} pieces of item number {} for {:.2f} dollars."
print(myorder.format(quantity, itemno, price))

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Index Numbers

You can use index numbers (a number inside the curly brackets {0}) to be sure the values are
placed in the correct placeholders:

Example

quantity = 3
itemno = 567
price = 49
myorder = "I want {0} pieces of item number {1} for {2:.2f} dollars."
print(myorder.format(quantity, itemno, price))

Also, if you want to refer to the same value more than once, use the index number:

Example

age = 36
name = "John"
txt = "His name is {1}. {1} is {0} years old."
print(txt.format(age, name))

Named Indexes

You can also use named indexes by entering a name inside the curly brackets {carname}, but
then you must use names when you pass the parameter values txt.format(carname = "Ford"):
Example

myorder = "I have a {carname}, it is a {model}."

print(myorder.format(carname = "Ford", model = "Mustang"))

Python File Open

File handling is an important part of any web application.

Python has several functions for creating, reading, updating, and deleting files.

File Handling

The key function for working with files in Python is the open() function.

The open() function takes two parameters; filename, and mode.

There are four different methods (modes) for opening a file:

"r" - Read - Default value. Opens a file for reading, error if the file does not exist

"a" - Append - Opens a file for appending, creates the file if it does not exist

"w" - Write - Opens a file for writing, creates the file if it does not exist

"x" - Create - Creates the specified file, returns an error if the file exists

In addition you can specify if the file should be handled as binary or text mode

"t" - Text - Default value. Text mode

"b" - Binary - Binary mode (e.g. images)

Syntax

To open a file for reading it is enough to specify the name of the file:

f = open("demofile.txt")

The code above is the same as:

f = open("demofile.txt", "rt")
Because "r" for read, and "t" for text are the default values, you do not need to specify them.

Note: Make sure the file exists, or else you will get an error.

Python File Open

Open a File on the Server

Assume we have the following file, located in the same folder as Python:

demofile.txt

Hello! Welcome to demofile.txt

This file is for testing purposes.
Good Luck!

To open the file, use the built-in open() function.

The open() function returns a file object, which has a read() method for reading the content of the
file:

Example.

f = open("demofile.txt", "r")
print(f.read())

If the file is located in a different location, you will have to specify the file path, like this:

Example

Open a file on a different location:

f = open("D:\\myfiles\welcome.txt", "r")
print(f.read())

Read Only Parts of the File

By default the read() method returns the whole text, but you can also specify how many
characters you want to return:

Example

Return the 5 first characters of the file:

f = open("demofile.txt", "r")
print(f.read(5))

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Read Lines

You can return one line by using the readline() method:

Example

Read one line of the file:

f = open("demofile.txt", "r")
print(f.readline())

By calling readline() two times, you can read the two first lines:

Example

Read two lines of the file:

f = open("demofile.txt", "r")
print(f.readline())
print(f.readline())

By looping through the lines of the file, you can read the whole file, line by line:

Example

Loop through the file line by line:

f = open("demofile.txt", "r")
for x in f:
print(x)

Close Files

It is a good practice to always close the file when you are done with it.

Example

Close the file when you are finish with it:

f = open("demofile.txt", "r")
print(f.readline())
f.close()

Python File Write

Write to an Existing File

To write to an existing file, you must add a parameter to the open() function:

"a" - Append - will append to the end of the file

"w" - Write - will overwrite any existing content

Example.

Open the file "demofile2.txt" and append content to the file:

f = open("demofile2.txt", "a")
f.write("Now the file has more content!")
f.close()

#open and read the file after the appending:

f = open("demofile2.txt", "r")
print(f.read())

Example

Open the file "demofile3.txt" and overwrite the content:

f = open("demofile3.txt", "w")
f.write("Woops! I have deleted the content!")
f.close()

#open and read the file after the overwriting:

f = open("demofile3.txt", "r")
print(f.read())

Note: the "w" method will overwrite the entire file.

Create a New File

To create a new file in Python, use the open() method, with one of the following parameters:
"x" - Create - will create a file, returns an error if the file exist

"a" - Append - will create a file if the specified file does not exist

"w" - Write - will create a file if the specified file does not exist

Example

Create a file called "myfile.txt":

f = open("myfile.txt", "x")

Result: a new empty file is created!

Example

Create a new file if it does not exist:

f = open("myfile.txt", "w")

Python Delete File

Delete a File

To delete a file, you must import the OS module, and run its os.remove() function:

Example.

Remove the file "demofile.txt":

import os
os.remove("demofile.txt")

Check if File exist:

To avoid getting an error, you might want to check if the file exists before you try to delete it:

Example

Check if file exists, then delete it:

import os
if os.path.exists("demofile.txt"):
os.remove("demofile.txt")
else:
print("The file does not exist")

Delete Folder

To delete an entire folder, use the os.rmdir() method:

Example

Remove the folder "myfolder":

import os
os.rmdir("myfolder")

Note: You can only remove empty folders.

NumPy

NumPy is a Python library.

NumPy is used for working with arrays.

NumPy is short for "Numerical Python".

What is NumPy?

NumPy is a Python library used for working with arrays.

It also has functions for working in domain of linear algebra, fourier transform, and matrices.

NumPy was created in 2005 by Travis Oliphant. It is an open source project and you can use it
freely.

NumPy stands for Numerical Python.

Why Use NumPy?

In Python we have lists that serve the purpose of arrays, but they are slow to process.

NumPy aims to provide an array object that is up to 50x faster than traditional Python lists.

The array object in NumPy is called ndarray, it provides a lot of supporting functions that make
working with ndarray very easy.
Arrays are very frequently used in data science, where speed and resources are very important.

Data Science: is a branch of computer science where we study how to store, use and analyze
data for deriving information from it.

Why is NumPy Faster Than Lists?

NumPy arrays are stored at one continuous place in memory unlike lists, so processes can access
and manipulate them very efficiently.

This behavior is called locality of reference in computer science.

This is the main reason why NumPy is faster than lists. Also it is optimized to work with latest
CPU architectures.

Which Language is NumPy written in?

NumPy is a Python library and is written partially in Python, but most of the parts that require
fast computation are written in C or C++.

Where is the NumPy Codebase?

The source code for NumPy is located at this github repository https://github.com/numpy/numpy

Installation of NumPy

If you have Python and PIP already installed on a system, then installation of NumPy is very
easy.

Install it using this command:

C:\Users\Your Name>pip install numpy

If this command fails, then use a python distribution that already has NumPy installed like,
Anaconda, Spyder etc.

Import NumPy
Once NumPy is installed, import it in your applications by adding the import keyword:

import numpy

Now NumPy is imported and ready to use.

Example.

import numpy

arr = numpy.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])

print(arr)

NumPy as np

NumPy is usually imported under the np alias.

alias: In Python alias are an alternate name for referring to the same thing.

Create an alias with the as keyword while importing:

import numpy as np

Now the NumPy package can be referred to as np instead of numpy.

Example

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])

print(arr)

Checking NumPy Version

The version string is stored under __version__ attribute.

Example

import numpy as np

print(np.__version__)
NumPy Creating Arrays

Create a NumPy ndarray Object

NumPy is used to work with arrays. The array object in NumPy is called ndarray.

We can create a NumPy ndarray object by using the array() function.

Example.

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])

print(arr)

print(type(arr))

type(): This built-in Python function tells us the type of the object passed to it. Like in above
code it shows that arr is numpy.ndarray type.

To create an ndarray, we can pass a list, tuple or any array-like object into the array() method,
and it will be converted into an ndarray:

Example

Use a tuple to create a NumPy array:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array((1, 2, 3, 4, 5))

print(arr)

Dimensions in Arrays

A dimension in arrays is one level of array depth (nested arrays).

nested array: are arrays that have arrays as their elements.

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0-D Arrays
0-D arrays, or Scalars, are the elements in an array. Each value in an array is a 0-D array.

Example

Create a 0-D array with value 42

import numpy as np

arr = np.array(42)

print(arr)

1-D Arrays

An array that has 0-D arrays as its elements is called uni-dimensional or 1-D array.

These are the most common and basic arrays.

Example

Create a 1-D array containing the values 1,2,3,4,5:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])

print(arr)

2-D Arrays

An array that has 1-D arrays as its elements is called a 2-D array.

These are often used to represent matrix or 2nd order tensors.

NumPy has a whole sub module dedicated towards matrix operations called numpy.mat

Example

Create a 2-D array containing two arrays with the values 1,2,3 and 4,5,6:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])

print(arr)

3-D arrays

An array that has 2-D arrays (matrices) as its elements is called 3-D array.

These are often used to represent a 3rd order tensor.

Example

Create a 3-D array with two 2-D arrays, both containing two arrays with the values 1,2,3 and
4,5,6:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]])

print(arr)

Check Number of Dimensions?

NumPy Arrays provides the ndim attribute that returns an integer that tells us how many
dimensions the array have.

Example

Check how many dimensions the arrays have:

import numpy as np

a = np.array(42)
b = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
c = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
d = np.array([[[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]])

print(a.ndim)
print(b.ndim)
print(c.ndim)
print(d.ndim)

Higher Dimensional Arrays

An array can have any number of dimensions.

When the array is created, you can define the number of dimensions by using the ndmin
argument.

Example

Create an array with 5 dimensions and verify that it has 5 dimensions:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4], ndmin=5)

print(arr)
print('number of dimensions :', arr.ndim)

In this array the innermost dimension (5th dim) has 4 elements, the 4th dim has 1 element that is
the vector, the 3rd dim has 1 element that is the matrix with the vector, the 2nd dim has 1
element that is 3D array and 1st dim has 1 element that is a 4D array.

NumPy Array Indexing

Access Array Elements

Array indexing is the same as accessing an array element.

You can access an array element by referring to its index number.

The indexes in NumPy arrays start with 0, meaning that the first element has index 0, and the
second has index 1 etc.

Example.

Get the first element from the following array:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])

print(arr[0])

Example

Get the second element from the following array.

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])

print(arr[1])

Example

Get third and fourth elements from the following array and add them.

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])

print(arr[2] + arr[3])

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Access 2-D Arrays

To access elements from 2-D arrays we can use comma separated integers representing the
dimension and the index of the element.

Think of 2-D arrays like a table with rows and columns, where the dimension represents the row
and the index represents the column.

Example

Access the element on the first row, second column:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[1,2,3,4,5], [6,7,8,9,10]])

print('2nd element on 1st row: ', arr[0, 1])

Example

Access the element on the 2nd row, 5th column:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[1,2,3,4,5], [6,7,8,9,10]])

print('5th element on 2nd row: ', arr[1, 4])

Access 3-D Arrays

To access elements from 3-D arrays we can use comma separated integers representing the
dimensions and the index of the element.

Example

Access the third element of the second array of the first array:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], [[7, 8, 9], [10, 11, 12]]])

print(arr[0, 1, 2])

Example Explained

arr[0, 1, 2] prints the value 6.

And this is why:

The first number represents the first dimension, which contains two arrays:
[[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]
and:
[[7, 8, 9], [10, 11, 12]]
Since we selected 0, we are left with the first array:
[[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]

The second number represents the second dimension, which also contains two arrays:
[1, 2, 3]
and:
[4, 5, 6]
Since we selected 1, we are left with the second array:
[4, 5, 6]

The third number represents the third dimension, which contains three values:
4
5
6
Since we selected 2, we end up with the third value:
6
Negative Indexing

Use negative indexing to access an array from the end.

Example

Print the last element from the 2nd dim:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[1,2,3,4,5], [6,7,8,9,10]])

print('Last element from 2nd dim: ', arr[1, -1])

NumPy Array Slicing

Slicing arrays

Slicing in python means taking elements from one given index to another given index.

We pass slice instead of index like this: [start:end].

We can also define the step, like this: [start:end:step].

If we don't pass start its considered 0

If we don't pass end its considered length of array in that dimension

If we don't pass step its considered 1

Example.

Slice elements from index 1 to index 5 from the following array:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7])

print(arr[1:5])

Note: The result includes the start index, but excludes the end index.

Example

Slice elements from index 4 to the end of the array:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7])

print(arr[4:])

Example

Slice elements from the beginning to index 4 (not included):

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7])

print(arr[:4])

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Negative Slicing

Use the minus operator to refer to an index from the end:

Example

Slice from the index 3 from the end to index 1 from the end:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7])

print(arr[-3:-1])

STEP

Use the step value to determine the step of the slicing:

Example

Return every other element from index 1 to index 5:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7])

print(arr[1:5:2])

Example

Return every other element from the entire array:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7])

print(arr[::2])

Slicing 2-D Arrays

Example

From the second element, slice elements from index 1 to index 4 (not included):

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[1, 2, 3, 4, 5], [6, 7, 8, 9, 10]])

print(arr[1, 1:4])

Note: Remember that second element has index 1.

Example

From both elements, return index 2:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[1, 2, 3, 4, 5], [6, 7, 8, 9, 10]])

print(arr[0:2, 2])

Example

From both elements, slice index 1 to index 4 (not included), this will return a 2-D array:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[1, 2, 3, 4, 5], [6, 7, 8, 9, 10]])

print(arr[0:2, 1:4])

NumPy Data Types

Data Types in Python

By default Python have these data types:

 strings - used to represent text data, the text is given under quote marks. e.g. "ABCD"
 integer - used to represent integer numbers. e.g. -1, -2, -3
 float - used to represent real numbers. e.g. 1.2, 42.42
 boolean - used to represent True or False.
 complex - used to represent complex numbers. e.g. 1.0 + 2.0j, 1.5 + 2.5j

Data Types in NumPy

NumPy has some extra data types, and refer to data types with one character, like i for integers, u
for unsigned integers etc.

Below is a list of all data types in NumPy and the characters used to represent them.

 i - integer
 b - boolean
 u - unsigned integer
 f - float
 c - complex float
 m - timedelta
 M - datetime
 O - object
 S - string
 U - unicode string
 V - fixed chunk of memory for other type ( void )

Checking the Data Type of an Array

The NumPy array object has a property called dtype that returns the data type of the array:

Example.

Get the data type of an array object:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])

print(arr.dtype)

Example

Get the data type of an array containing strings:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array(['apple', 'banana', 'cherry'])

print(arr.dtype)

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Creating Arrays With a Defined Data Type

We use the array() function to create arrays, this function can take an optional argument: dtype
that allows us to define the expected data type of the array elements:

Example

Create an array with data type string:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype='S')

print(arr)
print(arr.dtype)

For i, u, f, S and U we can define size as well.

Example

Create an array with data type 4 bytes integer:

import numpy as np
arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype='i4')

print(arr)
print(arr.dtype)

What if a Value Can Not Be Converted?

If a type is given in which elements can't be casted then NumPy will raise a ValueError.

ValueError: In Python ValueError is raised when the type of passed argument to a function is
unexpected/incorrect.

Example

A non integer string like 'a' can not be converted to integer (will raise an error):

import numpy as np

arr = np.array(['a', '2', '3'], dtype='i')

Converting Data Type on Existing Arrays

The best way to change the data type of an existing array, is to make a copy of the array with the
astype() method.

The astype() function creates a copy of the array, and allows you to specify the data type as a
parameter.

The data type can be specified using a string, like 'f' for float, 'i' for integer etc. or you can use the
data type directly like float for float and int for integer.

Example

Change data type from float to integer by using 'i' as parameter value:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1.1, 2.1, 3.1])

newarr = arr.astype('i')
print(newarr)
print(newarr.dtype)

Example

Change data type from float to integer by using int as parameter value:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1.1, 2.1, 3.1])

newarr = arr.astype(int)

print(newarr)
print(newarr.dtype)

Example

Change data type from integer to boolean:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 0, 3])

newarr = arr.astype(bool)

print(newarr)
print(newarr.dtype)

NumPy Array Copy vs View

The Difference Between Copy and View

The main difference between a copy and a view of an array is that the copy is a new array, and
the view is just a view of the original array.

The copy owns the data and any changes made to the copy will not affect original array, and any
changes made to the original array will not affect the copy.

The view does not own the data and any changes made to the view will affect the original array,
and any changes made to the original array will affect the view.

COPY:
Example.

Make a copy, change the original array, and display both arrays:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])

x = arr.copy()
arr[0] = 42

print(arr)
print(x)

The copy SHOULD NOT be affected by the changes made to the original array.

VIEW:

Example

Make a view, change the original array, and display both arrays:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])

x = arr.view()
arr[0] = 42

print(arr)
print(x)

The view SHOULD be affected by the changes made to the original array.

Make Changes in the VIEW:

Example

Make a view, change the view, and display both arrays:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])

x = arr.view()
x[0] = 31
print(arr)
print(x)

The original array SHOULD be affected by the changes made to the view.

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Check if Array Owns its Data

As mentioned above, copies owns the data, and views does not own the data, but how can we
check this?

Every NumPy array has the attribute base that returns None if the array owns the data.

Otherwise, the base attribute refers to the original object.

Example

Print the value of the base attribute to check if an array owns it's data or not:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])

x = arr.copy()
y = arr.view()

print(x.base)
print(y.base)

The copy returns None.

The view returns the original array.

NumPy Array Shape

Shape of an Array

The shape of an array is the number of elements in each dimension.

Get the Shape of an Array

NumPy arrays have an attribute called shape that returns a tuple with each index having the
number of corresponding elements.

Example.

Print the shape of a 2-D array:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[1, 2, 3, 4], [5, 6, 7, 8]])

print(arr.shape)

The example above returns (2, 4), which means that the array has 2 dimensions, where the first
dimension has 2 elements and the second has 4.

Example

Create an array with 5 dimensions using ndmin using a vector with values 1,2,3,4 and verify that
last dimension has value 4:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4], ndmin=5)

print(arr)
print('shape of array :', arr.shape)

What does the shape tuple represent?

Integers at every index tells about the number of elements the corresponding dimension has.

In the example above at index-4 we have value 4, so we can say that 5th ( 4 + 1 th) dimension
has 4 elements.

NumPy Array Reshaping

Reshaping arrays

Reshaping means changing the shape of an array.

The shape of an array is the number of elements in each dimension.

By reshaping we can add or remove dimensions or change number of elements in each
dimension.

Reshape From 1-D to 2-D

Example.

Convert the following 1-D array with 12 elements into a 2-D array.

The outermost dimension will have 4 arrays, each with 3 elements:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12])

newarr = arr.reshape(4, 3)

print(newarr)

Reshape From 1-D to 3-D

Example

Convert the following 1-D array with 12 elements into a 3-D array.

The outermost dimension will have 2 arrays that contains 3 arrays, each with 2 elements:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12])

newarr = arr.reshape(2, 3, 2)

print(newarr)

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Can We Reshape Into any Shape?

Yes, as long as the elements required for reshaping are equal in both shapes.
We can reshape an 8 elements 1D array into 4 elements in 2 rows 2D array but we cannot
reshape it into a 3 elements 3 rows 2D array as that would require 3x3 = 9 elements.

Example

Try converting 1D array with 8 elements to a 2D array with 3 elements in each dimension (will
raise an error):

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8])

newarr = arr.reshape(3, 3)

print(newarr)

Returns Copy or View?

Example

Check if the returned array is a copy or a view:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8])

print(arr.reshape(2, 4).base)

The example above returns the original array, so it is a view.

Unknown Dimension

You are allowed to have one "unknown" dimension.

Meaning that you do not have to specify an exact number for one of the dimensions in the
reshape method.

Pass -1 as the value, and NumPy will calculate this number for you.

Example

Convert 1D array with 8 elements to 3D array with 2x2 elements:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8])

newarr = arr.reshape(2, 2, -1)

print(newarr)

Note: We can not pass -1 to more than one dimension.

Flattening the arrays

Flattening array means converting a multidimensional array into a 1D array.

We can use reshape(-1) to do this.

Example

Convert the array into a 1D array:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])

newarr = arr.reshape(-1)

print(newarr)

Note: There are a lot of functions for changing the shapes of arrays in numpy flatten, ravel and
also for rearranging the elements rot90, flip, fliplr, flipud etc. These fall under Intermediate to
Advanced section of numpy.

NumPy Array Iterating

Iterating Arrays

Iterating means going through elements one by one.

As we deal with multi-dimensional arrays in numpy, we can do this using basic for loop of
python.

If we iterate on a 1-D array it will go through each element one by one.

Example.
Iterate on the elements of the following 1-D array:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3])

for x in arr:
print(x)

Iterating 2-D Arrays

In a 2-D array it will go through all the rows.

Example

Iterate on the elements of the following 2-D array:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])

for x in arr:
print(x)

If we iterate on a n-D array it will go through n-1th dimension one by one.

To return the actual values, the scalars, we have to iterate the arrays in each dimension.

Example

Iterate on each scalar element of the 2-D array:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])

for x in arr:
for y in x:
print(y)

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Iterating 3-D Arrays

In a 3-D array it will go through all the 2-D arrays.

Example

Iterate on the elements of the following 3-D array:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], [[7, 8, 9], [10, 11, 12]]])

for x in arr:
print(x)

To return the actual values, the scalars, we have to iterate the arrays in each dimension.

Example

Iterate down to the scalars:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], [[7, 8, 9], [10, 11, 12]]])

for x in arr:
for y in x:
for z in y:
print(z)

Iterating Arrays Using nditer()

The function nditer() is a helping function that can be used from very basic to very advanced
iterations. It solves some basic issues which we face in iteration, lets go through it with
examples.

Iterating on Each Scalar Element

In basic for loops, iterating through each scalar of an array we need to use n for loops which can
be difficult to write for arrays with very high dimensionality.

Example

Iterate through the following 3-D array:

import numpy as np
arr = np.array([[[1, 2], [3, 4]], [[5, 6], [7, 8]]])

for x in np.nditer(arr):
print(x)

Iterating Array With Different Data Types

We can use op_dtypes argument and pass it the expected datatype to change the datatype of
elements while iterating.

NumPy does not change the data type of the element in-place (where the element is in array) so it
needs some other space to perform this action, that extra space is called buffer, and in order to
enable it in nditer() we pass flags=['buffered'].

Example

Iterate through the array as a string:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3])

for x in np.nditer(arr, flags=['buffered'], op_dtypes=['S']):

print(x)

Iterating With Different Step Size

We can use filtering and followed by iteration.

Example

Iterate through every scalar element of the 2D array skipping 1 element:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[1, 2, 3, 4], [5, 6, 7, 8]])

for x in np.nditer(arr[:, ::2]):

print(x)

Enumerated Iteration Using ndenumerate()

Enumeration means mentioning sequence number of somethings one by one.

Sometimes we require corresponding index of the element while iterating, the ndenumerate()
method can be used for those usecases.

Example

Enumerate on following 1D arrays elements:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3])

for idx, x in np.ndenumerate(arr):

print(idx, x)

Example

Enumerate on following 2D array's elements:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[1, 2, 3, 4], [5, 6, 7, 8]])

for idx, x in np.ndenumerate(arr):

print(idx, x)

NumPy Joining Array

Joining NumPy Arrays

Joining means putting contents of two or more arrays in a single array.

In SQL we join tables based on a key, whereas in NumPy we join arrays by axes.

We pass a sequence of arrays that we want to join to the concatenate() function, along with the
axis. If axis is not explicitly passed, it is taken as 0.

Example.

Join two arrays

import numpy as np

arr1 = np.array([1, 2, 3])

arr2 = np.array([4, 5, 6])

arr = np.concatenate((arr1, arr2))

print(arr)

Example

Join two 2-D arrays along rows (axis=1):

import numpy as np

arr1 = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

arr2 = np.array([[5, 6], [7, 8]])

arr = np.concatenate((arr1, arr2), axis=1)

print(arr)

Joining Arrays Using Stack Functions

Stacking is same as concatenation, the only difference is that stacking is done along a new axis.

We can concatenate two 1-D arrays along the second axis which would result in putting them
one over the other, ie. stacking.

We pass a sequence of arrays that we want to join to the stack() method along with the axis. If
axis is not explicitly passed it is taken as 0.

Example

import numpy as np

arr1 = np.array([1, 2, 3])

arr2 = np.array([4, 5, 6])

arr = np.stack((arr1, arr2), axis=1)

print(arr)

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Stacking Along Rows

NumPy provides a helper function: hstack() to stack along rows.

Example

import numpy as np

arr1 = np.array([1, 2, 3])

arr2 = np.array([4, 5, 6])

arr = np.hstack((arr1, arr2))

print(arr)

Stacking Along Columns

NumPy provides a helper function: vstack() to stack along columns.

Example

import numpy as np

arr1 = np.array([1, 2, 3])

arr2 = np.array([4, 5, 6])

arr = np.vstack((arr1, arr2))

print(arr)

Stacking Along Height (depth)

NumPy provides a helper function: dstack() to stack along height, which is the same as depth.

Example

import numpy as np

arr1 = np.array([1, 2, 3])

arr2 = np.array([4, 5, 6])

arr = np.dstack((arr1, arr2))

print(arr)

NumPy Splitting Array

Splitting NumPy Arrays

Splitting is reverse operation of Joining.

Joining merges multiple arrays into one and Splitting breaks one array into multiple.

We use array_split() for splitting arrays, we pass it the array we want to split and the number of
splits.

Example.

Split the array in 3 parts:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])

newarr = np.array_split(arr, 3)

print(newarr)

Note: The return value is a list containing three arrays.

If the array has less elements than required, it will adjust from the end accordingly.

Example

Split the array in 4 parts:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])

newarr = np.array_split(arr, 4)

print(newarr)

Note: We also have the method split() available but it will not adjust the elements when elements
are less in source array for splitting like in example above, array_split() worked properly but
split() would fail.
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Split Into Arrays

The return value of the array_split() method is an array containing each of the split as an array.

If you split an array into 3 arrays, you can access them from the result just like any array
element:

Example

Access the splitted arrays:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])

newarr = np.array_split(arr, 3)

print(newarr[0])
print(newarr[1])
print(newarr[2])

Splitting 2-D Arrays

Use the same syntax when splitting 2-D arrays.

Use the array_split() method, pass in the array you want to split and the number of splits you
want to do.

Example

Split the 2-D array into three 2-D arrays.

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6], [7, 8], [9, 10], [11, 12]])

newarr = np.array_split(arr, 3)

print(newarr)

The example above returns three 2-D arrays.

Let's look at another example, this time each element in the 2-D arrays contains 3 elements.

Example

Split the 2-D array into three 2-D arrays.

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9], [10, 11, 12], [13, 14, 15], [16, 17, 18]])

newarr = np.array_split(arr, 3)

print(newarr)

The example above returns three 2-D arrays.

In addition, you can specify which axis you want to do the split around.

The example below also returns three 2-D arrays, but they are split along the row (axis=1).

Example

Split the 2-D array into three 2-D arrays along rows.

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9], [10, 11, 12], [13, 14, 15], [16, 17, 18]])

newarr = np.array_split(arr, 3, axis=1)

print(newarr)

An alternate solution is using hsplit() opposite of hstack()

Example

Use the hsplit() method to split the 2-D array into three 2-D arrays along rows.

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9], [10, 11, 12], [13, 14, 15], [16, 17, 18]])

newarr = np.hsplit(arr, 3)

print(newarr)
Note: Similar alternates to vstack() and dstack() are available as vsplit() and dsplit().

NumPy Searching Arrays

Searching Arrays

You can search an array for a certain value, and return the indexes that get a match.

To search an array, use the where() method.

Example.

Find the indexes where the value is 4:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 4])

x = np.where(arr == 4)

print(x)

The example above will return a tuple: (array([3, 5, 6],)

Which means that the value 4 is present at index 3, 5, and 6.

Example

Find the indexes where the values are even:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8])

x = np.where(arr%2 == 0)

print(x)

Example

Find the indexes where the values are odd:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8])

x = np.where(arr%2 == 1)

print(x)

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Search Sorted

There is a method called searchsorted() which performs a binary search in the array, and returns
the index where the specified value would be inserted to maintain the search order.

The searchsorted() method is assumed to be used on sorted arrays.

Example

Find the indexes where the value 7 should be inserted:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([6, 7, 8, 9])

x = np.searchsorted(arr, 7)

print(x)

Example explained: The number 7 should be inserted on index 1 to remain the sort order.

The method starts the search from the left and returns the first index where the number 7 is no
longer larger than the next value.

Search From the Right Side

By default the left most index is returned, but we can give side='right' to return the right most
index instead.

Example

Find the indexes where the value 7 should be inserted, starting from the right:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([6, 7, 8, 9])

x = np.searchsorted(arr, 7, side='right')
print(x)

Example explained: The number 7 should be inserted on index 2 to remain the sort order.

The method starts the search from the right and returns the first index where the number 7 is no
longer less than the next value.

Multiple Values

To search for more than one value, use an array with the specified values.

Example

Find the indexes where the values 2, 4, and 6 should be inserted:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 3, 5, 7])

x = np.searchsorted(arr, [2, 4, 6])

print(x)

NumPy Sorting Arrays

Sorting Arrays

Sorting means putting elements in an ordered sequence.

Ordered sequence is any sequence that has an order corresponding to elements, like numeric or
alphabetical, ascending or descending.

The NumPy ndarray object has a function called sort(), that will sort a specified array.

Example.

Sort the array:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([3, 2, 0, 1])

print(np.sort(arr))

Note: This method returns a copy of the array, leaving the original array unchanged.
You can also sort arrays of strings, or any other data type:

Example

Sort the array alphabetically:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array(['banana', 'cherry', 'apple'])

print(np.sort(arr))

Example

Sort a boolean array:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([True, False, True])

print(np.sort(arr))

Sorting a 2-D Array

If you use the sort() method on a 2-D array, both arrays will be sorted:

Example

Sort a 2-D array:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[3, 2, 4], [5, 0, 1]])

print(np.sort(arr))

NumPy Filter Array

Filtering Arrays

Getting some elements out of an existing array and creating a new array out of them is called
filtering.

In NumPy, you filter an array using a boolean index list.

A boolean index list is a list of booleans corresponding to indexes in the array.

If the value at an index is True that element is contained in the filtered array, if the value at that
index is False that element is excluded from the filtered array.

Example.

Create an array from the elements on index 0 and 2:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([41, 42, 43, 44])

x = [True, False, True, False]

newarr = arr[x]

print(newarr)

The example above will return [41, 43], why?

Because the new array contains only the values where the filter array had the value True, in this
case, index 0 and 2.

Creating the Filter Array

In the example above we hard-coded the True and False values, but the common use is to create
a filter array based on conditions.

Example

Create a filter array that will return only values higher than 42:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([41, 42, 43, 44])

# Create an empty list

filter_arr = []

# go through each element in arr

for element in arr:
# if the element is higher than 42, set the value to True, otherwise False:
if element > 42:
filter_arr.append(True)
else:
filter_arr.append(False)

newarr = arr[filter_arr]

print(filter_arr)
print(newarr)

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Example

Create a filter array that will return only even elements from the original array:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7])

# Create an empty list

filter_arr = []

# go through each element in arr

for element in arr:
# if the element is completely divisble by 2, set the value to True, otherwise False
if element % 2 == 0:
filter_arr.append(True)
else:
filter_arr.append(False)

newarr = arr[filter_arr]

print(filter_arr)
print(newarr)

Creating Filter Directly From Array

The above example is quite a common task in NumPy and NumPy provides a nice way to tackle
it.

We can directly substitute the array instead of the iterable variable in our condition and it will
work just as we expect it to.

Example
Create a filter array that will return only values higher than 42:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([41, 42, 43, 44])

filter_arr = arr > 42

newarr = arr[filter_arr]

print(filter_arr)
print(newarr)

Example

Create a filter array that will return only even elements from the original array:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7])

filter_arr = arr % 2 == 0

newarr = arr[filter_arr]

print(filter_arr)
print(newarr)