Algorithm 1

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workplan
1. What is an Algorithm ?

2. Variables and Constants

3. Data Types / Operators

4. Input / Output

5. Conditions / Loops

6. Arrays (1-D , 2-D)

7. Strings

8. Structures (Structs) 2

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Inputs
- Refer to the data that is read by an algorithm from an external source,

such as a file, keyboard input, or network socket

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Output
- An algorithm's output specifies the results that must have occurred by

the time the algorithm is finished.

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Basic structure

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Basic structure

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Characteristics of an algorithm ?
● Clear and Unambiguous

Each of its steps should be clear in all aspects and must lead to only one meaning.

● Well-Defined Inputs

If an algorithm says to take inputs, it should be well-defined inputs.

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Characteristics of an algorithm ?
● Well-Defined Outputs

The algorithm must clearly define what output will be yielded and it should be

well-defined as well.

● Finite-ness

The algorithm must be finite, i.e. it should terminate after a finite time.

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Characteristics of an algorithm ?
● Feasible

The algorithm must be simple, generic, and practical, such that it can be executed with the

available resources.

● Language Independent

The Algorithm must be just plain instructions that can be implemented in any language, and yet

the output will be the same, as expected.

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Variables
- Variables are symbolic names given to data where the value of the data

stored may change during the execution of the program.

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Variables

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Basic Data types
- Each variable /constant has an associated data type.

- It specifies the type of data that the variable can store like

1. integer : -1 , -7 , 0 , 1 , 2

2. character : ‘a’ , ‘b’,

3. floats : 2.3 , 3.8, -7.89

4. characters : “a” , “word not single letter”

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Basic Data types ranges

Type Range

Int -32,768 to 32,767

Float 3.4E-38 to 3.4E+38
Double 1.7E-308 to 1.7E+308
Char -128 to 127

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Constants
- A constant is a data item whose value cannot change during the

program's execution.

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Constants

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Read in an algorithm
- To read a variable from keyboard we use :

1. read ( variable_name) : when we write a pseudo algorithm

2. scanf(“%x”,&variable_name”) : when we write a program c

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Write in an algorithm
- To write (print) a variable to the console we use :

1. write ( variable_name) : when we write a pseudo algorithm

2. printf(“%x”,variable_name”) : when we write a program c

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Example

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Example

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Example

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Operators
1. Arithmetic operators

2. Assignment operators

3. Comparison operators

4. Logical operators

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1. Arithmetic operators

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1. Arithmetic operators

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2. Assignment operators

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3. Comparison operators

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3. Logical operators

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Conditions
- Also known as conditional statements or control structures

- Used to make decisions based on certain conditions

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Conditions

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Conditions - If statement
- The if statement is used to execute a block of code if a specified condition is

true

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Conditions - If statement

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Conditions - If-else statement

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Conditions - If-else statement

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Conditions - switch statement
The switch statement is used to perform different actions based on different possible

values of a variable

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Conditions - switch statement

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Conditions - switch statement

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Loops
Loops are used in programming to repeat a block of code multiple times

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Loops
In most programming languages, there are mainly three types of loops:

1. for loop

2. while loop

3. do-while loop

4. Foreach loop

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Loops- For
The for loop is used to repeatedly execute a block of code a specified number of

times

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Loops- For

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Loops- For

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Loops- while
The while loop is used to repeatedly execute a block of code as long as a condition is

true

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Loops- while

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Loops- while

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Loops- do-while
- The do-while loop is used to repeatedly execute a block of code at least once,

and then continue execution as long as a condition is true.

- Syntax

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Loops- do-while

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Loops- do-while

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Arrays
- Arrays are data structures in programming used to store a collection of

elements

of the same type.

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Arrays 1-D
One-dimensional arrays, also known as simple arrays or vectors, are arrays that

store elements in a single row or a single column

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Arrays 1-D

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Arrays 1-D

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Arrays 1-D

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Arrays 1-D

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Arrays 2-D
- Two-dimensional arrays, also known as matrices or grids

- Are arrays that store elements in a tabular form with rows and columns with the same

type (int, float, char, ....)

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Arrays 2-D

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Arrays 2-D

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Loop through an Array 2-D

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Strings
- Strings are used for storing text/characters. ex : "Hello World"

- A String in C is a sequence of characters terminated with a null character ‘\0’

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Structures (Structs)
- A way to group several related variables into one place.

- Each variable in the structure is known as a member of the structure.

- Example

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Structures (Structs)

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Structures (Structs)

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Structures (Structs)

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Algorithm 2

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workplan
1. Functions

2. File handling

3. Recursion

4. Pointers

5. Dynamic variables

6. Stack / Queue

7. Linked List / Trees 82

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Functions
• A function is a block of code which only runs when it is called

• Functions are important for reusing code

• Define the code once, and use it many times

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Functions

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Create Function
To create a function, we need to specify :

1. Return type

2. The name of the function

3. The parameters

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Function Parameters

return_type function_fame (parameter1, parameter2)

{
// code to be executed
}

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Function Parameters

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File Handling
In C, you can create, open, read, and write to files by:

1. Declaring a pointer of type FILE

2. Use the fopen() function

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File Handling

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Create File

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Write to File

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Write to File

• As a result, when we open the file on our computer, it looks like this:

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Append Content

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Append Content
• As a result, when we open the file on our computer, it looks like this:

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Read from file
• To read from a file, you can use the r mode:

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Read from file

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Read from file

Note

• The fgets() function only reads the first line of the file.

• If you remember, there were two lines of text in filename.txt

• To read every line of the file, we use a while loop

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Read from file

Hello World!
Hi everybody!

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Recursion
• Recursion is the technique of making a function call itself.

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Recursion - Example
• Adding two numbers together is easy to do, but adding a range of
numbers is more complicated.

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Recursion - Example

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Recursion - Example

• When running, the program follows these steps:

Iteration 1: 10 + sum(9)
Iteration 2: 10 + ( 9 + sum(8) )
Iteration 3: 10 + ( 9 + ( 8 + sum(7) ) )
Iteration 4: ...
Iteration 10: 10 + 9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 + sum(0)
Iteration 11: 10 + 9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 + 0
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Recursion - Example 2

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Recursion - Example 3 (Find max in an array)

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Recursion - Example 4 (print numbers from 1 to a given number )

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Recursion - Example 4 (print numbers from 1 to a given number )

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Recursion - Example 4 (print numbers from 1 to a given number, Method 2)

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Recursion - Example 4 (print numbers from 1 to a given number, Method 2)

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Recursion - Example 4 (print numbers from 1 to a given number, Method 2)

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Recursion - More Examples
https://www.w3resource.com/c-programming-exercises/recursion/index.php

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Pointers
- When a variable is created in C, a memory address is assigned
to the variable.

- The memory address is the location of where the variable is stored on

the computer.

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Pointers
To access it, use the reference operator (&), and the result represents
where the variable is stored

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Pointers
● A pointer is a variable that stores the memory address of another
variable as its value.

● A pointer variable points to a data type (like int) of the same type,
and is created with the * operator.

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Pointers

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Pointers - Example 1

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Pointers - Example 2

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Dynamic variables
1. Compile Time

• Refers to the period during which a program is compiled, or translated from its

human-readable source code into machine-readable code

• During the compile time, the program is not executing any instructions

and there is no active interaction with the user.

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Dynamic variables
2. Run time (execution time)
- refers to the period of time during which a program is running, from when

it is started until it is terminated

- During runtime, the program is executing instructions, performing

calculations, and manipulating data according to the instructions given by

the program's code

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Dynamic variables
3. Memory Allocation

• Memory allocation refers to the process of setting aside a portion of the

computer's memory (RAM) for a program to use.

• This is where variables, arrays, and other data structures used by the

program are stored

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Dynamic variables

• Dynamic variable, also known as dynamically allocated memory

• is a way to allocate memory for a variable at runtime, rather than at

compile time.

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Dynamic variables
- When we create a dynamic variable, we use functions like malloc() or

calloc() to allocate memory for the variable.

- Once the memory is allocated, we can use the variable just like any other

variable in our program

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Dynamic variables

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Dynamic variables

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Stack
A stack is a linear data structure, a collection of items of the same type

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Stack
- A stack is a data structure that allows for the insertion and removal of

elements at one end only

- A stack follows the L.I.F.O principle, with the last inserted element being

the first to be removed.

- To access older items, previous elements must be removed

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Stack
The following are the basic operations served by stacks.

❖ push: Adds an element to the top of the stack.

❖ pop: Removes the topmost element from the stack.

❖ isEmpty: Checks whether the stack is empty.

❖ isFull: Checks whether the stack is full.

❖ topEelement: Displays the topmost element of the stack.

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Stack
The basic syntax for declaring a stack typically involves creating :

1. an array

2. an integer variable to keep track of the top element's position

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Stack

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Stack

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Stack

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Queue
- A queue is a linear data structure

- A collection of items of the same type

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Queue
• A queue is a data structure that allows for the insertion and removal

of elements at one end only

• A queue follows First-In-First-Out (FIFO) principle, which means that the

first element added to the queue will be the first one to be removed

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Queue
❖ isEmpty(): To check if the queue is empty

❖ isFull(): To check whether the queue is full or not

❖ dequeue(): Removes the element from the frontal side of the queue

❖ enqueue(): It inserts elements to the end of the queue

❖ getFront: Pointer element responsible for fetching the first element from the queue

❖ getRear: Pointer element responsible for fetching the last element from the queue

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Queue
The basic syntax for declaring a queue typically involves creating :

a. an array

b. 2 integer variables to keep track of the first & last element's position

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Queue

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Queue

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Queue

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Queue

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Queue

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Queue

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Linked List
- A linked list is a data structure that consists of a sequence of nodes

- each node containing a value and a reference to the next node in the list

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Linked List vs Array

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Why Linked List ?
• The size of the arrays is fixed

• Insertion of a new element / Deletion of a existing element in an array is

expensive

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Linked List Drawbacks
• Random access is not allowed.( sequentially starting from the first node)

• Searching for an element is costly

• Sorting of linked lists is very complex and costly

• Appending an element to a linked list is a costly operation

• ...etc (see below : https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/what-is-linked-list/ )

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Linked List
- The basic syntax for declaring a linked list typically involves creating :

1. A struct contain Data (it can be 1 variable or more)

2. Pointer to same struct

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Linked List - Basic Operations
1. Deletion (in the head , middle, end)

2. Insertion (in the head , middle, end)

3. Search

4. Display

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Linked List - Basic Operations
1. Display

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Linked List - Basic Operations
2. Delete ( in the head)

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Linked List - Basic Operations
3. Insert ( in the head)

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Trees

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Trees

Tree in c is :

✔ A non-linear data structure

✔ Contains nodes that are not connected linearly

✔ They are connected in a hierarchical manner

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Why Trees ?

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Why Trees ?
• Hierarchical structure

• Efficient searching/sorting

• Balanced trees for consistent performance

• Binary trees/heaps for various operations

• Decision trees in machine learning

• Tree-based search algorithms

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Why Trees ?
• Storage overhead

• Insertion and deletion complexity

• Lack of dynamic operations

• Inefficiency for sorted data

• Unbalanced trees

• Lack of random access

• Memory fragmentation

• Difficulty in tree traversal

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Trees
The basic syntax for declaring a tree typically involves creating :

1. a struct contain Data (it can be 1 variable or more)

2. pointer to the left child node and the right child node

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Trees - Basic Operations
● Insertion / Deletion / Search

● Traversal (In-order, Pre-order, Post-order, Level-order)

● Height / Depth / Counting Nodes

● Minimum/Maximum

● Checking Balanced Tree

● Checking if Binary Search Tree

● Mirror Image
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Trees - Basic Operations
1. In-Order Traversal : the left subtree is visited first, then the root node, and
finally the right subtree.

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Trees - Basic Operations
1. Pre-Order Traversal : the root node is visited first, then the left subtree,
and finally the right subtree.

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Trees - Basic Operations
3. Post-Order Traversal : the left subtree is visited first, then the right subtree,
and finally the root node.

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Trees - Practice Time
● Given the root of a binary tree and an integer target_sum

● return true if the tree has a root-to-leaf path such that adding up all the values

along the path equals targetSum.

● A leaf is a node with no children.

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Trees - Practice Time

target_sum = 22

Output: true

Explanation: The root-to-leaf path with the target

sum is shown

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Trees - Practice Time

target_sum = 5

Output: false

Explanation: There two root-to-leaf paths in the tree:

(1 --> 2): The sum is 3.

(1 --> 3): The sum is 4.

There is no root-to-leaf path with sum = 5.

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Trees - Practice Time (Proposed Solution)

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References
1. https://www.w3schools.com/
2. https://chat.openai.com/
3. https://www.programiz.com/

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