EDEXCEL NATIONAL CERTIFICATE

UNIT 28 – FURTHER MATHEMATICS FOR TECHNICIANS

OUTCOME 4 - CALCULUS

TUTORIAL 2 - INTEGRATION

CONTENTS

4 Be able to apply calculus

Differentiation: review of standard derivatives, differentiation of a sum, function of a function,

product and quotient rules, numerical values of differential coefficients, second derivatives,
turning points (maximum and minimum) e.g. volume of a rectangular box

Integration: review of standard integrals, indefinite integrals, definite integrals e.g. area under a
curve, mean and RMS values; numerical e.g. trapezoidal, mid-ordinate and Simpson’s rule

It is assumed that the student has completed the module MATHEMATICS FOR TECHNICIANS.

In this tutorial you will learn how to differentiate more complicated expressions.

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 1
1. REVISION

You should have covered integration in the core unit where you learned that integration is the reverse of
differentiation. The standard integrals are:
ax n +1
∫ ax dx = n + 1 + C
n

∫x
−1
dx = ln x + C
1 ax
∫e
ax
dx =
e +C
a
1
∫ sin ax dx = − a cos x + C
1
∫ cos ax dx = a sin x + C
∫ tan x dx = -ln x + C
1 1
∫ sin
2
x dx =
x - sin 2x + C
2 4
1 1
∫ cos x dx = 2 x + 4 sin 2x + C
2

∫ tan x dx = tan x - x + C
2

∫ ln x dx = x (ln x - 1) + C
FINDING AREAS

Lets consider how to find the area under the

graph of y = f(x) =3 + x2. A graph of this
function looks like this.

If we solve the area by use of calculus the

area would be precisely solved as follows.

Over the range x = 0 to x = 10 the area is

expressed as follows.
x =4

∫ (3 + x
2
A= )dx
x =0
x=4 4
⎡ x3 ⎤
Carrying out the integration gives the following. A = ∫ (3 + x )dx = ⎢3x + ⎥
2

x =0 ⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦
0
Evaluating between limits we get the following.
x=4 4
⎡ x3 ⎤ ⎡⎛ 43 ⎞ ⎛ 0 3 ⎞⎤
A = ∫ (3 + x )dx = ⎢3x + ⎥ = ⎢⎜ 3 x 4 + ⎟ − ⎜ 3 x 0 + ⎟⎥
2
3 ⎦⎥ ⎜ 3 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠⎥⎦
x =0 ⎣⎢ 0 ⎢⎣⎝
A = [(12 + 21.33) − 0] = 33.33 units

This is a precise answer and we will compare it with the results found in the following work.

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 2
GRAPHICAL METHODS

Consider the same function again and this time more grid lines are shown.

COUNTING RECTANGLES

A simple but crude way to find the area under the graph is to count the rectangles. Each rectangle
on the graph above has an area of 1 unit. Count them up judging the divided ones to the nearest half.
You should get an answer of about 34 units depending on how good you are at doing it.

MID-ORDINATE RULE

The values of y corresponding to x = 0, x = 1, x = 2 and so on are called the ordinates. The values of
y corresponding to x = 0.5, x = 1.5, x = 2.5 and so on are called the mid-ordinates.

Each column is approximately a rectangle w wide and h high. The

area is approximately w h.

The area under the whole graph is approximately

A = w h1 + w h2 + w h3 +w h4

A = w(h1 + h2 + h3 + h4)

Usually, as in this case, w =1

Putting in the mid-ordinate values we find the following.

A = 1(3.25 + 5.25 + 9.25 + 15.25) = 33 units

Clearly if we took more strips by say making w = 0.5, we would get a more accurate answer and in
the limits as w becomes very small the answer will be the same as found by integrating.

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 3
TRAPEZOIDAL RULE

Consider that each strip has a straight line joining the top corners as shown. The height at the
middle is not quite the same as the mid-ordinate and is the average of the two ordinates. If h is the
average then
h1 = (A+B)/2 h2 = (B+ C)/2 h3 = (C+ D)/2 h4 = (D+E)/2

The area of each strip is

wh1 = w(A+B)/2 wh2 = w(B+ C)/2 wh3 = w(C+ D)/2
wh4 = w(D+E)/2

The total area is

A = (w/2)[(A+B) + (B+C) + (C+D) + (D+E)]
A = (w/2)[(A+B + B+C + C+D + D+E]
A = (w/2)[(A + E) + 2(B+C+D)]

Hence in our example

A = (1/2)[(3+19) +2(4+7+12)] = (1/2)(22+46) = 34

This is slightly larger than the correct figure but again, if smaller strips are used, the answer will be
accurate. The above rule may be written as follows.
w
A = [(First + Last ) + 2 x sum of the rest ]
2

WORKED EXAMPLE No.1

Find the area under the graph of the function y = sin θ between the limits 0 and π radians using
integration and the trapezoidal rule.

SOLUTION

Evaluating the ordinates and mid-ordinates at intervals of π/8 produces the table and graph
shown.

Integration
π
A = ∫ sinθ dθ = [- cosθ]0π = −cos π + cos 0 = 1 + 1 = 2
0

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 4
Mid-ordinates w = π/4
π
A = w(h1 + h 2 + h 3 + h 4 ) = (0.393 + 0.924 + 0.924 + 0.393) = 2.068
4
Trapezoidal Rule w = π/4
w
A = [(First + Last ) + 2 x sum of the rest ]
2
π/4
A= [(0 + 0) + 2(0.707 + 1.0 + 0.707 )] = 1.896 units
2
Note one answer is slightly large and the other slightly small.

SIMPSON'S RULE

The area is divided into an even number of strips. The ordinates are h1, h2 .... The area is calculated
on the assumption that the curve joining neighbouring ordinates are a quadratic that passes through
the mid ordinate. It follows that if the curve is a parabola, the area will be exact. The derivation is
not given here as it is quite complicated but the result is as follows.

I=
w
[(first + last ) + 4(sum of the even ordinates) + 2(sum of the remaining odd ordinates)]
3

WORKED EXAMPLE No.2

Find the area under the curve f(x) = 2x2 + 4x + 8 between x = 0 and x = 4 using Simpson's Rule
with eight strips and determine the error.

SOLUTION
4 4
⎡ 2 x3 ⎤ ⎡ 2(4)3 ⎤
A = ∫ (2x + 4x + 8)dx = ⎢
2
+ 2 x 2 + 8x⎥ = ⎢ + 2(4) 2 + 8(4)⎥ − [0] = 106.67
0 ⎣ 3 ⎦0 ⎣ 3 ⎦
SIMPSON'S RULE

w
I= [(first + last ) + 4(sum of the even ordinates) + 2(sum of the remaining odd ordinates)]
3
0.5
I= [(8 + 56) + 4(10.5 + 18.5 + 30.5 + 46.5) + 2(14 + 24 + 38)]
3
0.5
I= [64 + 4(106) + 2(76)] = 0.5 [64 + 424 + 152] = 0.5 [640] = 106.67
3 3 3
The error is zero and it always is when the function is a quadratic. It follows that for a quadratic
you only need two strips.

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.1

1. Find the area under the graph of the following functions using integration, the mid-ordinate
rule and the trapezoidal rule.

y = 2x3 between the limits x = 0 and x = 5

y = ex between the limits of x = 1 and x = 5.
y = sin x between the limits x = 0 and x = 180o.

5
2. Estimate the value of the definite integral I = ∫ x 4 dx by Simpson's rule using four strips. What
1
is the error in the estimate? (625.3 and by integration it is 624.8 giving an error of 0.53 units)

In Engineering the area under the graph represents real things.

For example the area under a force – distance graph represents the work done or energy used and
the area under a pressure – volume graph also represents work done during the compression or
expansion of a gas.

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 6
WORKED EXAMPLE No. 3

The pressure (p) and volume (V) during a gas expansion is related by the law
p = 0.2V-1.2. Determine the work done when the volume is expanded from 10 x 10-6 m3 to 100 x
10-6 m3.

Use calculus and the trapezoidal rule to find the answer.

SOLUTION

INTEGRATION
V2
Area = Work = ∫ pdV but p = 0.2V −1.2
V1
V2 V V
−1.2 ⎡ V -1.2 +1 ⎤ 2 ⎡ V - 0.2 ⎤ 2
W = ∫ 0.2V dV = 0.2 ⎢ ⎥ = 0.2 ⎢ ⎥
V1 ⎢⎣ - 1.2 + 1 ⎥⎦ V ⎢⎣ - 0.2 ⎥⎦ V
1 1

[ ] ( ) ( )
−6
− 0.2 − 0.2 ⎤
W = −1 V − 0.2 10x10
1x10 −= -1⎡⎢ 100 x 10 - 6
6 − 10x10 − 6 ⎥⎦
⎣
W = -1[6.309 - 10] = 3.69 Joules

TRAPEZOIDAL RULE w = 10 x 10-6 m3

w
W= [(First + Last ) + 2 x sum of the rest ]
2

W=
10 x 10 - 6
2
[( ) ]
2 x 105 + 1.262 x 10 4 + 2 x 10 4 (8.706 + 5.352 + 3.789 + 2.899 + ....)

[( )
W = 5 x 10 - 6 212.62 x 103 + 2x10 4 (28.092 = 3.872 Joules ]

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 7
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 2

1. The electric current charging a capacitor is related to time by the following law.
I = 10(1 – e-t/2) Amps
Calculate the charge Q (the area under the graph) between the limits t = 0 and t = 6 s. Use
calculus and the trapezoidal rule. (Graph and ordinates are calculated for you)
(Answer around 41 Coulombs)

2. Find the area (with units) under the following function between the limits x = 0 and x = 10 m
using integration, the mid-ordinate rule and the trapezoidal rule.

y = 4 + 20x – x2 m
(Answers around 706.7 m2)

3. Find the area under the following function between the limits t = 0 and t = 1 s using integration,
the mid-ordinate rule and the trapezoidal rule with steps of 0.1s.
v = 2t + e2t m/s
(Answers around 4.2 m)

4. Find the area (with units) under the following function between the limits θ = 0 and θ = 1.4
radian using integration, the mid-ordinate rule and the trapezoidal rule with steps of 0.2 radian
T = 3 cosθ (Nm)
(Answers around 2.96 Joules)

5. Find the area (with units) under the following function between the limits V = 1 and V = 5 m3
using integration, the mid-ordinate rule and the trapezoidal rule with steps of 1.
p = 2 ln V N/m2
(Answers around 8.09 Nm or Joules)

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 8
2. INTEGRATING POLYNOMIALS

The rule for integrating a single polynomial is:

x2 x2
⎡ x n +1 ⎤
∫
n
ax = a ⎢ ⎥
x1 ⎢⎣ n + 1 ⎥⎦ x1

Note that no power shown against a variable (e.g. x), means x1 and that this integrates as x2/2.

Anything raised to the power of zero is 1 so a number on its own integrates e.g. 2 could be written
as 2x0 and this integrates to 2x1/1 = 2x.

If the polynomial is a sum each term integrates separately.

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 4

4
Evaluate F(x) = ∫ (2x 3 − 3x)dx
2
4 4
⎡ x4 x2 ⎤
F(x) = ∫ (2x − 3x)dx = ⎢2
3
−3 ⎥
2 ⎣⎢ 4 2 ⎦⎥
2
⎡⎛ 4 4 4 2 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 2 4 2 2 ⎞⎟⎤
⎜
F(x) = ⎢ 2 − 3 − 2 −3 ⎥
⎜ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 4 2 ⎟⎠⎦⎥
⎣⎢⎝ 4
F(x) = [(128 − 24) − (8 − 6)]
F(x) = 104 − 2 = 102

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 3

1. Integrate the following expressions.

i. y = 3x5 –x2/2
ii. y = x3 –x/2

2. Evaluate the following.

4

∫ (2x
2
i. − 3x)dx (Answer 18.67)
0
5

∫ (4x
3
ii. − 3x 2 )dx (Answer 500)
1

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 9
2. INTEGRATING TRIGONOMETRIC EXPRESSIONS

The standard integrals are given in the table and used in the following examples.

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 5

π
Evaluate A = ∫ sin x dx
0
SOLUTION

From the list of standard integrals we see ∫sin x = - cos x so:

A = [− cos x ]0π = [− cos π ] - [- cos 0] = - (-1) - (-1) = 2

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 6

π/2

∫ sin
2
Evaluate A = x dx
0
SOLUTION

From the list of standard integrals we see ∫sin2 x = ½ x – ¼ sin2x so:

π/2 π/2
⎡ x sin2x ⎤ ⎡⎛ π sinπ ⎞ ⎛ 0 sin0 ⎞⎤
∫ sin x dx = ⎢⎣ 2 − 4 ⎥⎦ 0 = ⎢⎣⎜⎝ 4 − 4 ⎟⎠ − ⎜⎝ 2 − 4 ⎟⎠⎥⎦
2
A=
0
A = [(0.785 - 0) − (0 − 0 )] = 0.785

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 4

Solve the following integrals. All angles are in radian.

0.2
1. W = 220 ∫ V −1dV (Answer 152.49)
0.1
π
2. A = 2∫ sin( θ ) dθ (Answer 4)
0
1.5
3. A= ∫ cos ( θ ) dθ (Answer 0.518)
0.5
1
4. A = ∫ sin 2 (x)dx (Answer 0.273)
0

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3. INTEGRATING LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL EXPRESSIONS

The standard integrals are given in the table and used in the following examples.

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 7

3
Evaluate A = ∫ e 2x dx
0
SOLUTION

From the list of standard integrals we see ∫eax =eax /a so:

2
⎡ e 2x ⎤ ⎡ e4 ⎤ ⎡ e2 x 0 ⎤
A=⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥-⎢ ⎥ = 27.3 - 0.5 = 26.8
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ 0 ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 8

4
Evaluate I = ∫ ln(x) dx
0
SOLUTION

Using the standard integral I = [x{ln(x) − 1}]04 = 4{ln (4) − 1}− 0 = 1.545

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 9

3
⎧ 2⎫
Evaluate I = ∫ ⎨⎩ 4ln(x) − ⎬ dx
x⎭
1
SOLUTION
Using the standard integrals
3
⎧ 2⎫
I = ∫ ⎨4 ln(x) - ⎬dx = [4x{ln(x) − 1} − 2ln(x)]13
0⎩
x⎭
I = [12{ln(3) − 1}− 2ln(3)] − [4{ln(1) − 1} − 2ln(1)] = [1.183 − 2.197] − [− 4 − 0]
I = −1.01388 + 4 = 2.986

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 5

10

∫ {ln(x) − e }dx
x
1. I= (-22012)
0
2
2. I = ∫ {sin(x) − ln(x)}dx (2.03)
0
5
3. {
I = ∫ e 2x − 2 ln( x) dx } (11000)
0
2
4. {
I = ∫ sin 2 (x) - ln(x) dx } (1.803)
0

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4. AVERAGE VALUES OF FUNCTIONS

The mean value of a function can be defined accurately as the area under the graph divided by the
base length of the graph. Consider a simple sine function such as used to describe a sinusoidal
voltage. The function is v = V sin(θ) where θ is the angle in radians and V the amplitude.

The plot is simply as shown.

Let’s find the mean value of V over the range θ = 0 to θ = π.
π
Area = ∫ Vsin(θ ) dθ
0

Area = [− Vcos( θ )]0π = − V[cos( π ) − cos(0)] = − V(−1 − 1) = 2V

Base length = π
Mean = 2V/π
Repeat for the range 0 to 2π
Area = [− Vcos( θ )]02π = −V[cos(2 π ) − cos(0)] = −V(1 − 1) = 0
Mean = 0 as expected for a full cycle.

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 10

Find the mean value of the function y = 2x2 over the range x = 0 to x = 4

SOLUTION
4
4 ⎡ 2x 3 ⎤
A = ∫ 2x dx = ⎢ 2
⎥ = 42.667
0
⎣ 3 ⎦0
Mean = 42.667/4 = 10.67

5. ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUES (rms)

This is mainly used in electrical engineering as a way of expressing alternating current and voltage
as a meaningful quantity. Basically r.m.s. values are the equivalent D.C. values that will give
correct power dissipation into a resistive load.

The mean values of sinusoidal voltages and currents are

zero and cannot be used to calculate electric power. The
power formula is P = I2 R or V2/R or VI so if we used the
mean values of I2 or V2 then the power formula will
work. To get these we first find the mean value of the
function for I2 or V2. For a sinusoidal voltage this would
be done as follows.
v = V sin(θ) v2 = V sin2(θ)
Over one cycle the plot is as shown. Note that all values
of v2 are positive. The area under the graph for one complete cycle from θ = 0 to θ =2π is :
2π
Area = ∫ V 2sin 2 ( θ ) dθ
0
2π
1 2⎡ θ⎤ ⎡ 1 2π ⎤ ⎡ 1 0⎤
Area = V ⎢− cos( θ)sin(θ) + ⎥ = V 2 ⎢− cos( 2 π ) sin(2 π ) + ⎥ − V 2 ⎢− cos( 0) sin(0) + ⎥
⎣ 2 2 ⎦0 ⎣ 2 2⎦ ⎣ 2 2⎦
⎡ 2π ⎤
Area = V 2 ⎢0 + ⎥ − [0] = πV 2 The mean value is πV2/2π = 0.5V2 remember V is the amplitude.
⎣ 2⎦

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 12
If we did the same for current we would find the mean of the i2 is 0.5I2.
We could use this value to find the mean power using the P = I2 R or V2/R

If we take the square root of these values we have the r.m.s. value.
1
V rms = √0.5V2 = 0.707 V or V
2
1
I rms = √0.5I2 = 0.707 I or I
2
If we use the r.m.s. value we could calculate the power with the formula P = Vrms Irms
Amplitude
For all sinusoidal quantities the r.m.s. are always given by
2
Sometimes we have alternating quantities other than sinusoidal so the same basic process should be
used. The mid ordinate rule, trapezoidal or Simpson’s rule could be used to find the mean of a
function.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.6

An alternating voltage has a saw tooth form as shown. Calculate the r.m.s. value.

The following is not stated as a requirement in the syllabus but students would do well to have a go
at it.

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 13
6. INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION

A complex equation may be simplified with a substitution but it takes experience to recognise these
cases.

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 11

7x
Evaluate I = ∫ dx
8x 2 + 4
SOLUTION
dz 8x dz x dx
A suitable substitution is z = 8x 2 + 4 Differentiate to get = =
dx 8x 2 + 4 8 8x 2 + 4
7 7z
Substitute back into the original equation I = ∫ dz = +C
8 8
7 8x 2 + 4
Substitute for z I = +C
8

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 12

The voltage Vc across a capacitor when it discharges through a resistance is given by

(VS − VC ) = T dVC where T is a time constant and Vs is the voltage at t = 0.
dt
Find the equation relating Vc with time t.

SOLUTION

Let VS – VC = x Differentiate and since VS is a constant we find -dVC = dx

dx dt dx
The equation becomes x = −T x Rearranging =−
dt T x
t
1 dx
Integrating − ∫ dt = ∫ = [ln x ]
T0 x
The limits become clear when we substitute x = VS – VC

t
1 dx t
− ∫ dt = ∫ = [ln (VS − VC )]0 C − = [ln (VS − VC ) − ln (VS )]
V

T0 x T
t ⎛ V − VC ⎞ ⎛ V⎞
− = ln⎜⎜ S ⎟⎟ = ln⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟
T ⎝ VS ⎠ ⎝ VS ⎠
t
− VC
Take antilogs and e T
= 1−
VS
⎛ − ⎞
t
Rearrange VC = VS ⎜⎜1 - e T ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 14
WORKED EXAMPLE No. 13

Find I = ∫ x(3 − 2x) 4 dx

SOLUTION

Substitute z = 3 – 2x and x = (3 – z)/2

Differentiate to get dz = -2dx and substitute dx = -dz/2
Substitute to get rid of all the x terms
I = ∫ x(3 − 2x) 4 dx = − ∫
( )
(3 - z ) (z 4 ) dz = − (3 − z )z 4 dz = - 3z 4 - z5 dz
2 2 ∫ 4 ∫ 4
3z 5 z 6
− 5 6
I=− 5 6 + C = − 3z + z + C Now substitute back
4 20 24

I=
(3 - 2x ) − 3(3 - 2x ) + C
6 5

24 20

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 14

Find I = ∫ sin 3 (θ ) cos(θ )dθ

SOLUTION
dsin (θ ) dx
Substitute sin(θ) = x and noting that cos(θ ) = = hence cos(θ) dθ = dx
dθ dθ
I = ∫ sin 3 (θ ) cos(θ )dθ = ∫ x 3dx
x4 sin 4θ
I= +C = +C
4 4

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 7

Solve the following integrals.

xdx 2 3 1
1. I = ∫ (x + 5)2 − 10x (x + 5)2 + C
x +5 3

2. I = ∫
x 2dx
6 + x3
1
3
( )
ln 6 + x 3 + C
dx
3. I = ∫ sin −1 (x ) + C
(
1− x2 )
sin 3θ
4. I = ∫ sin (θ ) cos(θ )dθ
2
+C
3
2xdx
5. I=∫ 2x – 6 ln(x + 3) + C
x+3

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 15
7. INTEGRATION BY PARTS

The rule is without explanation ∫ udv = uv − ∫ vdu and best shown with an example.

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 15

Find I = ∫ x e x dx

SOLUTION
Let x = u and let ex = dv du = dx and v = ∫ e x = e x

∫ udv = uv − ∫ vdu = xe − ∫ e dx =xe

x x x
− e x + C = e x (x − 1) + C

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 16

Find I = ∫ x 2 e 2x dx

SOLUTION
e 2x
2 2x
Let x = u and let e = dv du = 2xdx and v = ∫ e 2x
=
2
x 2e 2x e 2x x 2e 2x
∫ udv = uv − ∫ vdu = 2
−∫
2
2x dx =
2
− ∫ e 2x x dx

We must repeat the process for the integration of ∫ e 2x x dx

e 2x
Let u = x and dv = e 2x
du = dx v = ∫e 2x
=
2
xe 2x e 2x xe 2x e 2x
∫ e x dx = −∫
2x
dx = −
2 2 2 4
Now put the two parts together including the constant of integration.
x 2e 2x x 2e 2x ⎡ xe 2x e 2x ⎤ 2x ⎡ x
2
x 1⎤
I= − ∫ e 2x x dx + C = −⎢ − ⎥ + C = e ⎢ − + ⎥+C
2 2 ⎣ 2 4 ⎦ ⎣ 2 2 4⎦

I=
e 2x
4
[ ]
2x 2 − 2x + 1 + C

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 8

Solve the following integrals.

x4
1. I = ∫ x ln(x) dx
3
I= [4 ln( x) − 1] + C
16
x2 x cos(2x)
2. I = ∫ x 2 sin(2x) dx I = − cos(2x) + sin(2x) + +C
2 2 4
ex
3. I = ∫ e x cos(x) dx I = (sin(x) + cos(x)) + C
2
- e-2x
4. I = ∫ e-2xsin(3x) dx I= (3cos(3x) + 2sin(3x)) + C
13

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 16