Ministry of Education of the Republic of Azerbaijan

Baku International Multiculturalism Centre

Azerbaijani Multiculturalism
Textbook for Higher Education

Recommended for publication by decision of the Board of the Azerbaijan

University of Languages, dated
26 October 2016 (Minutes No. 7)

Baku – 2018

ISBN 978-9952-34-367-0

Editors

Kamal Abdulla

Academician of Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences

Chairman of the Board of Trustees of Baku
International Multiculturalism Centre

Etibar Najafov

Doctor of Philosophical Sciences, professor

Contributors

Kamal Abdulla, Etibar Najafov, Azad Mammadov, Kamran Imanov,

Mohsun Naghisoylu, Ilham Mammadzada, Hajar Verdiyeva, Aytan Qahraman,
Isakhan Valiyev, Omar Eldarov, Gulchohra Mammadova, Artegin Salamzada,
Firangiz Alizada, Mukhtar Imanov, Aydin Talibzada, Aydin Dadashov, Gunduz
Ismayilov, Alexander Nesterov, Arye Gut, Habib Zarbaliyev, Jeyhun Mamma-
dov, David Gorseridze, Ali Farhadov, Elsevar Samadov, Maryam Seyidbayli,
Aqil Eyvazov, Jala Qaribova, Elchin Ahmadov, Celalettin Yanik, Sandro Teti,
Klaus Wolf, Teresa do Rosario Domasio, Aurelia Grigoriu, Anis Malik Thoha,
Tahira Allahyarova, Rashad Ilyasov, Irina Kunina, Rahila Qeybullayeva, Konul
Aliyeva, Ravan Hasanov, Mayya Jafarquliyeva, Javid Alakbarli, Asaf Qanbarov
Reviewers

Teymur Karimli (academician, professor)

Alikram Abdullayev (doctor of philosophical sciences, professor)
Solmaz Tohidi (doctor of historical sciences, professor)
Afqan Abdullayev (doctor of philological sciences, professor)
Karim Tahirov (doctor of philological sciences, professor)
Etibar Aliyev (doctor of philosophy)

Translators and editors-in-chief:

prof. Q.Bayramov, A.Thompson-Ahmadova
Translators:
assoc-prof. S.Nuriyev, F.Abdullayeva, S.Aliyev,
T.Zeynalli, T.Mammadova, G.Bayramova,
A.Hacıyeva, A.Khalilova

Managing editor:
Rashad Ilyasov (Ph.D. in philosophy)

Azerbaijani Multiculturalism
Textbook for higher education – Baku: Baku International
Multiculturalism Centre, 2018, 488 pp.

www.eastwest.az © “Sharg-Garb”, 2018

www.fb.com/eastwest.az
[email protected]
CONTENTS
Preface (Kamal Abdulla, Etibar Najafov)....................................................................................9

Section I. Introduction

Chapter 1
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism: Methodologies, Functions and Importance

1.1. The Essence of Multiculturalism (Etibar Najafov)...................................................... 16

1.2. Multiculturalism as a Policy Model for the Managing of
Ethnocultural Diversity (Etibar Najafov)....................................................................... 20
1.3. Azerbaijani Multiculturalism as an Academic Discipline (Kamal Abdulla)....... 28
1.4. Teaching Methodologies of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism (Etibar Najafov).... 30
1.5. Azerbaijani Multiculturalism as an Interdisciplinary Subject
(Kamal Abdulla).....................................................................................................................36
1.6. The Main Functions and Importance of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism as a
Discipline (Kamal Abdulla).................................................................................................39

Questions.............................................................................................................................40
References........................................................................................................................... 41

Section II. Multiculturalism as a State Policy of the Republic of

Azerbaijan and a Lifestyle of the Azerbaijani People

Chapter 2
Multiculturalism as an Integral Part of National Security

2.1. Multicultural Security and its Main Principles (Kamal Abdulla)........................... 43

2.2. Azerbaijanism and Multiculturalism (Kamal Abdulla, Etibar Najafov)................ 46
2.3. National Leader of the Azerbaijani People Heydar Aliyev as the
Political Founder of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism (Kamal Abdulla)................... 55
2.4. President Ilham Aliyev as the Political Guarantor of Azerbaijani
Multiculturalism Today (Kamal Abdulla, Etibar Najafov)......................................... 58
4
Questions.............................................................................................................................64
References............................................................................................................................65

Chapter 3
Historical Evolution of Multiculturalism in Azerbaijan

3.1. Objective and Subjective Reasons for the Birth of Azerbaijani

Multiculturalism (Etibar Najafov).................................................................................... 67
3.2. The Azerbaijani Model of Multiculturalism in the Light of Identity
(Kamran Imanov)..................................................................................................................72
3.3. The History of Multiculturalism in Azerbaijan Up to the 19th Century
(Hajar Verdiyeva) ..................................................................................................................83
3.4. Azerbaijani Multiculturalism in the Modern Period (19th and early 20th
centuries) (Hajar Verdiyeva)..............................................................................................91
3.5. Peculiaritiesof the Ethnic Relations Policy in the Soviet Period
(Hajar Verdiyeva).................................................................................................................100
3.6. Armenia-Azerbaijan, the Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict and Azerbaijani
Multiculturalism (Elchin Ahmadov, Hajar Verdiyeva)...............................................102

Questions........................................................................................................................... 119
References.......................................................................................................................... 122

Chapter 4
The Sources of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

4.1. Four Sources of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism (Kamal Abdulla).....................132

4.2. L iterary and Artistic Sources of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism
(Mohsun Naghisoylu)......................................................................................................137
4.3. Scholarly and Philosophical Sources of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism
(Ilham Mammadzada, Elsevar Samadov).................................................................151
4.4. Journalistic Sources of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism (Ali Farhadov)............162
4.5. Political and Legal Sources of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism
(Etibar Najafov, Hajar Verdiyeva, Isakhan Valiyev).................................................172
4.6. Multiculturalism in Azerbaijani Art and Culture................................................188
5
4.6.1. Music (Firangiz Alizada).................................................................................................188
4.6.2. Rites and Ceremonies (Mukhtar Imanov)...............................................................200
4.6.3. Fine Art (Artegin Salamzada).......................................................................................207
4.6.4. Architecture (Gulchohra Mammadova)....................................................................218
4.6.5. Monumental Art (Omar Eldarov)...............................................................................227
4.6.6. Theatre (Aydin Talibzada).............................................................................................231
4.7.7. Film (Aydin Dadashov)...................................................................................................240
4.8.8. Cuisine (Rahila Qeybullayeva).....................................................................................256

Questions........................................................................................................................ 260
References........................................................................................................................265

Chapter 5
Multiculturalism Policy in Azerbaijan

5.1. Multiculturalism as an Integral Part of the Domestic Policy of the

Republic of Azerbaijan (Etibar Najafov)......................................................................275
5.2. Religious Diversity in Azerbaijan
(Jeyhun Mammadov, Gunduz Ismayilov).....................................................................285
5.3. Relations between State and Religion in Azerbaijan
(Jeyhun Mammadov, Gunduz Ismayilov).....................................................................303
5.4. The Influence of the Policy of Multiculturalism on the Country’s
Socio-economic Development (Kamal Abdulla, Aqil Eyvazov)...........................316
5.5. The Constitutional and Legal Basis of Multiculturalism
(Isakhan Valiyev, Ravan Hasanov)..................................................................................322
5.6. Multiculturalism in the Language Policy of the Republic of Azerbaijan
(Jala Qaribova).....................................................................................................................330
5.7. Multiculturalism as a Manifestation of the Coexistence of National
Diaspora Groups in Azerbaijan (Maryam Seyidbayli)............................................343

Questions...........................................................................................................................357
References......................................................................................................................... 360

6
Section III. Azerbaijani Multiculturalism in the International Relations System

Chapter 6
Multiculturalism and the Foreign Policy of the Republic of Azerbaijan

6.1. Multiculturalism as a Factor in the Successful Foreign Policy of the

Republic of Azerbaijan (Etibar Najafov)......................................................................367
6.2. The Baku Process: its Nature, History, Goals and Participants
(Etibar Najafov)....................................................................................................................372
6.3. The Role of the Heydar Aliyev Foundation in Implementing the
Policy of Multiculturalism (Rashad Ilyasov, Maya Jafarquliyeva).....................376
6.3.1. The Heydar Aliyev Foundation and its Goals......................................................376
6.3.2. Azerbaijan – Address of Tolerance...........................................................................380
6.3.3. International Conferences and Forums as Platforms for Cross-Cultural
Dialogue and Multiculturalism..................................................................................386
6.4. The Activity of the Baku International Multiculturalism Centre
(Azad Mammadov, Aytan Qahraman)......................................................................388
6.5. The Multiculturalism Policy of the Republic of Azerbaijan and
International Organizations (Ravan Hasanov).....................................................399
6.6. Multiculturalism and the National Diaspora (Maryam Seyidbayli)................409

Questions.........................................................................................................................416
References........................................................................................................................ 417

Chapter 7
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism and World Multiculturalism Models

7.1. Canadian Model (Celalettin Yanık, Asaf Qanbarov)..............................................421

7.2. Multiculturalism in the United States of America (Celalettin Yanık).............428
7.3. Australian Model (Rashad Ilyasov, Asaf Qanbarov)..............................................437
7.4. General Review of European Multiculturalism
(Konul Aliyeva, Asaf Qanbarov).....................................................................................439
7.5. Multiculturalism in the UK (Asaf Qanbarov)..........................................................442
7.6. Multiculturalism in France (Rashad Ilyasov, Asaf Qanbarov)............................444
7
7.7. Multiculturalism in Germany (Klaus Wolf, Konul Aliyeva)...................................445
7.8. Multiculturalism in Switzerland (Tahira Allahyarova).........................................448
7.9. Multiculturalism in Portugal
(Teresado Rosario Domasio, Maya Jafarquliyeva)....................................................451
7.10. Multiculturalism in Spain (Javid Alakbarli)...............................................................453
7.11. Multiculturalism in Italy (Sandro Teti, Irina Kunina)..............................................456
7.12. Multiculturalism in Turkey (Celalettin Yanık)...........................................................458
7.13. Multiculturalism in Russia (Alexander Nesterov)...................................................462
7.14. Multiculturalism in Georgia (David Gotseridze).....................................................466
7.15. Multiculturalism in Moldova (Aurelia Grigoriu).....................................................469
7.16. Multiculturalism in Israel (Arye Gut).........................................................................475
7.17. Multiculturalism in Indonesia (Habib Zarbaliyev, Anis Malik Thoha).................478

Questions........................................................................................................................ 480
References........................................................................................................................482

8
‘There is no alternative to multiculturalism…
Multiculturalism is our state policy and our way of life.’
Ilham Aliyev President of the Republic of Azerbaijan

P R E FA C E

distinguishing policies pursued by the state

feature of the despite the increase in ethno-
remarkable pro- cultural diversity in society.
cess of globali- One aspect is extremely im-
zation in the world today is portant when considering the
the increase of ethnic, racial, role of the state in the increase
religious and cultural diversity of ethnocultural diversity: this
in society. The process of glo- is whether the diversity is in-
balization has drawn almost all troduced to society obligato-
states into its orbit, helping to rily or voluntarily. In the first
create ethnic, racial, religious case, ethnocultural diversity is
and cultural diversity in the exported to the territory of a
majority of countries. state without heed for the will
Objective and subjective of that country, that is, obliga-
factors shape the formation of torily. For instance, after occu-
this diversity in society. Objec- pying the territory of Azerbai-
tive factors include historical, jan the Sassanid Empire, the
geographical, political, social, Arab Caliphate, the Seljuks,
economic and cultural rea- tsarist Russia and the Soviet
sons. The main subjective fac- Union all pursued a policy of
tor, however, is connected with moving people into Azerbaijan 9
in order to resolve population prominent Indian politician
differences in their own terri- and leader, Mahatma Gandhi,
tories. Another example is the highly appreciated the role of
German government, which diversity in the development of
after World War II allowed la- society. He said that a culture
bour migrants into the country that aspired to be exclusive
in order to ensure economic was doomed to extinction.
development. France, Belgium Ethnocultural diversity, which
and other Western countries includes the ethnocultural val-
admitted large numbers of la- ues and cultures of peoples
bour migrants. and guides their actions and
It is true that both in the world view, is essentially a pos-
past and today there have been itive phenomenon and plays a
states that try to limit ethno­ positive role in the lives of na-
cultural diversity, as they con- tions. In a democratic law-gov-
sider it a threat to their na- erned society, it is important
tional security. This shows that for the state to protect this
these states have an ambiva- diversity, just as it does social
lent attitude towards the eth- justice, tolerance and equali-
nic, racial, religious and cul- ty of opportunity. The protec-
tural diversity within their own tion of ethnocultural diversi-
societies. However, the shap- ty is an integral part of active
ing of ethnocultural diversity state policy. The management
in so­ciety is a result of objec- of ethnocultural diversity must
tive historical developments. take into account the interests
This di­versity, moreover, shapes of all parties concerned; that
ethno­ cultural values and cul- is, the state and the ethnic
tures of the nations and forms and religious minorities them-
their world view and the basis selves. If ethnocultural diversi­ty
of their activities. Therefore, is not managed correctly, se-
this diversity plays a positive rious problems and even con-
10 role in the lives of nations. The flicts may arise in different ar-
eas. Therefore, the appropriate ically the importance of man-
management of ethnocultural aging ethnocultural diversity in
diversity acquires great practi- society, it is also difficult to do
cal importance for every multi- in practice. Many states, even
cultural state. a number of leading Western
National Leader of Azerbai­jan states, are unable to manage
Heydar Aliyev attached great ethnocultural diversity in soci-
importance to the protection ety appropriately. Disturbanc-
of ethnocultural diversity in es on ethnic, racial, religious
society. He said: ‘The more eth- and cultural grounds in those
nicities a country has, the rich- countries are evidence of this.
er it becomes, as each of them One of the mistakes in man-
contributes to world culture aging cultural diversity is en-
and civilization.’ forced cultural assimilation.
UNESCO adopted a Univer­ Or, as mentioned above, some
sal Declaration on Cultural Di- states think that an increase in
versity on 2 November 2001. ethnocultural diversity threat-
Article One of the declaration, ens their security and try to
entitled ‘Cultural diversity: the prevent an increase in diversity
common heritage of human- through a policy of isolation.
ity’, says, ‘As a source of ex- At present the number of such
change, innovation and cre- states is growing as a result of
ativity, cultural diversity is as the refugee and migrant crisis.
necessary for humankind as The present-day Republic
biodiversity is for nature. In this of Azerbaijan is one of the ex-
sense, it is the common herit- emplary states in the sphere of
age of humanity and should be the appropriate management
recognized and affirmed for the of ethnocultural diversity in so-
benefit of present and future ciety. Azerbaijan has achieved
generations.’ great success in this sphere, as
Just as it is not easy for the can be seen in the absence of
state to substantiate theoret- any ethnic, religious and racial
11
confrontation or conflict in the Ilham Aliyev noted, Azerbai-
country. It is the result of the jan is already recognized as a
multiculturalism policy found- centre of multiculturalism in
ed by the National Leader of the world. The unique role of
Azerbaijan, Heydar Aliyev, and Azerbaijan in the world is high-
successfully pursued by the cur­ ly appreciated. In several of
rent President of the Republic his speeches President Ilham
of Azerbaijan, Ilham Aliyev. Aliyev noted the importance
Another important indicator for other countries of learning
of the appropriate manage- from the experience of Azer-
ment of ethnocultural diversity baijan in the sphere of multi-
in Azerbaijan is the use of the culturalism: ‘Our experience is
terms ‘the Azerbaijani model of being studied. I am sure that if
multiculturalism’, or ‘the mod- the experience of Azerbaijan is
el of multiculturalism in Azer- applied in other countries, in-
baijan’, which are widely used ter-religious and inter-ethnic re-
in scholarly literature. It is evi- lations will work out well on a
dence of the growing interest healthy foundation.’ The teach-
in Azerbaijan’s experience in ing of Azerbaijani Multicultur-
the management of ethnocultu­ alism as a discipline at foreign
ral diversity and in the sphere universities is a striking exam-
of multiculturalism in general. ple of the benefit of this expe-
Many states are now studying rience.
Azerbaijan’s experience in the The subject of Azerbaija-
sphere of multiculturalism. ni Multiculturalism has been
The Republic of Azerbaijan taught at dozens of universi-
puts forward a more rational ties in Azerbaijan and abroad
model of multiculturalism than for two years now. The devel-
the one suggested by West- opment of a textbook on the
ern countries, though they are subject is an important factor
the birthplace of the policy of in its success. Taking this into
multiculturalism. As President account President Ilham Ali-
12
yev issued an instruction on and its manifestation in the
11 March 2016 ‘On the decla- domestic and foreign policy of
ration of 2016 the Year of Mul- Azerbaijan.
ticulturalism in Azerbaijan.’ The The first section, which forms
instruction contained an action the introductory part of the
plan, which included the crea- textbook, deals with the dis­cip­
tion and publishing of a text- line, its methodologies, relati­on­
book on the subject. ship to other social and hu-
The Baku International Mul- manitarian sciences, its main
ticulturalism Centre compiled functions and importance. It
the textbook Azerbaijani Mul- also tackles theoretical issues
ticulturalism with the help of and other matters related to
distinguished scholars of Azer- multiculturalism (the essence of
baijani history, literature, phi- multiculturalism; multiculturalism
losophy, law, psychology, con- as a social phenomenon, pol-
temporary politics, language, icy model and way of life; the
ethnography and international main reasons for the formation
relations. of multiculturalism; comparati­
This textbook is the first ve analysis of the assimilation
resource to give a systematic and isolation models of mul-
presentation of the model of ticulturalism, their strong and
Azerbaijani multiculturalism. In weak points, etc.).
its three sections the textbook The second and third sec-
analyses all the main points of tions form the main part of the
Azerbaijani multiculturalism, in- book. In the second section
cluding the objective and sub- multiculturalism is presented
jective reasons for its birth, its as the state policy of the Re-
historical evolution, its sources public of Azerbaijan and the
in literature, art, science, phi- way of life of the Azerbaijani
losophy, journalism, politics and people. This section analyses
law, its reflection in different important issues from the the-
forms of social consciousness oretical point of view, including
13
‘Multicultural security and its While the second section of
main principles’ and ‘Azerbai- the textbook analyses multi-
janism and multiculturalism’. culturalism in domestic policy,
The matchless roles of the the third section focuses on
National Leader of Azerbaijan multiculturalism in Azerbaijan’s
Heydar Aliyev and the current international relations. This
President of the Republic of section presents a number of
Azerbaijan Ilham Aliyev in the examples of the relationship
formation of Azerbaijani mul- between multiculturalism and
ticulturalism are considered. the foreign policy of the Re-
Elsewhere the second sec- public of Azerbaijan, or to be
tion considers the objective more specific, it considers mul-
and subjective reasons for the ticulturalism as a factor in the
emergence of the Azerbaijani country’s successful foreign
model of multiculturalism, its policy. It analyses the Baku In-
historical evolution, literary, ar- itiative, which recently entered
tistic, scientific, philosophical, the political vocabulary and
journalistic, political and legal enables the development of
sources, as well as the reflec- dialogue among different cul-
tion of multiculturalism in the tures. This section also looks
socio-philosophical thought at the role of the Heydar Ali-
of Azerbaijan, its art and cul- yev Foundation in the imple-
ture. Finally, the second section mentation of multiculturalism
looks at multiculturalism as an policy and outlines the work
integral part of the domestic of the Baku International Mul-
policy of the Republic of Azer- ticulturalism Centre in promot-
baijan, its influence on rela- ing the Azerbaijani model of
tions between the state and multiculturalism. It examines
religion and the protection of the Republic of Azerbaijan’s
the ethnocultural values of the cooperation with international
different ethnicities and peo- organizations in implementing
ples living there. its policy of multiculturalism
14
and the role of the national The textbook is designed
diaspora abroad in promot- for undergraduate students in
ing the Azerbaijani model of Azerbaijan, undergraduate and
multiculturalism. This section postgraduate students abroad
concludes by presenting mod- and anyone interested in the
els of multiculturalism in a model of Azerbaijani multicul-
number of countries (Cana- turalism.
da, Australia, the USA, the UK,
France, Germany, Switzerland,
Portugal, Spain, Italy, Turkey,
Russia, Georgia, Moldova, Isra-
el and Indonesia) and compar- Kamal Abdulla,
ing them with the Azerbaijani Etibar Najafov
model.

15
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

SECTION

I
INTRODUCTION

Chapter 1

AZERBAIJANI MULTICULTURALISM:
METHODOLOGIES, FUNCTIONS AND
IMPORTANCE

1.1. The Essence of Multiculturalism

T
he term ‘multiculturalism’ appeared in academic literature
in the 1960s and 70s, encompassing a range of ideas.
These different ideas make it harder to understand the
essential meaning of the term multiculturalism and to teach it as a
subject.
The term multiculturalism may be used in both a broad and
narrow sense. The broad sense of the term proceeds from its
etymology and is the notion of polyculturalism. In translation from
Latin multiculturalism refers to ‘the existence of many cultures
simultaneously in one place and time’. Multiculturalism includes
ethnic, racial, religious and cultural diversity and the values that
underpin it.
Today, ethnic, racial, religious and cultural diversity exists in
16 most countries. This objective diversity is the result of historical
development. The diversity is apparent in ethnocultural values

Section I
and cultures, and shapes outlook and behaviour. A society in
which the representatives of different ethnic, racial, religious and
cultural groups live is called a multicultural society. Therefore, most
countries are multicultural in the broad sense of the word.
But in the narrow sense of the word the notion of
multiculturalism reflects the concrete policy pursued by a state
in relation to ethnic, racial, religious and cultural diversity, i.e. the
protection of diversity.
The Canadian scholar Paul Dumouchel in his article ‘Comparative
Multiculturalism’ notes at least three different meanings of
multiculturalism as a term in scholarly literature. In the first

Chapter 1
meaning multiculturalism refers to a socio-historical situation in
which members of different ethnocultural groups live in the same
territory. He considers this use of the term multiculturalism to be
descriptive in nature. It is also similar to multiculturalism in the
broad sense mentioned above.
Dumouchel connects the second meaning of multiculturalism
with the concrete policy pursued by a state in relation to the
ethnocultural diversity in society. The second meaning of
multiculturalism as a term derives from its first meaning. So
the state uses a number of policies, of which multiculturalism
is one, to manage the multicultural situation in society. The term
multiculturalism used in this sense encompasses the reaction of
the state to the ethnocultural diversity within society; it expresses
the policy of multiculturalism which ensures the protection and
development of diversity. Paul Dumouchel’s second meaning
of multiculturalism coincides with the narrow meaning of
multiculturalism that we noted above.
And finally, Paul Dumouchel notes that multiculturalism has a
third meaning, which is normative in nature; that is, it shows how
multicultural society should be organized from the point of view of
justice. He writes that multiculturalism has been used in this sense
by Charles Taylor, Will Kymlicka, James Tully and other distinguished
17
scholars of the phenomenon of multiculturalism. These authors
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

think that if ethnocultural diversity is present in society, it should

be protected and developed. This is the normative demand of
multicultural justice.
Dumouchel is right to note that the first meaning of the term
multiculturalism emerged long before the subsequent meanings,
since multiculturalism has featured in state policy only in the
past 35-40 years. But it should be noted that Dumouchel’s third
meaning of multiculturalism gives tangible expression to the
second meaning of the term. It is, therefore, not right to think of it
as an independent meaning of this term. We shall use this term in
its broad and narrow meanings.
Some definitions of multiculturalism reflect both its narrow
and broad meanings. For example, this is the definition of
multiculturalism given by The Harper Collins Dictionary of Sociology
(1991):
‘Multiculturalism as a feature of many societies is the
acknowledgment of the existence and development of pluralism.
Multiculturalism aims to protect cultural diversity, for instance, the
defense of the language of minorities. At the same time it caters for
the unequal relations of the culture of minorities with the culture of
majorities’.

As we noted above, the notion of multiculturalism as a synonym

of polyculturalism expresses ethnic, racial, religious and cultural
differences and the values which form the basis of these diversities.
In connection with this the Stanford Encyclopedia writes that,

‘Multiculturalism has been used as an umbrella term to

characterize the moral and political claims of a wide range of
marginalized groups, including African Americans, women, LGBT
people, and people with disabilities… Contemporary theories of
multiculturalism, which originated in the late 1980s and early
1990s, tend to focus their arguments on immigrants who are ethnic
18
and religious minorities (e.g. Latinos in the U.S., Muslims in western

Section I
Europe), minority nations (e.g. Catalans, Basque, Welsh, Québécois),
and indigenous peoples (e.g. Native peoples in North America,
Australia, and New Zealand).’

Comparison of the notions of tolerance and interculturalism

helps to define the idea of multiculturalism. The idea of
multiculturalism is close to tolerance in content. To be more
specific, tolerance forms the basis of the policy of multiculturalism.
We noted above that at present there are ethnic, racial, religious
and cultural differences in the majority of countries. These

Chapter 1
differences find their reflection in ethnocultural values. Some
ethnocultural values belong to ethnic and religious ethnicities.
Multiculturalism as a policy envisages tolerance on the part of the
majority people towards the minorities and their ethnocultural
values. But the scope of multiculturalism as an idea is not limited
to the scope of tolerance and is much broader. This Euler diagram
shows the relationship of these two ideas:

A – Multiculturalism
B – Tolerance

Alongside tolerance of ethnic and religious minorities

multiculturalism includes respect for their ethnocultural values. In
this regard, the well-known British scholar Lord Parekh notes that
in multiculturalism, demands for recognition go beyond the plea
for tolerance and include ‘acceptance, respect and even public
affirmation of their differences’.
It should be said in passing that some of the literature
confuses the ideas of multiculturalism and interculturalism or even
considers them to be the same. This is not right, because there are 19
specific differences between the notions of multiculturalism and
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

interculturalism.
Multiculturalism envisages the coexistence of diverse
ethnocultural groups and the development of tolerance, even
mutual respect among them. When in parallel with multiculturalism
the differences between these groups are inflated, this can in some
societies give rise to social fragmentation and disintegration. As a
result, the ethnocultural groups become isolated from each other.
To prevent this, dialogue and cooperation should be developed
among the various ethnic, racial, religious and cultural groups.
And this is connected with interculturalism. In intercultural
society each ethnocultural group preserves its own identity but
at the same time cooperates with other ethnocultural groups
through dialogue in order to create a common socio-cultural
environment. The common socio-cultural environment ensures
the consolidation of integration and creates favourable conditions
for the protection and development of ethnocultural diversity. This
strengthens the mutual relations of cooperation and friendship
among the ethnocultural groups. In other words, an intercultural
society is at a qualitatively new stage in development. At this stage
ethnic, racial, religious and cultural groups are respectful of each
other’s ethnocultural values and cooperate with each other, which
strengthens aspirations for integration within society.

1.2. Multiculturalism as a Policy Model for the

Managing of Ethnocultural Diversity

As has been noted above, there is ethnic, racial, religious and

cultural diversity in the majority of countries, which is the result of
objective, historical processes. One way to manage this diversity
is multiculturalism. Multiculturalism in the narrow meaning of the
word reflects concrete state policy or a policy model concerning
the ethnic, racial, religious and cultural diversity in society. But
20 when defining the essence and importance of multiculturalism and
its role in managing ethnocultural diversity, multiculturalism should

Section I
first be considered as a social phenomenon. Multiculturalism is a
product of the development of society, which emerged under the
influence of events under way in society.
Multiculturalism as a social phenomenon exerts influence on
other social phenomena, such as politics, the economy, culture,
moral and spiritual values, different forms of social consciousness,
etc., and is interrelated with them. Besides, as a social phenomenon
multiculturalism ranks in importance alongside the concepts of
social justice, equality of opportunity and democracy. Therefore,
protecting the rights and freedoms of every ethnic, racial, religious
and cultural group and ensuring their equality before the law meet

Chapter 1
the requirements of social justice and the norms of democratic
society.
The following factors influence multiculturalism as a social
phenomenon:

1. The coexistence over many years of different nations in

the same territory. For example, this is the reason for the
coexistence of different cultures in Azerbaijan. Since ancient
times different nations have lived in Azerbaijan in peace and
security;
2. The geographical location of the country. This refers to areas
where different cultures and civilizations come together. The
nations living in these areas made contact with different
ethnicities, races, religions and cultures, establishing and
developing economic, commercial and cultural relations
with them. This in turn created favourable conditions for
the formation of a multicultural environment. Geographical
location is a factor in the plurality of cultures that exist
in Azerbaijan. Azerbaijan is located at the intersection
of different civilizations, cultures and religions and the
ancient Silk Road passed this way. Azerbaijan’s favourable
geographic location played a positive role in its formation and
development as an ethnically and culturally diverse society; 21
3. The flow of peoples to economically developed countries for
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

social and economic reasons. Economic migration is considered

the main reason for the multiplicity of cultures in the Western
countries today. But recently the character of this flow has
substanti­ally changed. The flow of people from military conflict
in Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan and other countries in the Middle
East and Africa,to the developed European countries is on such
a large scale and so uncontrolled that it has become a political
migration;
4. Migration or resettlement policy of peoples conducted by
colonial powers. The Russian Empire’s resettlement of
Armenians from the Middle East to the south Caucasus is a
striking example of this policy;
5. Migration of peoples from their countries of residence to other
countries as a result of military conflict. Military conflicts
continuing in a number of countries in the Middle East (Syria,
Afghanistan and Iraq) have caused the members of different
religious and ethnic groups to seek asylum in European
countries. This in turn entails an increase in ethnocultural
diversity in the countries where they find asylum.

Assimilation, isolation and multiculturalism

The multicultural society formed as a result of the
aforementioned factors should be governed by the state. To be
more specific, the ethnocultural diversity has to be managed. If the
state does not manage this diversity properly, serious problems
and even conflicts in the development of society may arise.
Therefore, the appropriate management of this diversity is an issue
of great practical importance for each multicultural state.
As has been noted, multiculturalism is one of the possible policy
models to resolve the problems facing the state in connection with
ethnic, racial, religious and cultural diversity. Multiculturalism as a
22 policy model emerged in Canada in the 1960s. Before the advent of
the policy of multiculturalism states with ethnic, racial, religious and

Section I
cultural diversity sought to manage this diversity mainly via two
policy models – the models of assimilation and isolation:
The policy of assimilation envisages the elimination of the
ethnic, racial, religious and cultural diversity of national minorities
in society by their absorption into the culture of the titular (main)
ethnos.*
The policy of isolation opposes contact between the
ethnocultural values of national minorities and the ethnocultural
values of the titular (main) ethnos, thereby preventing the
integration of the national minorities into society.
The policy of isolation is manifest in two forms: 1. It hinders the

Chapter 1
entry of national minorities into the country and their settlement
there. 2. It isolates a group of people, who have already settled in
the country, in order to prevent their assimilation in society. In the
latter case this policy is known as apartheid.
Apartheid in translation from the Afrikaans language means
‘isolation’, ‘separation’, and ‘living in isolation’. It was a policy
pursued by the ruling National Party in the Republic of South Africa
from 1948 to 1994. The policy was based on racial discrimination,
dividing the population of the country into four groups: the Blacks,
the Whites, the Coloured and the Indians. During the period
1960-94 three and a half million of the non-white population
were moved from the territories they inhabited to special zones
(reservations). In 1970 the ‘non-white’ population was deprived
of political representation and their civil rights were considerably
restricted. The racists in power applied racial discrimination to all
spheres of life: education, healthcare and other spheres functioned
separately for the non-white population. The apartheid system was
abolished in the Republic of South Africa after the general election
victory of democratic forces under the leadership of the country’s
first black president, Nobel Peace Prize winner Nelson Mandela.
*
‘Titular ethnos’ refers to the main ethnos that dominates the political, economic
and cultural life of the country, and in the majority of cases constitutes the majority
population. As a rule, the state education system is founded on the language and
culture of this ethnos. 23
The course of history has proved the ineffectiveness of these
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

two policy models in managing ethnocultural diversity. It became

obvious that the policy of assimilation is wrong when culture plays
a leading role in contem­ porary social development, while it also
became clear that the policy of isolation is mistaken in conditions
of globalization, when cultures mix and merge. The failure of the
policies of assimilation and isolation to manage ethnic, racial,
religious and cultural diversity is one of the main reasons for the
emergence of the policy of multiculturalism in the 1960s and 70s
first in Canada, then in a number of multicultural countries in
Europe.
Unlike the policy of isolation, multiculturalism as a policy that
seeks to manage ethnic, racial, religious and cultural diversity
opposes the extinction of the ethnocultural values of national
minorities and instead protects those values, while unlike the
policy of isolation it creates favourable conditions for the
interaction of the ethnocultural values of national minorities and
those of the titular ethnos, providing favourable opportunities
for the integration of national minorities into the society in which
they live. In other words, multiculturalism neither assimilates
the ethnocultural values of national minorities, nor isolates the
development of these values from the development of society. By
creating equal conditions for the development of the ethnocultural
values of the titular ethnos and those of national minorities
multiculturalism creates favourable conditions for their interaction.

Soft and hard forms of multiculturalism

There are various views in the literature concerning the soft and
hard forms of multiculturalism and the distinct differences between
them. According to Prof. Chandran Kukathas of the London School
of Economics, the strong and weak forms of multiculturalism are
manifest in relation to the ethnocultural diversity in society.
The soft form of multiculturalism creates conditions for ethnic
24 and national minorities to protect their ethnocultural values. But if
they are unable to protect their ethnocultural values themselves,

Section I
the best way out of this situation is to adopt the ethnocultural
values of the titular ethnos. In other words, they find themselves
in a situation in which it suits them to accept the ethnocultural
values of the titular ethnos without any outside pressure. In
such a situation it is difficult to protect cultural identity and
ethnocultural values. As they see no other solution, the minorities
give up willingly the idea of protecting their ethnocultural values
if not completely, then at least to a certain extent, and think it
practically beneficial to integrate into the society in which they
live. For example, the soft form of multiculturalism was observed
in the Soviet Union. Though the non-Russian union republics of the

Chapter 1
Soviet Union had wide opportunities to protect and develop their
languages, literatures and cultures, they still preferred to learn the
ethnocultural values and history of the Russian people and to be
educated in Russian, because it helped them build their careers and
be successful in all the spheres of the society in which they lived.
There is a near identical situation at present in some Western
countries; for example, in the USA, Canada, the Netherlands, Great
Britain and Austria. Tolerance is shown towards the ethnocultural
values of the national minorities living in these countries. As a
result of this attitude, the national minorities have the right to
protect their customs and traditions, to publish newspapers and
magazines, and even to open schools in their own languages in
the countries in which they reside. Prof. Kukathas has observed
that in these countries tolerance is shown towards various cultures
or customs and traditions that are not in themselves consistent
with liberalism or liberal values. According to him, classical liberal
society is able to embrace even illiberal elements. The tolerance
shown towards national minorities by liberal societies neither
assimilates their ethnocultural values, nor isolates them. However,
despite the tolerance shown towards national minorities and their
ethnocultural values in Western countries, the ethnic minorities
think it more important to learn the ethnocultural values of the
25
titular ethnos, to assimilate their language, customs and traditions
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

in order to integrate into that society. Doing so gives them every

opportunity to take an active part in all parts of life of that society.
Thus, national minorities willingly refuse to make use of the
opportunities created by the soft form of multiculturalism existing
in a number of Western countries.
Unlike the soft form, multiculturalism in its hard form requires
the creation of all the conditions for national minorities both to
preserve their ethnocultural values, and to take an active part
in all areas of life of the society in which they live. Tolerance of
ethnocultural diversity in society is not enough for the hard form
of multiculturalism. The supporters of this form think that the state
should protect and develop this diversity, supporting it financially,
legally and morally. In this regard, the Canadian professor Will
Kymlicka, a well-known scholar of multiculturalism, says that the
state should recognize the rights of all ethnic, religious and racial
groups and propose special programmes for the protection of
their cultures. He believes this intervention by the state will help to
preserve the cultural independence of minorities. Nevertheless, Will
Kymlicka thinks that the national minorities should respect the laws
of the society in which they live.
Both of these forms of multiculturalism are based on the theory
of liberalism. But as Prof. Kukathas has noted, soft multiculturalism,
which does not accept state intervention in the management of
national relations in society, is based on classical liberalism, while
hard multiculturalism, which advocates active state intervention in
the management of those relations, is based on modern liberalism.

Multiculturalism as a way of life

A country that advocates multiculturalism raises it to the level
of state policy, making it an integral part of state ideology. The
next stages in the development of multiculturalism as a social
phenomenon concern its transformation into state ideology and
26
state policy. The state plays the main role in the accomplishment of

Section I
these stages.
The transformation of multiculturalism into a way of life is the
highest stage of its development. At this stage civil society plays an
extremely active role in spreading multiculturalism in society. The
ideas of multiculturalism are gradually consolidated in the public
consciousness. The President of the Republic of Azerbaijan, Ilham
Aliyev, says that the transformation of multiculturalism into the way
of life of the Azerbaijani people is an important priority:

‘The prevailing climate in Azerbaijan, the interreligious and inter-

ethnic relations and values of multiculturalism are a way of life for

Chapter 1
us. But if we look at other countries, we can see that this is not the
case everywhere. On the contrary, conflicts, wars, clashes break out
on ethnic and religious grounds and blood is shed on the grounds of
creed.’

President Aliyev appreciates that multiculturalism as a state

policy and way of life in Azerbaijan is a great achievement and
notes that these two factors create a positive climate in the country.
Multiculturalism is a positive phenomenon, as it represents the
presence of many cultures, of ethnocultural diversity, in society. It
signifies a process of differentiation in the development in society
and is a sign of development. In addition, as well as signifying
ethnocultural diversity, it is also a policy to manage that diversity.
The most distinctive feature of multiculturalism as a major policy
designed to manage ethnocultural diversity, and what gives it the
edge over other policies (assimilation, isolation), is that it seeks to
protect and even develop the ethnic, racial, religious and cultural
diversity in a united society. The policy of multiculturalism has
the edge over the policy of assimilation, because it prevents the
extinction of ethnocultural diversity, on the one hand, and creates
the necessary conditions for the integration of the ethnocultural
values of the national minorities with those of the titular ethnos,
on the other. As a result, the policy of multiculturalism creates the
27
conditions for the integration of all the minority peoples into the
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

society in which they live.

As for the management of ethnocultural diversity in
Azerbaijan, it should be said that this diversity has been managed
in the country for centuries on the basis of the principles of
multiculturalism. In this regard, President Ilham Aliyev said at the
opening ceremony of the Fourth World Multicultural Dialogue
Forum:

‘Multiculturalism is a state policy in Azerbaijan. At the same

time, it is our way of life. Though multiculturalism is a relatively
new term and sometimes difficult to pronounce, its ideas have
always existed in our country. Irrespective of the historical period
and political system, our people have always actively defended and
propagated multiculturalism within the country and beyond its
borders.’

1.3. Azerbaijani Multiculturalism as an Academic Discipline

Ethnic, racial, religious and cultural diversity exists in the

majority of countries at present. It is the result of objective,
historical processes and is completely natural. Many states
have favourable historical and geographical conditions for the
protection of diversity. Unfortunately, there are very few countries
in which the protection of diversity is regarded as a major objective
of state policy. The Republic of Azerbaijan is one of the rare states
to have adopted multiculturalism as a state policy. President Ilham
Aliyev has repeatedly noted in his speeches that multiculturalism is
a state policy. In one of his speeches he said the following: ‘There
is no alternative to multiculturalism. Of course, we are aware that
there are different opinions and views concerning it. Some people
claim that multiculturalism has failed, but there are also positive
examples. Multiculturalism is a state policy for us and it is our way
28 of life.’
A dualistic approach to multiculturalism can be said to have

Section I
emerged in the world. There is no multicultural climate in the
advanced European countries; it has remained outside state policy
and been left to its own devices. In these countries people no
longer believe in the future of multiculturalism. David Cameron,
Prime Minister of Great Britain (2010-16), thought the situation so
hopeless that he said the policy of multiculturalism had failed. This
can be regarded as the pessimistic pole of multiculturalism policy.
The second, optimistic pole is that taken by Azerbaijani President
Ilham Aliyev. Azerbaijan is a country, where multiculturalism
triumphs and is state policy.
Historically Azerbaijan has been a multicultural and tolerant

Chapter 1
country, and multiculturalism has risen to the level of a way of life.
The Azerbaijani state has implemented major projects to protect
ethnocultural diversity in society. This has made Azerbaijan a centre
of multiculturalism in the world. Such terms as ‘multiculturalism’
and ‘the model of Azerbaijani multiculturalism’ have entered the
vocabulary. Interest in Azerbaijan’s progressive experience in the
sphere of multiculturalism is increasing in the world. The most
striking sign of this is the teaching of the discipline ‘Azerbaijani
multiculturalism’ in a number of universities in Azerbaijan and
abroad.
What does this discipline teach?
The discipline of ‘Azerbaijani Multiculturalism’ teaches the reasons
for the birth of multiculturalism down the centuries, its essence,
its theoretical, ideological and legal-normative foundations, its
distinguishing features, including its advantages and the prospects
for its development.
The main goal of the discipline is, therefore, to explain to students
the essence of the Republic of Azerbaijan’s policy of multiculturalism,
its characteristics and the reasons for its successful implementation.
At the same time the students of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism
learn about the emergence and development of the history,
literature, culture, language, psychology, ethnography, politics and
29
sociology of Azerbaijan. This then takes them to the nearby area,
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

the Caucasus, and further afield to the whole Orient.

1.4. Teaching Methodologies of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

As an interdisciplinary subject Azerbaijani multiculturalism

applies logical methodologies or the general methodologies
of scientific cognition. The main logical methodologies used
here are observation, comparison, measuring, experimentation,
induction and deduction, analysis and synthesis, abstraction and
generalization.

Observation
Observation is the study of phenomena through the perception
of reality in order to determine their meanings and define their
importance. As a rule, during observation the observer does not
interfere in the development of the object.
There are two types of observation:
a.
Outside or external observation. In this case the observer
watches an ongoing process from the outside;
b.
Inside or internal observation. In this case the observer
participates actively in the process.
Moreover, depending on the use of technical means in
the process of observation, the observation may be direct or
indirect (instrumental). In direct observations the observer
obtains information about the object without using any technical
means (television, radio, internet, etc.). The observer may obtain
information about the object indirectly (for example through
observation, or through questionnaires). Such observation is called
indirect observation.
The academic discipline of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism widely
uses the methodology of observation. For example, through
30 observation it is possible to determine the absence of any
confrontation among members religious confessions or different

Section I
ethnic groups, as well as to determine the presence of friendly
relations among them and to conclude that the multicultural
climate is at a high level.

Comparison

Comparison is a methodology that compares objects in order to

determine their identical and different features. This methodology
plays an important role in determining the essence of objects
and phenomena. Comparison is an important component of
generalization, which is itself a significant stage of intellectual

Chapter 1
knowledge. Besides, comparison plays a key role in analogy.
The methodology of comparison is of great importance in
Azerbaijani multiculturalism. For example, this methodology is
widely used in defining the features of the Azerbaijani model of
multiculturalism, including its superiority to other models.

Measuring

Measuring is the methodology used to determine the

quantitative aspects of an object through the use of special
technical devices and units of measurement. The relationship
between the quantity and features of objects are determined using
this methodology.
Using measuring as methodology in Azerbaijani Multiculturalism,
it is possible to determine the quantitative indicators of phenomena
studied in the sphere of multiculturalism and find out their specific
features. For example, by counting the number of members of
religious communities that take part in presidential, parliamentary
and municipal elections it is possible to determine the political
activeness of a community.
31
Experimentation
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Experimentation (experimentum in Latin, which means practice)

is a methodology of empirical research that institutes observation
in order to determine the truthfulness of a provision and studies
objects and phenomena in controlled and managed conditions.
Unlike observation the situation studied does not exist before the
beginning of the experiment. It is created for that purpose. Unlike
other empirical research methodologies, experimentation is able to
intervene in the research. Experimentation excludes all influences
and factors that hinder the creation of the necessary conditions,
and includes observation and measuring with the necessary
technical devices.
As the other general methodologies of scientific understanding,
experimentation may also be used in Azerbaijani Multiculturalism.
For example, an experiment may be conducted to verify the
truth of the claim ‘There is no ethnic and religious discrimination
in Azerbaijan.’ A controlled and guided observation situation
would be created for the experiment in which respondents would
be asked questions and given practical choices to make. This
experiment would allow the truthfulness of the claim to be verified.

Induction

Induction (in Latin inductio means to make one’s way towards…)

as a research methodology expresses the movement of knowledge
from concrete facts towards general provisions. By using this
methodology concrete facts are gathered and generalized and as a
result of it new generalized knowledge is achieved. If all the facts are
used in achieving the new knowledge, induction becomes complete;
otherwise it is incomplete. In the majority of cases it is difficult
to take into consideration all the facts for objective reasons, so
32
incomplete induction is encountered more than complete induction.

Section I
Unlike complete induction, the knowledge obtained through
incomplete induction is probable in nature.
Induction is a frequently used methodology in the discipline
of Azerbaijani multiculturalism. It is in the nature of the subject.
As a discipline that studies the reality of Azerbaijan, Azerbaijani
Multiculturalism collects concrete facts about Azerbaijan and
makes its own propositions. For example, in teaching this discipline
the thesis that the ideas of tolerance and multiculturalism were
always present in the history of Azerbaijan’s socio-philosophical
thought is substantiated through analysis of the oral folklore
and works of prominent Azerbaijani thinkers, poets, writers and

Chapter 1
educators.

Deduction
Deduction (in Latin deductio means to make an inference
by reasoning) is a comprehension methodology that deduces
conclusions from generalizations. The knowledge obtained by
this method is essential in character; that is, unlike incomplete
induction, the result obtained by deduction is not probable in
nature.
Many premises used in teaching the discipline of Azerbaijani
Multiculturalism are obtained by using the deductive approach.
For instance, when determining that a national minority has the
right to develop its language, recourse can be made to Article 21
(Paragraph 2) of the Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan
concerning the official language and Paragraphs 1 and 2 of Article
45 (‘the right to use one’s mother tongue’) which enshrine the
right. Specifically, Article 21, Paragraph 2 says: The Azerbaijan
Republic ensures the free use and development of other languages
spoken by the people.’ Article 45, Paragraph 1 says: ‘Everyone has
the right to use his/her mother tongue. Everyone has the right to be
educated, to do creative work in any language, as desired.’ Article
33
45, Paragraph 2 says: ‘Nobody may be deprived of the right to use
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

his/her mother tongue.’

Analysis and synthesis

Analysis (in Greek it means dissolving, separating) is a research
methodology, in which the object of study is divided into its
integral parts. Then each of these component parts is studied
separately. This provides additional information about the object
of study. For example, through the use of analysis the structure of
the object, its integral parts and the relationship among them are
determined.
As induction is the inverse of deduction, analysis is the inverse
of synthesis. If analysis presupposes the theoretical disintegration
of the integral parts of the object of study, synthesis (in Greek it
means combining, uniting) presupposes the integration of the
integral parts in one whole. Synthesis functions as the continuation
of analysis.
This method is used in the study of many premises of
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism. For example, while studying the policy
of multiculturalism in the Republic of Azerbaijan, the basic elements
(directions) of this policy are determined first, each element is
examined separately and their interrelations are determined.
Then by using the methodology of synthesis the information
obtained about the integral parts of the policy of multiculturalism
in the Republic of Azerbaijan are put together and comprehensive
knowledge about this policy is obtained.

Abstraction

Abstraction (in Latin abstractio means removal, putting aside)

is the methodology of mentally abstracting a number of elements
34
from the object of study. As a rule, the elements that are mentally

Section I
abstracted or removed from the object are secondary, unimportant
elements. In the process of understanding, the researcher can easily
get closer to the essence of the object when it is free from the
unimportant indicators that do not reflect its essence.
Abstraction is closely connected with the methodology of
analysis. To be more specific, the abstraction is a continuation of
analysis. So, before subjecting an object to analysis the features of
the object should be identified from the point of view of whether
or not they reflect the object’s essence.
These features allow for the wide use of the methodology of

Chapter 1
abstraction in Azerbaijani Multiculturalism. For example, anti-
Semitism (enmity against the Jewish people, their culture and
religion) has been seen in many countries, even in some Western
ones recently. The application of the abstraction method to
determine indicators of the absence of anti-Semitism in Azerbaijan
takes into account that Jews have not historically been persecuted
in Azerbaijan; they have enjoyed religious freedom, the right to
publish their own newspapers and magazines and to be educated
in their own language. It is not necessary to take into account other
indicators (their living discretely in various parts of the country,
their activity in political parties, their employment in different
spheres of the economy, etc.). These indicators are separated out
by using the abstraction method, as they do not tell us anything
about the existence of anti-­Semitism in Azerbaijan.

Generalization

The method of generalization joins the common features

of several objects into one. For example, the Udi, Ingiloy and
Khinaliq people are joined under the notion of Albanian peoples.
Analysis and comparison establishes the common features of 35
the objects. The methodology of generalization moves from a
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

particular notion towards a general one. The generalization of

a notion, as an exercise in logic, is defined by an expansion in its
scope and contraction in its content. This operation leads to a
reduction in the specificity of the notion. For example, the notion
of ‘The history of social thought in Azerbaijan’, obtained by
the generalization of ‘Ideas of tolerance in the history of social
thought in Azerbaijan’, is inferior to the latter from the point of
view of content and specificity. Nevertheless, the newly obtained
notion is a step towards revealing the essence of the object of
study. The first step taken to determine the essence of a new
notion is its generalization; that is, it is the inclusion of the notion
in a notion that is much broader in scope. For example, in order
to comprehend the notion of ‘multicultural security’ it has to be
included in the broader notion of ‘security’. This occasions specific
thought about the notion of ‘multicultural security’.
The logical methods of observation, comparison, measuring
and experimentation are empirical methods of research, while
induction and deduction, analysis and synthesis, abstraction and
generalization are theoretical methods, though not far removed
from the former.

1.5. Azerbaijani Multiculturalism as an

Interdisciplinary Subject

Azerbaijani Multiculturalism is an interdisciplinary subject. It is

based on the theses of philosophy, literature, psychology, history,
culturology, law, sociology, linguistics and other social sciences,
which shape the idea of the Azerbaijani model of multiculturalism.
Philosophy forms the theoretical and methodological
foundations of Azerbaijani multiculturalism as a discipline. For
example, in modern philosophy the idea that culture plays a
36
leading role in social development is widespread. The cultural-

Section I
civilizational approach based on this helps to substantiate the
notion that multiculturalism is a better, superior political model
for the management of ethnic, religious, racial and cultural
diversity in society than other political models. Besides, Azerbaijani
multiculturalism as a discipline occupies a special place in the study
of the ideas of ethnocultural diversity, tolerance and coexistence in
the history of socio-philosophical thought in Azerbaijan. The issues
analysed by social philosophy include the study of the interaction
of the Republic of Azerbaijan’s multicultural policy with its socio-
economic development and foreign policy.

Chapter 1
The literature of Azerbaijan is one of the main sources on
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism. The study of the protection of racial,
ethnic, religious and cultural diversity in the works of prominent
Azerbaijani poets and writers down the centuries and in works of
literature in general that promote coexistence and tolerance show
that the Azerbaijani model of multiculturalism has deep roots.
Multiculturalism is a value inherent to the Azerbaijani nation,
a value that defines the psychology of the nation, its mentality.
Psychology as a discipline contributes to substantiating these
theses from a scientific point of view.
The history of Azerbaijan conveys information on the
coexistence of different peoples, nations and confessions in peace
and security for centuries. It substantiates further the theses of
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism.
Culturology as a discipline studies the importance of
ethnocultural values reflected in the culture, literature and art
of the Azerbaijani people and represents empirical material to
substantiate some of the theses of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism.
For example, the respect observed in the culture, literature and
art of the Azerbaijani people for the ethnocultural values of the
national minorities living in Azerbaijan tells of the peaceful, secure 37
coexistence of these nations in the territory of Azerbaijan since
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

ancient times.
Law as a science deals with the laws introduced by the state
of Azerbaijan to defend the rights of the ethnic, racial, religious
and cultural minorities and to protect their ethnocultural values.
Besides, law studies the content and importance of legal-normative
documents adopted by the international organizations of which
Azerbaijan is a member, and is a source of information on the work
done in the country.
Political science subjects to comprehensive analysis the
models of multiculturalism existing in other countries, particularly
Western countries where multiculturalism emerged. The
knowledge obtained as a result of this analysis allows parallels
to be drawn between the Azerbaijani model of multiculturalism
and the models of multiculturalism in the Western countries. The
comparative analysis helps to understand the specific features of
multiculturalism in Azerbaijan, including its superior features.
The science of sociology approaches multiculturalism as a social
phenomenon and determines the role of factors that were very
important in its genesis. Moreover, sociology helps determine the
role of multiculturalism in society, its impact on the domestic and
foreign policy of the country, its economic development and its
culture. Sociology as a teaching discipline reveals the role of the
social factors that have influenced the formation and development
of multiculturalism in Azerbaijan; it also discloses the counter-effect
of Azerbaijani multiculturalism on these factors.
The science of linguistics studies the rich nature of the
Azerbaijani language, the role of other languages in its formation
and development and the relationship between society and
language, thereby helping to understand the special characteristics
of the language policy of Azerbaijan, one of the features of the
Azerbaijani model of multiculturalism.
38
1.6. The Main Functions and Importance

Section I
of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism as a Discipline

According to our definition, Azerbaijani Multiculturalism as

an academic discipline studies the reasons for the emergence of
multiculturalism in Azerbaijan, its essence, theoretical, ideological
and legal-normative foundations, and its distinctive features,
including its advantages, its present state and the prospects for its
development.
The discipline of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism has three main
functions: cognitive, predictive and practical.

Chapter 1
In the cognitive function, through study of the emergence of
multiculturalism in Azerbaijan, in other words of the Azerbaijani
model, we come to a comprehensive understanding of this spiritual
‘territory’. To be more exact, the discipline allows us to learn in
detail about the reasons for the emergence and development of
multiculturalism in Azerbaijan, its literary, artistic, philosophical,
journalistic, political and legal sources, its reflection in domestic
and foreign policy and about the features distinguishing the
Azerbaijani model of multiculturalism from other models. At the
same time, it is possible to acquire comparative knowledge about
Azerbaijan’s neighbouring countries.
The predictive function of the discipline of Azerbaijani
Multiculturalism concerns the analysis of knowledge acquired
concerning the current state of multiculturalism in the country and
determination of its development prospects.
The discipline’s practical function concerns the management
of ethnic, religious, racial and cultural diversity in the country and
taking the necessary steps to improve the multicultural situation.
Clearly, the cognitive, predictive and practical functions of the
discipline of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism are closely connected
with each other. The predictive and practical functions of
multiculturalism are based on the knowledge obtained through 39
study. The predictive function allows changes that may happen
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

in the country to be determined in advance, while application of

the practical function means that the necessary reforms can be
made. Under the influence of the predictive and practical functions
the newly emerged multicultural situation, i.e. the discipline of
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism, is studied more deeply. And this is
done through the cognitive function of the discipline.
Having analysed the cognitive, predictive and practical functions
of the discipline of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism, we should note too
its political importance. It spreads accurate information about the
multicultural situation in Azerbaijan, which has become a centre
of multiculturalism. It may remove preconceptions circulated by
some states and international and regional organizations about
Azerbaijan and contribute to the formation of an objective attitude
towards the country.

Questions

1. What is multiculturalism?
2. What is the relationship of multiculturalism to the notions of
tolerance and interculturalism?
3. What features do assimilation, isolation and multiculturalism
share, and what features are separate?
4. What are the reasons for the emergence of multiculturalism
as a policy model?
5. What are the soft and hard forms of multiculturalism?
6. In the modern era why is it so important to protect ethno-
cultural diversity and the ethnocultural values on which it is
based?
7. What are the optimistic and pessimistic poles of the policy of
multiculturalism?
40
8. What does the discipline of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Section I
teach?
9. What are the teaching methodologies of Azerbaijani Multi-
culturalism?
10. What is the importance of philosophy for the discipline of
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism?
11. What is the importance of political science for the discipline
of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism?
12. What are the main functions of the discipline of Azerbaijani
Multiculturalism?
13. What is the political importance of the discipline of Azerbai-

Chapter 1
jani Multiculturalism?
14. What place does the discipline of Azerbaijani Multicultural-
ism occupy in the social sciences?

References

1. Ilham Aliyev. ‘İlham Əliyev müqəddəs Ramazan ayı müna-

sibətilə iftar mərasimində iştirak edib’ http://azertag.az/xeber/
Azerbaycan_Prezidenti_Ilham_Aliyev _muqeddes_Ramazan_
ayi_munasibetile_iftar_mera siminde_istirak_edib-870733
2. Ilham Aliyev. ‘Bakıda Heydər məscidinin açılışında İlham Əli-
yevin nitqi’ http://www.president.az/articles/13981
3. Ilham Aliyev. ‘İlham Əliyev ‘Rossiya-24’ informasiya telekanalı-
na müsahibə verib’ 28.11.2014
http://president.az/mobile/articles/13559
4. Ilham Aliyev. ‘Prezident İlham Əliyev BMT-nin Sivilizasiyalar
Alyansının VII Qlobal Forumunun rəsmi açılışında iştirak edib’
http://www. yap.org. az/ az/ view/news/12931/prezident-­
ilhameliyev-bizim-uchun-multikulturalizm-dovlet-siyasetidir.

41
5. Ilham Aliyev. ‘Prezident İlham Əliyev IV Ümumdünya mədəni-
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

yyətlərarası Dialoq Forumunun rəsmi açılışında iştirak edib’

5.05.2017
6. Abdullayev K.M. ‘Ulu Öndər Azərbaycan multikulturalizmin
siyasi banisi kimi’. Azərbaycan qəzeti, 23.07.2014, Azarbaycan
newspaper, 23.07.2014)
7. Abdullayev K.M. ‘Azərbaycanın müstəqilliyi illərində multikul-
turalizm və tolerantlıq’. Müstəqillik yollarında 25 Baku, 2016,
pp. 504-517
8. Dumouchel P. Comparative Multiculturalism. http://www.ritsu­
mei.ac. jp/acd/gr/gsce/s/pd01/Comparative_Multiculturalism.pdf
9. Kukathas C. Theoretical Foundations of Multiculturalism
http://econfaculty.gmu.edu/pboettke/workshop/fall04/theo-
reticalfoundations.pdf
10. Kymlicka W., ‘Multiculturalism as Fairness’, Journal of Political
Philosophy 5 (4) 1997, pp.406-427
11. Nəcəfov E.Ə. (Najafov E.A.) ‘Multikulturalizmin mahiyyətinə
dair’, Dövlət İdarəçiliyi. Nəzəriyyə və təcrübə, Jurnal, N3 (51),
2015, pp. 103-112
12. Parekh B., Rethinking Multiculturalism: Cultural Diversity and
Political Theory (London: Macmillan, 2000), pp.142-178
http://lib.freescienceengineering. org/ view.php?id=398243
13. Song S., ‘Multiculturalism’, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Phi-
losophy (Spring 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
http://plato.stanford. edu/archives/ spr 2014/entries/multi-
culturalism
14. Wieviorka M., (1998) ‘Is Multiculturalism a Solution?’ Ethnic
and Racial Studies 21(5): 882-910

42
SECTION

II

Section II
MULTICULTURALISM AS A STATE POLICY OF THE
REPUBLIC OF AZERBAIJAN AND A LIFESTYLE OF THE
AZERBAIJANI PEOPLE

Chapter 2

Chapter 2
MULTICULTURALISM AS AN INTEGRAL
PART OF NATIONAL SECURITY

2.1. Multicultural Security and its Main Principles

The national security system has many components – economic

security, transport security, energy security, food security and
so on. Each of them taken separately or together is an important
component in the life of the state. It is also important to include
multicultural values as a national security component, as they are
integral parts of moral, spiritual and ideological life. The country
has to ensure multicultural security, as it ensures energy security,
economic and national security.
Multicultural security essentially means the protection of
the cultural values of all peoples, irrespective of their ethnicity,
religion, race and culture. If problems arise and grow in ensuring
the multicultural security of society, they will lead to confrontation
and conflicts on ethnic, religious and racial grounds. The increase
of ethnic and religious radicalism, xenophobia, anti-Semitism and
43
Islamophobia in several European countries in recent years is a
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

striking example of the consequences of these problems.

Multicultural security consists of a number of principles, which
oblige the state to be fair, confident and capable of qualitative
renewal.
The principles of multicultural security are the following:

1. A
ll confessions and their members within society should be
treated equally by the state from the political point of view.

In one of his speeches President Ilham Aliyev said that when he

was abroad people often asked him in surprise about the friendship
among people of different faiths and their leaders in Azerbaijan.
They want to know the reason for it.
The question itself sounds strange to an Azerbaijani; modern-
day Azerbaijanis feels this relationship in their heart, their morals,
though may not know the reason. This attitude is as important
for our life as the air we breathe and the water we drink. But this
question deserves a serious reply, of course. That this climate
prevails in Azerbaijan is connected to the equal treatment that
the different confessions receive from the head of state. He does
not differentiate between them from the political point of view.
This equal political treatment in turn obliges the confessions to be
tolerant towards one another and the state. Thus, one of the main
and most important principles of multicultural security is to create
a mechanism for the equal treatment of the different confessions
within the country from the political point of view.

2. The state should take care to protect the national diversity

existing in the country.

Azerbaijan is a place where different peoples coexist in

conditions of peace, friendship and brotherhood, sharing their joys
44 and sorrows. The Udi, Ingiloy and the peoples of Budug, Khinaliq
and Qriz, who are all descendants of the ancient Albanians, the

Section II
Jews, Talysh, Russians, Avars, Lezghi, Georgians, Kurds, and more
recently Germans and other peoples and ethnicities have been
able to transform this place into their common motherland. The
Azerbaijani Armenians, who are of the same nationality as the
separatists laying groundless claims to Azerbaijani land but who do
not accept those claims, think of Azerbaijan as their motherland as
well. The small ethnic groups of Khinaliq and Jek, who number the
population of a small village and whose languages and ethnicities
are not represented anywhere else, belong to Azerbaijan, too.
Azerbaijan as a state thinks of the languages and cultural richness
of these ethnicities as its own richness and strength. The National

Chapter 2
Leader of Azerbaijan Heydar Aliyev used to say: ‘The more peoples
the state brings together, the richer it becomes, because each of them
makes its own contribution to world culture and civilization.’ Today
members of all peoples and ethnic groups can be seen working in
all spheres of life in the independent Azerbaijan – in politics, the
economy, education, culture, in a word, everywhere. The state’s
equal treatment of all the peoples and ethnic groups residing in the
country forms the basis of this principle.
Today the new, democratic society that has taken shape in
Azerbaijan takes an active part in building the independent state.
Whatever their ethnicity, a person feels a true citizen of Azerbaijan.
Everyone can speak and write in their mother tongue and meet
their other cultural needs. Article 44 of the Constitution of the
Republic of Azerbaijan says the following about the ethnicity of
citizens: ‘Everyone has the right to keep their national identity.
Nobody may be forced to change their national identity.’
Members of different peoples and ethnic groups living in
Azerbaijan can be found today in every walk of life – politics, the
economy, education, sport, culture, in a word, everywhere.

45
3. S upport from the state and society for the protection and
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

development of ethnocultural diversity.

All the conditions are in place for the ethnic minorities in

Azerbaijan to study their own literature and history. As a result,
the minorities do not feel alien in their own country. Azerbaijan’s
cultural context is a moral and spiritual space for them. This
political position is one of Azerbaijan’s main priorities today.
Since the first years of independence there have been
secondary schools with instruction in Russian and Georgian
alongside Azerbaijani schools. Besides, 108 Lezghi schools teach
in the Lezghi language (first to ninth years). In some districts of
the republic where ethnic minorities predominate (Avar, Kurd,
Lezghi, Talysh, Sakhur, Tat, Udi, Khinaliq, etc.) teaching in the
primary classes is in the native languages. In 2003 a private
Jewish secondary school opened in Baku, which teaches Hebrew,
Jewish history and culture. Alphabet books, lesson programmes,
other textbooks and dictionaries for schoolchildren are regularly
published in Russian, Avar, Talysh, Tat, Udi, Hebrew and the Khinaliq
language at the expense of the state.
Analysis of the example of multicultural security in Azerbaijan
shows that if its principles are followed carefully, the country is able
to make the most of its rich domestic resources and to enhance
its international image. This was stressed many times by foreign
participants in the UN Alliance of Civilizations Seventh Global
Forum held in Baku. Many peoples still divide into ‘us and them’,
but for Azerbaijani citizens this confrontation between ‘us and
them’ has declined in importance since the Middle Ages. Today the
confrontation is in its ‘mildest’ form yet.

2.2. Azerbaijanism and Multiculturalism

Azerbaijanism is an idea designed to promote the political,

46 economic, social and cultural development of the Azerbaijani
people. The struggle of the Azerbaijani people for national

Section II
liberation forms the basis of this idea. The history of the national
liberation struggle of the Azerbaijani people is intertwined with the
emergence of the idea of Azerbaijanism. This process began in the
second half of the 19th century, when Azerbaijan was a province
of tsarist Russia. National minorities suffered from discrimination,
exploitation and Russification under tsarist Russia’s policy of inter-
ethnic relations. The struggle of the Azerbaijani people at that
time was the main driving force in the formation of the idea of
Azerbaijanism.
Prominent Turkish sociologist Ziya Gokalp and Indian political

Chapter 2
scientist R.S. Chavan have observed that the national movements of
peoples of the Orient go through three consecutive stages: cultural,
political and economic. They begin with cultural revival, acquire the
form of a political movement, and then reach the stage of working
out economic programmes. Azerbaijanism followed that pattern,
beginning as a cultural movement.
From the second half of the 19th century the cultural
Azerbaijanism movement was led by outstanding figures from the
arts and the enlightenment movement. They continued a tradition
led by Mirza Fatali Akhundzada of criticizing religious fanaticism
and the old customs and traditions that hindered the development
of the people. They urged the people to acquire knowledge,
science and education. As a result of these efforts, national schools
were opened, which used new teaching methods. Efforts were
made to improve the literary language and secure the adoption
of a new alphabet. New libraries and reading halls opened, while
national newspapers and magazines were published. This work by
prominent representatives of the Azerbaijanism movement began
to shape the national consciousness of the Azerbaijani people. This
process played an important role in the people’s comprehension of
their cultural and ethnic unity.

47
The transition of the idea of Azerbaijanism from the cultural
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

sphere to the political sphere is connected with the theoretical and

political work of Ali bay Huseynzada, Ahmad Aghaoghlu, Alimardan
Topchubashov, Mammadamin Rasulzada and other prominent
figures. For the first time, representatives of political Azerbaijanism
began to defend the political rights of the Azerbaijani people. They
used all legal means to do this: for example, they wrote petitions to
the tsar, held meetings with senior government officials, organized
a congress of Muslims living in Russia and took an active part
in the work of the State Duma (parliament). The participation
of representatives of political Azerbaijanism in the State Duma
should be highlighted in particular. In April 1905 the Azerbaijani
parliamentarians submitted to the Duma a petition ‘On behalf
of the representatives of the Muslim population’ drawn up by
Alimardan Topchubashov. The petition demanded the defence of
the political, economic and cultural rights of the Muslims living in
Russia and the elimination of the remnants of feudalism. Though
the petition was not adopted by the tsarist government, its drafting
and submission are evidence of the highly developed level of
political Azerbaijanism.
In the early stages of their work, the supporters of political
Azerbaijanism could not disseminate their ideas openly, because
at that time the identity of the Azerbaijani people was determined
on religious grounds. There was no assertion of their Turkic identity.
The supporters of the ideas of political Azerbaijanism saw pan-
Islamism as the greatest obstacle to the national liberation struggle
of the Azerbaijani people. Mammadamin Rasulzada wrote:

‘Historical experience shows that pan-Islamism is leading to the

formation of a reactionary, theocratic movement, on the one hand,
and hindering the formation of national ideology in the Muslim
world and the independence of the Muslim peoples, on the other.
48
We must accelerate the development of national consciousness in

Section II
the Muslim world, because the formation of national identity brings
about social progress and national independence.’
The concept of Azerbaijanism at that time brought three
directions together: Turkicization, Islamization and modernization.
The concept was first put forward by Ali bay Huseynzada in
the journal Hayat (Life) in 1905. Later the concept became the
official doctrine of the Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan, and
was reflected in the state’s tricolour. The concept of political
Azerbaijanism underwent an important transformation: up until
1918 the concept’s proponents favoured federalization and

Chapter 2
wanted to build political relations with Russia on the principles
of federalism; after the massacre of March 1918, however, they
rejected federalism and used the concept of Azerbaijanism to
support the acquisition of political independence.
The Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan was created on 28 May
1918, marking a qualitatively new stage in the development of the
concept of political Azerbaijanism. This created the right conditions
for the transition to the economic stage of the national movement.
But the occupation of Azerbaijan by Bolshevik Russia did not allow
this transition to be completed. The development of the idea of
Azerbaijanism was temporarily stopped and a new period began in
the life of the Azerbaijani people – the Soviet period.
Though the Azerbaijani people achieved economic, scientific,
technical and sociocultural development during Soviet rule, their
culture was under constant pressure from the central government.
The Bolsheviks pursued a policy of Russification in all parts of
society, though they managed to gloss it over with democratic and
internationalist slogans and by granting cultural autonomy and
self-government to some regions where national minorities lived.
The policy, however, served the development of the totalitarian
Soviet state.

49
A major component of Soviet nationalities policy was
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

constructive work in the political, economic, social and cultural

spheres in all the union republics. It should be noted that what had
been backward, non-Russian regions achieved great success as
a result of this policy. On the one hand, the reforms strengthened
Soviet power in these regions and made Russification easier, on
the other hand, they prevented the rise of a national liberation
movement. The totalitarian system in the Soviet Union created
favourable conditions for Russification in politics, the economy and
culture.
The Soviet policy of Russification led to a revival of Russian
chauvinism and to pressure on the values of the national cultures
of the non-Russian peoples. The contradiction between communist
values and the values of national cultures grew over time. In new
historical conditions this contradiction manifested itself in national
liberation movements in many non-Russian republics, including
Azerbaijan. But the national liberation of the Azerbaijani people was
opposed by the Soviet totalitarian system, which formed the basis of
Russian chauvinism.
At the end of the 1980s the process of the fall of the Soviet
totalitarian system started. It was first manifest in the Soviet
Union lagging behind the developed countries in terms of its
macro-economic figures, and in the vacuum on the issue of
national minorities. Mikhail Gorbachev’s policy of perestroika
(restructuring) accelerated the collapse of the Soviet totalitarian
system, creating favourable conditions for the birth of national
liberation movements in the majority of the Union republics,
including Azerbaijan. The failure of the Soviet Union to make
full use of the Union republics’ potential, to ensure their socio-
economic development and to tackle environmental problems was
amongst the factors that led to the republics demanding greater
powers from the Kremlin. The majority of the Union republics used
the conditions created by the policy of perestroika to protect their
50
own sovereignty, although some republics took opportunity to

Section II
occupy the territory of neighbouring republics. For example, the
Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic made claims on the territory of
Azerbaijan, appealing to the Kremlin to authorize the annexation of
Nagorno-Karabakh (Mountainous Karabakh), ancestral Azerbaijani
territory, to Armenia. This action by the Armenians was directed
not only against Azerbaijan – it was a serious obstacle to the
national liberation movement in other republics for two reasons:
first, Armenia’s territorial claims on Azerbaijan turned the national
movement of the Armenians into an aggressive force, and second,
it gave the Kremlin the opportunity to suppress the national

Chapter 2
liberation movements that had begun in the non-Russian republics.
Thus, by the end of the 1980s Armenia’s territorial claims were
the greatest obstacle facing Azerbaijan and the national liberation
movement of the Azerbaijani people. The claims started the
Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh. The
Azerbaijani people rose up to defend their territory, turning
the national liberation struggle into a mass movement. The
movement’s situation was not good, however, as it faced two
thorny issues: first, it had to defend the territorial integrity of
Azerbaijan from the aggression of Armenia and, second, it had
to restore the state independence of Azerbaijan from the Soviet
empire. Resolving these two important issues required a political
force able to lead the national liberation movement of the
Azerbaijani people in the right direction in these new historical
circumstances. To meet this historical necessity the Popular Front of
Azerbaijan was established by the end of 1988.
The creation of the Popular Front of Azerbaijan (PFA) was an
important event in the development of Azerbaijanism. The PFA
enjoyed the support of the people in the first months of its work,
but later for reasons beyond its control (the interference of the
intelligence services of other countries, military assistance from
Russia to Armenia) and within its control (differences of opinion
51
and divisions within the PFA leadership and the leaders’ inability
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

to lead the national liberation movement) they could not fulfil the
historic mission entrusted to them. Forces hostile to Azerbaijan
made skilful use of the PFA’s inexperience. To suppress the
Azerbaijani national liberation movement, the Kremlin presented
it as aggressive and on 20 January 1990 it brought Soviet troops
onto the streets of Baku, murdering a large number of civilians. The
army’s attack on civilians meant that the situation was spinning out
of control. But the action by the Soviet leaders could not break the
national liberation spirit of the Azerbaijani people. On the contrary,
it gave the movement a new impulse.
On 18 October 1991 Azerbaijan restored its independence.
This marked the beginning of the third stage in the history of
the national liberation movement of the Azerbaijani people. But
the restoration of state sovereignty did not solve the Nagorno-
Karabakh problem. As a result of Armenia’s military aggression,
20 per cent of the territory of Azerbaijan was occupied. The
occupation and accompanying policy of ethnic cleansing created
over one million refugees and internally displaced persons in
Azerbaijan.
The problem of Nagorno-Karabakh, therefore, played an
exceptional role in the birth of the Azerbaijani national liberation
movement. For the Azerbaijani people the national liberation
movement’s main goal was to solve the problem of Nagorno-
Karabakh. A major reason for the public’s insistence that
Abdurrahman Vezirov, Ayaz Mutallibov and Abulfaz Elchibey
respectively had to leave the country’s highest state posts was
their inability to protect and restore the territorial integrity of
Azerbaijan. The Azerbaijani people invited the National Leader of
the Azerbaijani People Heydar Aliyev to rule the country, as he was
the only person able to restore the territorial integrity of Azerbaijan
and to save the country as a whole.

52
With the return of the National Leader of the Azerbaijani

Section II
People Heydar Aliyev to power a completely new stage began in
the history of the concept of Azerbaijanism. This stage marks
the peak of the entire historical development of Azerbaijanism.
President Ilham Aliyev said in this regard: ‘The years of 1993-
2003 were the years of development and stability. It was in those
very years that the foundations of our statehood were laid, and the
national ideology, that is, the idea of Azerbaijanism, was supported
by the people’. As a brilliant bearer of the ideology of Azerbaijanism,
Heydar Aliyev managed to realize the idea of national statehood,
to build a modern state in Azerbaijan and fulfil the people’s desire

Chapter 2
for independence through his wise policy, firm conviction and
historical farsightedness.
The return of Heydar Aliyev to the political administration
of the country exerted a great influence on the development of
Azerbaijanism and the Azerbaijani people’s fight for freedom. Based
on the idea of Azerbaijanism, the National Leader of the Azerbaijani
People Heydar Aliyev ensured the comprehensive development of
the country. For the first time he introduced multiculturalism as an
integral part of the concept of Azerbaijanism.
Academician Ramiz Mehdiyev in his book The National Idea
of Azerbaijan in a Period of Global Transformation refers to eight
stages in the birth and formation of the national idea of Azerbaijan
from 1828 to the present day. Each stage begins with an important
historical event. The seventh stage of the formation of the national
idea of Azerbaijan covers the period from 1993 to 2003, when
the National Leader of the Azerbaijani People Heydar Aliyev was
in power. Highly appreciating the work done by Heydar Aliyev in
shaping the national idea, Ramiz Mehdiyev writes:

‘At this stage the national idea is reflected in the ideas of state
and national independence. As a result of the policy pursued by
Heydar Aliyev, all the collective forms of self-identification – ethnic,
53
religious, socio-cultural, economic, and political, etc., were included
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

in the concept of the “nation”. The idea of Azerbaijan is becoming

the idea of all the ethnic groups that live in Azerbaijan and see
Azerbaijan as their motherland.’

The integration of the policy of multiculturalism into

Azerbaijanism ensures it is widespread in society and reinforces
it. We noted earlier that the idea of multiculturalism in the narrow
sense of the word reflects the concrete policy pursued by the
state towards its ethnic, racial, religious and cultural diversity
and the state’s protection of the ethnocultural values at the basis
of this diversity. By protecting the ethnocultural values of the
national minorities within society, the policy of multiculturalism
strengthens the social basis of Azerbaijanism, transforming it into
the ideology of all the peoples and ethnic groups residing in the
country. In ensuring the further political, economic, social and
cultural development of the Azerbaijani people, the ideology of
Azerbaijanism makes good use of the policy of multiculturalism
as an important tool. In his article entitled ‘The strong Azerbaijani
state as the embodiment of the national idea in conditions of
globalization’, Academician Ramiz Mehdiyev writes that the ideology
of Azerbaijanism reinforces tolerance and multiculturalism for all
ethnic groups living in the country and is a sign of the strength of
the Azerbaijani state.
The National Leader of the Azerbaijani People introduced
multiculturalism as an integral part of the ideology of Azerbaijan.
He is, therefore, considered the political founder of multiculturalism
in Azerbaijan.

54
2.3. National Leader of the Azerbaijani People

Section II
Heydar Aliyev as the Political Founder of Azerbaijani
Multiculturalism

Multiculturalism as it took shape in Azerbaijan down the centuries

was a permanent feature of the socio-­ literary and psychological-
moral landscape, but it was spontaneous and lacked a system,
particularly in the years of Soviet ideology. It seemed to have all the
prerequisites though: tolerance and moral potential, religious loyalty
and national identity, psychological determination and openness to
universal values prepared the Azerbaijanis for a multicultural regime.

Chapter 2
Such characteristics are clearly visible and influential in the literature
and art of Azerbaijan, both in the past and today.
Shining examples from the epic Kitabi Dada Qorqud (The
Book of Dada Qorqud) and the oral and written literature of
Azerbaijan prove clearly the existence of multicultural traditions
in the country from the distant past to the present day. This
being the case, only one question remained on the agenda in
recent times: consolidating the place of multiculturalism in legal
and political terms. Azerbaijan’s National Leader Heydar Aliyev
achieved this. He set a precise ideological target for Azerbaijan’s
successful development and raised the centuries-old tradition of
multiculturalism to a qualitatively new stage through his farsighted
and wise policy. This was the political stage.
National Leader Heydar Aliyev demonstrated to the entire
world the advantages of the political model of multiculturalism
over other potential models such as assimilation and isolation.
As Academician Ramiz Mehdiyev notes, under the supervision of
National Leader Heydar Aliyev a sense of unity based on belonging
to a single state began to be cultivated in all citizens, irrespective of
their ethnic and religious identities. National Leader Heydar Aliyev
said, ‘The multi-ethnic composition of the Azerbaijani population is

55
the country’s wealth and its priority. We appreciate and protect it.’ He
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

directed his political work towards perpetuating that wealth.

At the initiative of the National Leader and on his instructions, the
state’s protection of multicultural traditions in Azerbaijan is enshrined
in legal documents, including the Constitution of the Republic of
Azerbaijan. That is, the principle of tolerance, which constitutes the
basis of the policy of multiculturalism, is clearly set out in a number
of articles of the Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan: ‘Religion
and the state’ (Article 18, Paragraph 1); ‘The official language’ (Article
21, Paragraph 2); ‘The right to equality’ (Article 25, Paragraph 3); ‘The
right to national identity’ (Article 44, Paragraphs 1, 2); ‘The right to
use one’s mother tongue’ (Article 45, Paragraphs 1, 2); ‘Freedom
of thought and speech’ (Article 47, Paragraphs 1, 2, 3); ‘Freedom
of conscience’ (Article 48, Paragraphs 1, 2); ‘The Independence
of judges, fundamental principles and prerequisites for the
administration of justice’ (Article 127, Paragraph 10).
The National Leader was right to consider the policy of
multiculturalism a part of the democratic development of the
country. He viewed the protection of the rights and freedoms,
including the ethnocultural and religious values, of the national
minorities living in the territory of Azerbaijan in the context of
basic human rights and freedoms, which is an important principle
of democracy. The Republic of Azerbaijan, which finally set out on
the path of democratic development under the guidance of the
National Leader of the country, had to ensure equal rights for all the
citizens of Azerbaijan, irrespective of their faith, language and race.
It was natural that the National Leader should have put
forward the principle of Azerbaijanism as a national ideology
to counter ethnic nationalism. Azerbaijanism is essential for
the development of the Azerbaijani people and society and for
statehood as whole and is the main moral basis of multiculturalism.
He pointed out that ethnic nationalism essentially leads to ethnic
separatism and conflicts among nations. Meanwhile, the ideology
56 of Azerbaijanianism unites all the citizens living in the country,
irrespective of their faith, language and race. As the National

Section II
Leader said, ‘In reality Azerbaijan is the shared motherland of all
the nationalities and peoples living in its territory. The Azerbaijani,
Lezghi, Avar, Kurd, Talysh, Udi, Kumik, as well as others living in our
territory are all Azerbaijanis.’ These words are extremely significant
today and make clear the political reality that all the nations living
in Azerbaijan may attract the interest of the rest of the world as
Azerbaijanis, but that separately they will be of interest to no one!
As the political founder of Azerbaijani multiculturalism, National
Leader Heydar Aliyev attached special importance to cooperation
with such international organizations as the UN, OSCE, Council of

Chapter 2
Europe, European Union and Organization of Islamic Cooperation
in implementing the policy of multiculturalism. The National Leader
used to note the importance of Azerbaijan’s adherence to the
conventions on the protection of rights and freedoms of national
minorities adopted by the aforementioned organizations. Under his
leadership the Azerbaijani government succeeded in establishing
effective cooperation with these organizations on human rights
including the protection of the rights of national minorities.
Azerbaijan has joined many international conventions on the
protection of human rights and those of national minorities. These
conventions include the Council of Europe’s framework Convention
for the Protection of National Minorities. This convention was
signed by the Azerbaijani government on 1 February 1995 and
ratified on 6 June 2000. Every five years the Republic of Azerbaijan
submits to the Council of Europe a report on the fulfilment of its
commitments under the framework Convention for the Protection
of National Minorities.
Thus, by introducing multiculturalism as part of the ideology of
Azerbaijanism, National Leader Heydar Aliyev laid the foundations
of multicultural policy in our country and became the political
founder of Azerbaijani multiculturalism. The National Leader’s great

57
work on multiculturalism is associated with the name of his worthy
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

successor President Ilham Aliyev.

2.4. President Ilham Aliyev as the Political Guarantor of

Azerbaijani Multiculturalism Today

The successful implementation of the policy of multiculturalism

in the Republic of Azerbaijan is now associated with Ilham Aliyev,
President of the Republic of Azerbaijan, the worthy successor to the
national leader. As the political pillar of Azerbaijani multiculturalism
today, he is engaged in very important work.
In the early 21st century a number of Western countries
encountered serious problems in managing ethnocultural diversity
for reasons both within and beyond their control. Academician
Ramiz Mehdiyev notes that the heads of leading European
countries (Great Britain, France and Germany) lost confidence in
multiculturalism. They officially declared the failure of the policy
of multiculturalism describing it as ineffective, because of the
reluctance of ethnic and religious minorities in their countries
to integrate into society. The common view of these states was
expressed by the former British Prime Minister David Cameron in
his speech at the 47th Munich Security Conference:
‘Under the doctrine of state multiculturalism, we have
encouraged different cultures to live separate lives, apart from each
other and apart from the mainstream. We’ve failed to provide a
vision of society to which they feel they want to belong. We’ve even
tolerated these segregated communities behaving in ways that run
completely counter to our values... This hands-off tolerance has only
served to reinforce the sense that not enough is shared. And this
all leaves some young Muslims feeling rootless. And the search for
something to belong to and something to believe in can lead them to
this extremist ideology.’

58
The opinions of the heads of the Western states on

Section II
multiculturalism were supported in scientific literature as well. For
instance, British researcher Trevor Phillips said, ‘We have focussed
far too much on the ‘multi’ and not enough on the common culture…
We are sleepwalking our way to segregation.’
It is true that the pursuit of the ‘state multiculturalism’ doctrine
in Western countries creates the preconditions for the seclusion
of communities, especially the Muslim minorities who live in
conformity with their own customs, traditions and ethnocultural
values and do not integrate into the host society, resisting the
liberal values there. Some of them even do not learn English.

Chapter 2
During his term in office Prime Minister David Cameron imposed
a strict obligation on migrants to learn English, saying that if a
migrant does not learn English within two and a half years of his
stay in Britain, he will be deported from the country.
Two views, poles apart, have emerged on multiculturalism at
present: pessimistic and optimistic. The pessimistic view is that
expressed by David Cameron, while the optimistic view is the one
held by Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev. Relying on the idea of
the centuries-old multicultural values of the Azerbaijani people,
President Ilham Aliyev declared: ‘The world has no alternative today
to multiculturalism.’
What are the reasons for the failure of the policy of
multiculturalism in the Western countries compared to the
existence of this policy in Azerbaijan? We think there are both
objective and subjective reasons. What are the objective reasons?
Historically some countries have come into contact with other
cultures, having been monoethnic communities with no diversity
since ancient times. We can describe multiculturalism in this case
as secondary diversity, while in other countries diversity is primary.
In the first case it is not easy for alien multicultural values to find
acceptance in a country where values are already set. In such a
country a hybrid of new values is inevitably artificial. The failure of
59
this model in some European countries, therefore, has objective
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

reasons. Diversity arose in the history of other countries since the

earliest times, and different nations have shaped one another since
those ancient times until the present day. We cannot understand
the secret of the failure of multiculturalism in some countries and
its success in others without distinguishing between primary and
secondary diversity.
The presence of a good multicultural atmosphere in Azerbaijan,
that is, the friendly and peaceful coexistence of different
confessions and ethnic groups, goes back a long way. The rarity that
is primary diversity in Azerbaijan differs markedly from secondary
diversity. It is this primary diversity that has shaped the systematic
model of relations and survives in the territory of Azerbaijan today.
The commitment of poets, writers and scholars to diversity can be
seen in fiction and scholarly work down the ages and has helped
to achieve political harmony in Azerbaijan, especially in the period
of independence. Therefore, it is no wonder that while a number of
Western countries declare the failure of multiculturalism, it should
emerge as state policy in the Republic of Azerbaijan, and the
Azerbaijani president should take real, optimal action to make this
policy sustainable.
There is no doubt that Azerbaijan has less experience of
democracy than the Western European countries. However,
its spiritual experience is great. Plenty of examples of ancient
democratic principles can be given from Azerbaijani epics, folk
tales and classic literature. Much can be said about tolerance in the
spiritual life of Azerbaijan throughout its history. This is evidence
that the multicultural way of life was originally pertinent to
Azerbaijan.
Let us consider where multicultural values have failed. This has
happened in countries in which a new wave of migration, with
hitherto unknown multicultural values and alien views, began
after the society had already completed the process of spiritual
60
formation. The organism that had already taken shape was

Section II
unable to assimilate this artificial anti-body. This is the essence of
secondary diversity.
From the beginning these values in Azerbaijan were not
artificial, because they existed naturally. This is the heart of the
matter. Therefore, we should distinguish methodologically between
the ideas of primary diversity and secondary diversity. Primary
diversity does not actually contain the element of migration, as it is
manifest in coexistence from the beginning.
As for the subjective reasons for the successful implementation
of the policy of multiculturalism in Azerbaijan, first of all, the great

Chapter 2
work done in this field by the country’s administration should
be mentioned. President Ilham Aliyev is taking important steps
to strengthen the multicultural atmosphere in the country. He
attaches great importance to the policy of multiculturalism in
managing ethnocultural diversity in the country. Several of these
steps stand out in particular:

• the creation of the Service of the State Counsellor on

Multiculturalism, Interethnic and Religious Issues of the
Republic of Azerbaijan by the instruction of the President of 28
February 2014;
• the creation of the Knowledge Foundation attached to the
President of the Republic of Azerbaijan by the instruction of
the President of 7 May 2014;
• the creation of the Baku International Multiculturalism Centre
by the instruction of 15 May 2014;
• the declaration of 2016 as the Year of Multiculturalism in
Azerbaijan by the presidential instruction of 11 January 2016
and the approval of the Action Plan on the Declaration of 2016
as the Year of Multiculturalism in Azerbaijan by the instruction
of 11 March 2016.
61
Each of the aforementioned institutions and related documents
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

was designed to enhance the successful implementation of the

policy of multiculturalism in Azerbaijan.
We are going to review briefly the role of these institutions and
documents in the development of Azerbaijani multiculturalism.
The main goal of the Service of the State Counsellor on
Multiculturalism, Interethnic and Religious Issues of the Republic
of Azerbaijan is maintaining ethnic diversity and ensuring the
rights and freedoms of national minorities in the country and the
pursuit of state policy related to national minorities, the study of
the multicultural environment and its propagation in the world
and supervision of the regulation of the policy of religion in the
country. Action taken to achieve this goal includes in particular
the cooperation of the Service of the State Counsellor with the
Knowledge Foundation attached to the President of the Republic of
Azerbaijan and the Baku International Multiculturalism Centre.
The main goal of the Knowledge Foundation is to enlighten the
population of the Republic of Azerbaijan, to convey to society the
essence of the state’s domestic and foreign policy and the socio-
political and socio-economic processes under way in the country.
Promoting the ideology of Azerbaijanianism and national spiritual
and religious values are among the Foundation’s main tools in
achieving this goal.
The main goals of the Baku International Multiculturalism
Centre are to ensure the maintenance of tolerance and cultural,
religious and linguistic diversity in accordance with the ideology of
Azerbaijanism, to present Azerbaijan as a centre of multiculturalism
to the world, and to encourage the study of multicultural models.
All the commitments of the Baku International Multiculturalism
Centre are targeted at the development of Azerbaijani
multiculturalism.
The Action Plan on the declaration of 2016 as the Year of
Multiculturalism in Azerbaijan covers three main aspects: events
62
inside the country and internationally related to the model of

Section II
Azerbaijani multiculturalism, and action to promote the model
of Azerbaijani multiculturalism. These events were targeted at
studying, improving and disseminating the model of Azerbaijani
multiculturalism among the population of the country, especially
among young people, the further consolidation of the friendship
and cooperation among all the nationalities, ethnic groups and
religious confessions in Azerbaijan, their integration into the society
where they live, the maintenance of ethnic, religious and cultural
diversity in the country and the ethnocultural values at the basis of
this diversity, the worldwide promotion of Azerbaijan’s multicultural

Chapter 2
environment, the introduction of Azerbaijan to the world as
one of the main centres of multiculturalism, and the study and
propagation of Azerbaijan’s idea of multiculturalism as one of the
progressive models of multiculturalism in the world.
President Ilham Aliyev highly appreciates the policy of
multiculturalism, which is reflected in both foreign and domestic
policy. Azerbaijan regularly hosts numerous international forums
and conferences dedicated to promoting intercultural and inter-
civilizational dialogue in the world. The following have all been held
in Baku: since 2011 four World Forums on Intercultural Dialogue;
the World Summit of Religious Leaders on 26-27 April 2010; Baku
International Humanitarian Forums in 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014
and 2016; and the Seventh Global Forum of the UN Alliance of
Civilizations on 25-27 April 2016.
At a time when the heads of European states (Germany, Great
Britain and France) where the policy of multiculturalism emerged,
declare the failure of this policy in their countries, President Ilham
Aliyev appreciates the policy of multiculturalism as the most
progressive and best policy to manage ethnic, racial, religious and
cultural diversity in society at present and is taking great action
to disseminate and promote it. Regretting the increasing lack of

63
confidence in multiculturalism in Europe, President Ilham Aliyev
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

says:

‘…we are disappointed by declarations that multiculturalism

has failed, multiculturalism has no future. These are very
dangerous declarations. I have to say that there is no alternative to
multiculturalism in the modern world, because the great majority
of countries are multi-ethnic countries. What is the alternative to
multiculturalism, if it has failed? This is also clear. It is discrimination,
racism, xenophobia, Islamophobia and anti-Semitism.’

Questions

1. What is multicultural security?

2. What are the principles of multicultural security?
3. What is the main goal of the ideology of Azerbaijanism?
4. What can you say about Azerbaijanism and the national liber-
ation of the Azerbaijani people?
5. What can you say about the history and main indicators of
cultural Azerbaijanism?
6. What is the main goal of political Azerbaijanism?
7. Who are the outstanding representatives of political Azerbai-
janism?
8.
What can you say about the relations between mul­
ticulturalism and Azerbaijanism?
9. What is the role of the National Leader of Azerbaijan Heydar
Aliyev in the development of the idea of Azerbaijanism?
10. What did Heydar Aliyev achieve as the political founder of
Azerbaijani multiculturalism?

64
11. What do the heads of some Western countries consider the

Section II
reasons for the failure of the policy of multiculturalism at
present?
12. What is the significance of primary and secondary diversity in
the development of multiculturalism?
13. What is the role of President Ilham Aliyev in the development
of Azerbaijani multiculturalism?
14. What are the best ways demonstrated by President Ilham Ali-
yev to manage ethnocultural diversity in society?

Chapter 2
References

1. Heydar Aliyev, ‘Müstəqillik yolu’, Seçilmiş fikirlər. Baku, 1997

http://ebooks. preslib.az/pdfbooks/azbooks/independ.pdf
2. Ilham Aliyev. İlham Əliyev Respublika Günü müna­si­bətilə
rəsmi qəbulda iştirak edib.
http://www.pre­si­dent.az/articles/19987
3. Ilham Aliyev. IV Bakı Beynəlxalq Humanitar Forumunun rəsmi
açılış mərasimində İlham Əliyevin nitqi. http://www.presi-
dent.az/articles/13038
4. C
onstitution of the Azerbaijan Republic, Baku, 1995,
http://www.e-qanun.az/?internal=view&docid=897 &doc-
type=0
5. Abdullayev K.M. ‘Azərbaycanın müstəqilliyi illərində multikul-
turalizm və tolerantlıq.’ Müstəqillik yollarında. Baku, 2016, pp.
504-517.
6. Mehdiyev R. Tarixi idrakın elmliyi problemlərinə dair. Baku,
2015, pp. 3-82.
7. Mehdiyev R, ‘Güclü Azərbaycan dövləti qlobal­laş­ma şəraitində
milli ideyanın təcəssümü kimi’, Xalq Qəzeti 04.06.2016. http://
xalqqazeti. com/az/news/ politics/ 72080 65
8. Мехтиев Р. Национальная идея Азербайджана в эпоху
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

глобальных трансформаций. (Книга II). 2017, pp. 52-88, 136-

186.
9. Расулзаде М. О пантуркизме. Baku, 1985, p. 58.
10. Сеидзаде Д., Азербайджанские депутаты в госу­
дарственной Думе России. (Baku, 1991, p.12.
11. Cameron D. ‘My war on multiculturalism’. The Inde­pendent. 5
February 2011
12. Chandran K. ‘Theoretical Foundations of Multiculturalism’.
http://econfaculty.gmu.edu/pboettke/workshop/fall04 /theoreti-
cal_foundations.pdf
13. Chavan R.S. Nationalism in Asia (New Delhi, Sterling publish-
ers, 1973), p. 448
14. Fautre W. Azerbaijan. Ethnic diversity. Peaceful coexistence
and state management. Brussels, 2014
15. Gokalp Z. ‘Historical Materialism and Sociological Idealism’
in N. Berkes ed. Turkish Nationalism and Western Civilization.
New York: Columbia University Press, 1959, p. 65
16. Phillips, Trevor, 2005, ‘After 7/7: Sleepwalking to Seg­regation’
(London: Commission for Racial Equality: www.cre.gov.uk)

66
Chapter 3

Section II
HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF MULTICULTURALISM
IN AZERBAIJAN

3.1. Objective and Subjective Reasons for the Birth of

Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

In the previous chapter we considered serious problems in the

Chapter 3
management of ethnocultural diversity in society encountered
in some Western countries. Western countries were the first to
apply multiculturalism as a potential policy model to manage
ethnocultural diversity and the leaders of some of those countries
have declared it ineffective. In such a complex situation Azerbaijani
multiculturalism receives profound support both from the state
and the people. The Republic of Azerbaijan is one of the few
countries to have adopted multiculturalism as a state policy. The
policy of multiculturalism founded by the National Leader of the
Azerbaijani People Heydar Aliyev and successfully pursued by
Ilham Aliyev, his worthy successor, made important achievements
in managing ethnocultural diversity in society. A major sign of this
is the intensification of integration processes within society. The
unification and integration of different ethnic groups and religious
communities within society are of great importance. This prevents
conflicts that might arise on ethnic and religious grounds.
There are ethnic and religious conflicts in a number of countries
at present. The achievements of the Republic of Azerbaijan in
the policy of multiculturalism are one of the main reasons for its
successful foreign policy. Because of the great achievements of its
multiculturalism policy, the Republic of Azerbaijan has become a
centre of multiculturalism. The terms ‘Azerbaijani multiculturalism’ 67
and ‘the Azerbaijani model of multiculturalism’ are widely used
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

in the political lexicon. President Ilham Aliyev observed that

‘our experience in multiculturalism in the political sphere, in the
regulation of international relations, and in the development of
processes within the country is being studied’.
This prompts the question: how did Azerbaijani multiculturalism
emerge? What influenced its formation and development?
There are objective and subjective reasons for the birth of
Azerbaijani multiculturalism. The objective reasons include, first of all,
historical and geographical factors.

Historical Factors*

Historically Azerbaijan has been a multicultural state. As

President Ilham Aliyev noted, ‘The traditions of multiculturalism,
which is a relatively new word in our lexicon, have existed in
Azerbaijan for centuries. It had a different name, but its essence
remains unchanged.’ In all the stages of the history of Azerbaijan
people of different nationalities have peacefully coexisted on its
territory. The national minorities who settled here have not been
persecuted or discriminated against by the Azerbaijani Turks (the
titular ethnos) because of their ethnic, religious or racial identities
and ethnocultural values. In this way, the historical factor has
played a significant role in the formation of a multicultural society
in Azerbaijan.

Geographical Factor

Azerbaijan is situated in a very favourable location, where

different cultures and civilizations merge and mingle. As part of
their historical experience, the peoples living in such territory meet
people from different ethnic, racial, religious and cultural groups
and build and develop commercial and cultural relations with them,
*
The multiculturalism policy of the Republic of Azerbaijan is covered in more detail
68 in Chapter 6, Part 1.
which in turn creates favourable conditions for the formation of a

Section II
multicultural environment. The territory of Azerbaijan is situated at
the intersection of diverse civilizations, cultures and religions and
was crossed by the old Silk Road. This location played a significant
role in the formation and development of ethnocultural diversity
within society.
Historical and geographical factors, which are essentially
objective in nature, thus played a critical role in the emergence
and formation of Azerbaijani multiculturalism. However, alongside
these objective reasons, subjective reasons were also important.
By ‘subjective reasons’ the officials ruling the country and the

Chapter 3
Azerbaijani people are implied.
At different stages in the history of Azerbaijan the rulers of
the country managed the ethnic, racial, religious and cultural
diversity in society in such a way that no serious ethnic and
religious conflict arose. This was the reason why the national
minorities, historically settled in Azerbaijan, were not persecuted
by the majority population, the Azerbaijani Turks, for their ethnicity,
religion, cultural identity and ethnocultural values, and coexisted
with them peacefully. The multicultural environment in Azerbaijan
became stronger when it gained independence. For example,
during the period of the Democratic Republic the capital Baku
was one of the most multicultural cities in the world, but saw no
confrontation or conflict on ethnic, religious and cultural grounds
among the population. Representatives of several of the country’s
national minorities were members of parliament, while the national
minorities also had political organizations. Furthermore, members
of national minorities held senior posts in government, including
ministerial office.
The presence of a favourable multicultural environment in
Azerbaijan attracted persecuted nations to this territory at different
times in history. Some 2,600 years ago the Jews left Judea (the
present-day Israel) for Azerbaijan in search of refuge. In 586 BCE
69
the new Babylonian ruler Nebuchadnezzar II suppressed a revolt
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

of the Jews in Jerusalem and pulled down their temple. As a

result, the great majority of Jews fled the country. Many of them
left Israel for Azerbaijan. In connection with the migrations of the
Jews to Azerbaijan in later periods in history, Moshe Bekker writes
that in 1810 the first Ashkenazi (European) Jews began to move
to Azerbaijan from the western provinces of the Russian Empire.
Further, in 1864 Jews came from Georgia to Azerbaijan. The refuge
found by persecuted nations in Azerbaijan is a clear indicator of the
presence of a tolerant environment there at that time. According
to Moshe Bekker, the anti-Semitic stereotypes observed in some
of the Christian nations that had moved to Azerbaijan disappeared
under the influence of the warm attitude towards the Jews on the
part of the local people. Consequently, some Christians, who had
been brought up in an anti-Semitic spirit in their former countries,
changed their views when they saw the warm attitude and
tolerance of the local titular ethnos towards the Jews.
The multicultural environment in Azerbaijan improved further
in the years of independence. The restoration of independence
in Azerbaijan on 18 October 1991, especially the return of the
National Leader of the Azerbaijani People Heydar Aliyev to run the
country, substantially improved the multicultural environment. Real
conditions were created for the maintenance and development
of the historical traditions of tolerance, and action was taken to
maintain ethnocultural diversity. President Ilham Aliyev is now
successfully pursuing the policy of multiculturalism.
The role of the Azerbaijani people, too, should be highlighted
amongst the subjective reasons for the birth of Azerbaijani
multiculturalism. Hospitality and tolerance of people of other
nations, ethnic groups and religious communities are national
characteristics of the Azerbaijani people. At no stage in history
have the Azerbaijani Turks, the indigenous population, persecuted
or discriminated against, on ethnic, religious, racial or cultural
70
grounds, the national minorities that settled in the country. This

Section II
is evidence that multiculturalism is a way of life for the people
of Azerbaijan. The transformation of multiculturalism into the
way of life in Azerbaijan show it is at a very advanced stage of
development.
Multiculturalism emerged as a social phenomenon in
Azerbaijan, as in other countries, and developed into state policy.
The Republic of Azerbaijan is one of the few countries to have
adopted multiculturalism as a state policy. Although the state
has played the main role in this development, the people’s
tolerance of ethnocultural diversity in society, which arises

Chapter 3
from the national characteristics of the Azerbaijani people, has
also been significant in the establishment of multiculturalism
as state policy. Multiculturalism as state policy in Azerbaijan is
aimed at consolidating the people’s way of life. In other words,
multiculturalism as state policy in Azerbaijan interacts with
multiculturalism as the way of life of the people there. They are
intertwined as subjective reasons for the birth, formation and
development of Azerbaijani multiculturalism.
Thus, historical and geographical factors constitute the objective
reasons for the birth of Azerbaijani multiculturalism, while the
tolerance of ethnocultural diversity in society and ethnocultural
values on the part of the state leaders and the Azerbaijani people
constitute the subjective reasons.
Having emerged for objective and subjective reasons,
Azerbaijani multiculturalism has travelled a long journey of
historical development. The ideas of tolerance and multiculturalism
are reflected in different forms of social consciousness in
Azerbaijan.

71
3.2. The Azerbaijani Model of Multiculturalism in the
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Light of Identity

There is a view that the progressive significance of

multiculturalism derives from recognition, tolerance and equality
for all cultures and nations in society alongside attempts to begin
permanent integration. The realization of this aspiration for social
integration in turn ensures social stability and welfare, making
integration sustainable.
Though the heads of three leading European countries
(Germany, Great Britain and France) did not doubt the need
for different cultures to coexist peacefully within a country,
they still declared the failure of multiculturalism, emphasizing
its ‘inconsistencies’. According to experts, the collapse of
multiculturalism in Western Europe is, primarily, the result of a
misguided political strategy. The strategy relied on an inadequate
state paradigm for the organization of mutual cooperation among
ethnic, racial, religious and cultural communities within a single
country leading to multicultural disintegration.
Successful integration requires numerous objective and
subjective factors, of which socio-economic factors are the most
important. That is, it was a question of solving problems related
more to immigration than to multiculturalism, social problems
rather than the problems ‘transferred’ onto the cultural plane by
multicultural rhetoric.
In conditions of globalization, for the sake of social stability a
modern nation state has to ensure its sovereignty through self-
defence, on the one hand, and the continuous consolidation of
the principles of diversity and ensuring a balance of forces, on the
other. This historical need for the implementation of multicultural
ideology is particularly urgent in historical nation states, and is
based on the possibility of coexistence of national minorities.
Restriction of their rights would stimulate ethnic nationalism, and
72
the ethnic groups consisting of immigrants act as the proponents

Section II
of ethnocultural pluralism in the society that receives them. The
most important of these principles is that of dealing in law through
the functions of the state with all social relations and conflicts that
might arise. Thus, the stability of a modern nation and its difference
from an ethnic group are connected with the activity of the state.

Modern-day Azerbaijan as a shining example of

multicultural development

The political decisions based on the desire of the

administration of Azerbaijan to shape a modern multicultural

Chapter 3
society and the centuries-old traditions of tolerance of the
people of Azerbaijan have created a situation in which ‘there is no
alternative to multiculturalism’. Indeed, ‘there is no alternative to
multiculturalism’. To quote President Ilham Aliyev, ‘the alternative to
multiculturalism is xenophobia, discrimination, racism, Islamophobia,
anti-Semitism…’ – ‘truly dangerous trends’ that lead to horrible
outcomes, unacceptable to progressive mankind. ‘Multiculturalism
has many addresses in the world, and one of them is Azerbaijan.’
Azerbaijan is becoming a centre of multicultural development, as
the model of Azerbaijani multiculturalism is acknowledged as an
example to many modern societies.
Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev has defined the Azerbaijani
model of multiculturalism very precisely and briefly: ‘… the strength
of every society lies in its religious and national diversity… Of course,
this requires the necessary traditions and, at the same time, the
conduct of state policy at an appropriate level. Both of these factors
exist in Azerbaijan.’
Actually, two factors in Azerbaijan’s multicultural policy – the political
decisions of the administration based on multicultural security, and
the centuries-old traditions of tolerance of the Azerbaijani people –
integrate orga­nically. The decisions of the administration aimed at
supporting cultural diversity within the framework of Azerbaijan’s 73
multicultural model do not allow cultural fragmentation. They
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

do not contradict the universal values of social integration.

Compromise is reached, because the interests of the sides do not
contradict each other, and this is not a zero-sum game, it is a game
of coalition in which all will benefit from comprehensive mutual
activity and collaboration, and from the interests of the state.
It should be said that unlike Western European count­ries where
multiculturalism arises from the need to in­ teg­
rate immigrants
into society, multiculturalism in Azerbaijan is a historical way
of life which is supported by all the inhabitants of this ancient
land. The Azerbaijani nation includes all the nations living in the
country, and all of them are Azerbaijanis. Ethnic and religious
tole­rance is the result of the long coexistence of the beliefs of
the past and present inhabitants of the country. The Azerbaijani
Turks as an ethnos have built their own state over millennia, and
for centuries the Azerbaijani language has been the means of
interethnic communication. The Azerbaijani Turks themselves
emerged on the basis of the majority Turkic community intermixed
with Caucasian and Iranian social groups. This created a unique
ethnic environment that absorbed the cultural norms and values
of these strata. Down the centuries it accumulated capital in
maintaining cultural distinctiveness and in integration, now known
as multiculturalism, which is an asset and a great advantage for
Azerbaijan. In short, traditions are a form of the past without which
neither the present nor future is possible. The original multicultural
tradition is one of the traditions of the Azerbaijani people, which
is in the focus of the state policy of Azerbaijan, and is skilfully
managed.

Identity and its Forms

There are various indicators and markers to assess the integration

trends of multicultural development either internationally as a whole
74 or in individual countries.
One such indicator is identity and the relative interrelation of

Section II
identities and their dynamics. Here, it is important first of all to
compare civic and national identity with other forms of identity,
because, as Hucbner and Richter say, ‘the nation as a state-political
union will retain its significance from the perspective of multicultural
development’. Therefore, the terms ‘state’, ‘nation’, ‘national
society’ and ‘identity’ are of great importance. Individual identity
or the right to self-identify is the human right to imagine oneself
a member of a cultural group. These cultural groups may be civil,
national, ethnic, religious or civilizational.
Thanks to the work of American psychologist Erik Erikson,
the term ‘identity’, widely used in the humanities, also became

Chapter 3
commonplace in cultural studies from the 1970s. Despite the lack
of categorical clarity, this term is accepted as referring to what
enables an individual to identify his or her place in a socio-cultural
environment and in so doing to be oriented in the surrounding
world.
Thus, identity is the human characteristic of imagining one’s
belonging to one or another group. Identity has a complex and
hierarchical nature and embraces as its components self-identity,
ideas concerning one’s group (‘we’), language, culture, territory,
past and ‘statehood’. Cultural identity (ethnic, national, religious,
civilizational) is the basis of the nation state. When the national
identity of an individual takes precedence over class, confessional
or regional differences, ideas about a common past and historical
fate for the entire group allow the individual to maintain their
‘specificity’, owing to which the nation exists.
Identity can be built both on negative and positive designs.
Those who are guided by negative identity are usually very
aggressive towards groups they perceive as ‘other’. Those who
are guided by positive identity do not see those around them
a priori as enemies; they try to reach a compromise and achieve
a consensus in intergroup relations by emphasizing the common
features rather than the differences and by not imposing their
interests on others.
75
The tolerant traditions of the Azerbaijani people are an example
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

of positive identity.
The immigration problem is posing challenges for a united
‘national identity’ in the West, and it should not be forgotten that
the concepts of multiculturalism used here are associated with
reductionism; i.e. one of the identities should be more dominant
than the others and should act as a criterion for the organization
of society into groups with precise differences. It is most probably
also true that without a dominant identity the nation state will
be an imitation of ethnocultural diasporas. However, when the
group (minority) becomes the carrier of identity, if we refer to
a systematic analysis, communities become isolated, and the
definition of identity and maintenance of specificity for individuals
are not voluntary but under pressure from the community, which
runs counter to human rights and the principle of equality. This
is not multiculturalism, but rather communitarianism, which is
reviving in Europe, according to specialists. In such cases Hansen’s
Law about immigrant communities as expressed in the 1930s is to
be expected. According to this ‘law’, ‘What the second generation
wants to forget, the third generation wants to remember.’ In this
regard, the present theoretical search for strategies of cultural
policy is no surprise.
Many researchers think that ethnic identity is usually
understood in the modern period as national identity and use
the notions as synonyms. This is partially true, because the
notions ‘ethnos’ and ‘ethnicity’ are the basic notions for ethnic
classifications, while the nation is mostly understood as the state
form of the ethnic union of human beings. However, unlike ethnos,
a nation is not a result of birth, it is defined by the individual’s
efforts and choice. Thus, nation is the individual’s state, social and
cultural identity, not their ethnic and anthropological identity. To be
fair, it should be noted that historically there have been cases of
selection and change of ethnic identity, of the disappearance of the
borders of ethnonyms and ethnic unities and the re-appearance of
ethnoses.
76
The individual case of ethnic identity is a regional identity

Section II
chosen by territorial unions and has different levels – city, region,
large territorial structure. Meanwhile, the regions can have both
formal and informal structures. We should point out the important
logic of self-identity discovered during surveys: in the case of
strong centrifugal forces, identity is first of a local, i.e. regional or
ethnic, nature and then of a civic national nature; and in cases of
centripetal forces the nation state comes first, followed by regional
identity.
As a rule, a nation emerges as a cultural union within the
boundaries of a nation state, i.e. cultural unity leads to political
affirmation. Also, over time a single cultural identity can be formed

Chapter 3
within nation state boundaries for all its members. Examples of the
first nation state union leading to cultural unity in the history of the
national and cultural minorities of some west and north European
countries, which already had high level homogeneity, could be seen
in the early 20th century.
However, today when the west European countries and
their national unities have already entered the post-national
development stage, the east European countries are undergoing
a period of ethnicization of their national unities and, in this
connection, the notion of the ‘nation’ remains dominant as an
ethno-social organism.
Hence, the new states in these regions have seen grave ethnic
conflicts that are unknown in the western and northern regions of
Europe.
It can be concluded from the above that the replacement of
ethnic identity with national identity in conditions of modernization
and globalization is not proven; they both exist as before, often
as two competing forms of group identity. The decisive factor for
one of them is cultural unity, while for the other it is political (state)
unity.
In the era of globalization there are clashes of identity (local,
regional, ethno-national, civil, national, religious) at the level
of nation states. Added to these is the divergence between the
citizens of a country and the individuals that consider themselves 77
to be ‘global citizens’, that is, between those who see themselves as
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

patriots, proud of their countries, religions and ethno-social groups

and as the bearers of the identity, and ‘global citizens’. There is
no widely accepted scientific definition of the identity of ‘global
citizens’. At the same time, someone whose supreme priority is
tackling common civilizational problems, issues concerning the
whole of humanity, or most of them, can be considered ‘a global
citizen’. For example, these issues include the protection of human
rights, including economic rights, humanitarian issues, multicultural
issues, changing the globalization model and so on.
Despite the need for caution about the above, the results of a
survey held in 45 countries in 2009 show that on average 60 per
cent of those questioned consider themselves, first of all, to be
citizens of their own states, while 10 per cent think of themselves
as global citizens. Twenty per cent of those questioned combine
commitment to universal values with national identity.
Identity is a very important indicator of multicultural
development, and according to the theoretician of the information
society, Manuel Castells, ‘globalization and identity act as two
symbols of modernity’. In this regard the issues of the social
dimensions of identity become more relevant.
The following conclusions can be drawn from the above within
the context of multicultural society and its concept of development:

1.
From the point of view of the sustainability and stability
of multi-ethnic societies and the institutions of the nation
state (multicultural security), there is a close link between
multicultural policy and the identity of the population. Analysis
of the association of national (civic, national) and local (ethnic,
regional) identities in the system of national ideology facilitates
the understanding of development trends and the mechanisms,
character and proportions of the self-identification of the
population and their logical inclusion into a common national
78 identity,
2. The specific significance of identity in the system of national

Section II
ideology is related not only to the maintenance of stability in
society (acting in accordance with the mutual recognition,
tolerance and cultural equality of all peoples), but also to the
sustainability of the state. Meanwhile in order to ensure the
desired nature of multicultural security and national identity
and their inter-relationship, the primordial (original, a priori)
aspect of the common ethnicity of the population is not
associated with the idea of multicultural society;

3.
In a multicultural society (country) local identity, including
ethnic identity, is as a rule subject to pressure from civic-

Chapter 3
national (nation state) identity, so the correct multicultural
policy of the state increases common national identity, and
decreases (or at any rate does not increase) local, i.e. regional
identity, and in cases when the authorities raise obligations of
a common civilizational nature alongside common national
interests, an increasing portion of citizens will consider
themselves ‘global citizens’;

4.
The greater the rating of civic and national (summed up as
‘country’) and common civilizational (summed up as ‘global’)
identities, the lesser the ratings of local (summed up as
‘community’) identities, the more desirable the situation from a
multicultural perspective. This conclusion is important not only
from the perspective of the ratings of the relative identities, but
also in term of a comparison of their average global ratings.
The final result is interrelated with the other results in that a
low rating of ‘local (community)’ identity is as a rule evidence
of minor, weak centripetal forces in relation to the more
important idea of ‘country’ identity (especially when the
identity rating is higher than the average global rating), while
a high rating of ‘country’ identity indicates strong centrifugal
tendencies, i.e. when local identity is small, civic-national
79
identity predominates. The above applies to multi-ethnic
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

countries, as it does not make sense for mono-ethnic countries,

where there is no contradiction between local (for instance,
ethnic identity) and civic-national identities;

5. Identities play an important role from the point of view

of multiculturalism: the importance of ‘country’ or civic-
national identity, its correlation with local (‘community’) and
common civilizational (‘global’) identities and its deviations
in comparison with the importance of these identities
are extremely symptomatic, i.e. the greater the ‘country/
community’ faction and the ‘country/community’ divide are,
the more firmly the citizens are united round the centre. In
other words, as a nation integrates with its state institutions,
the less its association with local and ethnic groups (in multi-
ethnic institutions), the stronger the integration of multicultural
development in the country. By analogy, the less the ‘country/
community’ faction and ‘country/community’ difference are,
the less citizens see a contradiction between their civic-national
identities and their understanding of themselves as ‘global
citizens’ or bearers of common civilizational values. As a rule,
when the majority of a country’s citizens basically agree with
the policy of the forces in power and think this policy meets
both interests in solving global civilizational problems and also
national-state interests, this is to a certain extent an indicator
of multicultural development.

Identity Indicators and their Associations and the World

Values Survey

This final part uses data from the World Values Survey to
analyse identities and their associations and attempts to show their
role in multicultural policy.
80
The data we have used comes from a project that has been

Section II
under way for several years now and involves 76 countries. One
aim of the project is to find out the geographical groups to which
its respondents (citizens of these countries) affiliate themselves.
Respondents could identify themselves through affiliation to one of
three groups: ‘local’ (community, region, ethnic), ‘country’ (national
civil) and ‘global’ (common civilizational).
The question was formulated as follows: ‘To which of
these geographical groups do you belong – to a local group
(community), to a country or to the world (globe)?’ The researchers
confirmed that in many countries people refer to multiple

Chapter 3
identities. Multiple identities may lead to clashes or tensions, but it
is clear from the analysis that multiple identities can be an impetus
for national associations based on an understanding of the new,
social unanimity as the integration of the diversity of its cultural
components.
By placing the survey’s findings in increasing order from
‘country’ to ‘global’ identities, and in decreasing order to
‘community’ identity, interesting conclusions can be drawn.
Overall, in 38 of 76 countries the level of ‘community’ (local)
identity is below the average of 49%. The high level (above 50%)
of ‘community’ identity in Western European countries can be
explained by two factors. First, membership of the European
Union as a confederative institution probably allows the citizens
of EU countries to give the advantage to local (ethnic) identity.
Second, the problems related to ‘the failure of multicultural
policy’ seem to have boosted the choice of local (ethnic) identity
in those countries; it should also be remembered that the West
European states have reached their present stage through ethnic
concentration. In developed multicultural countries such as
Switzerland, the USA and Canada ‘community’ identity remains
quite high, though a little low (38%, 38% and 39% respectively).
For the sake of comparison, we should say that this indicator
81
for Azerbaijan is one of the lowest in the world – 24%, while in
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Armenia it is 38%.
This is the first evidence of multicultural development in
Azerbaijan.
In 35 out of 76 countries ‘country’ (civic-national) identity
is higher than the average of 41%, whereas in 15 countries
‘country’ identity is 55% or higher. For the sake of comparison, in
multicultural countries such as Canada, the USA and Switzerland
this indicator is 46%, 40% and 41% respectively, while in Azerbaijan
it is 55%, the highest figure among the CIS countries. In Armenia it
is 51%.
This is further evidence of multicultural development in
Azerbaijan.
The indicators of ‘community’ and ‘country’ identities in
Azerbaijan and Armenia (24%, 55% and 38%, 51% respectively)
show that the multicultural tendency in Azerbaijan is stronger than
in Armenia. It is in Azerbaijan that significant integration has been
achieved with the recognition and protection of local identity.
In 33 of the 76 countries the figure for ‘global’ identity is higher
than the average of 8%. Only in five countries is this global identity
above 20%, including 21% in Switzerland and 22% in the USA.
When both ‘country’ and ‘global’ identity are high, this shows
that the administration of the country is pursuing a multicultural
policy, undertaking to meet common civilizational commitments
that have been agreed with the population of the country.
Azerbaijan is a clear example of this, which is further proof of the
country’s multiculturalism.
Further proof of the development of multicultural traditions in
Azerbaijan is the low ‘community’ identity indicator (24%) and high
‘country’ identity (55%). This is confirmed by further analysis of
identities.
Seventeen of the countries studied have ‘community’ identity
indicators below the medium level, and higher ‘country’ and
82
‘global’ indicators; i.e. this meets three criteria applicable to the

Section II
study of multicultural traditions. The countries include Azerbaijan,
Australia, Mexico, the Netherlands, Turkey, South Africa, Georgia
and Uruguay.
Analysing these figures from the point of view of the comparative
proportion of identities in the ‘country – community’ system and
the differences between their ratings, it becomes clear that the
countries with the corresponding indicators have the biggest ratings:
Azerbaijan (2, 29; +31), Uruguay (2, 14; +32), Uganda (1, 88; +28),
New Zealand (1, 84; +27) and Georgia (1, 83; +26).
Similar analysis of the ‘country-global’ system shows that

Chapter 3
in terms of the comparative proportion of identities and the
differences between their ratings, the following countries have the
lowest ratings: Mexico (2;33; +24), Azerbaijan (2, 62; +34), Canada
(3, 07; +31); Venezuela (3, 50; 35).
Comparison of these two tables shows that Azerbaijan is the
only country to have leading indicators and to be found in both
lists (it shares first and second place with Uruguay in proportion
and difference in ‘country-community’ association and with Mexico
in ‘country-global’ association). Azerbaijan has the leading and the
most balanced figures. This analysis of the comparative proportion
of identities is further confirmation of the results obtained earlier
concerning the successful multicultural traditions of Azerbaijan
through comparison of absolute and average global indicators.

3.3. The History of Multiculturalism in Azerbaijan Up to the

19th Century

From the outset Azerbaijan with its multi-layered, varied cultural

strata has occupied a special place in the Caucasus region. The
ancient inhabitants of the country formed a poly-ethnic and poly-
confessional structure and cross-cultural communication took place
among groups of different backgrounds residing in neighbouring
83
areas. All this created favourable conditions for the establishment
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

of modern multiculturalism in Azerbaijan. In ancient times the

ancestors of the Azerbaijani people professed primordial faiths,
Zoroastrianism and later adopted monotheism, i.e., belief in a
single God.
Zoroastrianism occupies a particular place in Azerbaijani
multiculturalism prior to monotheism. According to this doctrine, in
the battle between Good and Evil, Good wins. Man has a special
place in this struggle and should strive for the victory of Good over
Evil. Man should win the victory over Evil not through rituals and
prayers, but through his way of life. Fire-worship was an important
part of the rituals of this doctrine. Following Zoroaster’s death, the
doctrine underwent changes over several centuries. It flourished
as a new religion and spread more widely in western Iran and the
territories of Azerbaijan the south of the River Aras.
The Avesta was the sacred canon of Zoroastrianism. It consists
of the Gathas of Zoroaster addressed to the Almighty – Ahura
Mazda. It was the holy book of Median and later Achaemenid
priests. Under the Sassanid dynasty Zoroastrianism became
the official religion of the country after a new codification of the
Avestan texts. However, followers of the Avesta were not accepted
as ‘people of the book’ in the Muslim world and were persecuted
by the Caliphate.
Christianity marked a new stage in the history of Azerbaijani
multiculturalism. The spread of Christianity in Caucasian Albania
is associated with Apostles Thaddeus and Bartholomew. After
Albanian King Urnair declared Christianity the state religion in
the early 4th century, the Albanian Apostolic Church had a close-
knit network covering the territory of Azerbaijan. From the early
5th century new doctrines within the Christian world divided
the Christian church. The Albanian Apostolic Church, which was
dyophysite* until the end of the 5th century, had to adapt to the
*
According to dyophysitism, or Orthodoxy Christianity, Jesus Christ had two natures
84 – divine and human.
religious policy pursued by the Sassanid kings in the region. This

Section II
led to its alienation from dyophysitism and a struggle among the
different sects for over a century. Though the Sassanid influence in
society and politics was beginning to wane by 625 CE, adherents
of Zoroastrianism, idolatry and Maniism* remained. This situation
formed one of the earliest pages of the history of Azerbaijani
multiculturalism.
From the mid-7th century the improved ideology of monotheism
– Islam – entered Azerbaijani society. Under the Arab Caliphate
the spread of Islam became a new page in the history of
Azerbaijani multiculturalism. The spread of Islam did not take

Chapter 3
place simultaneously in all the regions of the country. Islam spread
rapidly in the areas where Zoroastrianism and idolatry had been
widespread, i.e. in the southern territories of Azerbaijan, the Mil-
Mughan plain, the Caspian coast and the territories along the
Kura and Aras rivers. But the Albanians in the provinces of Arsakh,
Uti, and Cambysena did not give up Christianity. The Arabs were
tolerant of the religion of the population in this territory, though
they gave preference to the monophysite** branch of Christianity.
In order to weaken the position of Byzantium in the region, they
used the socio-political conditions of the late 7th century to shift
the Albanian Apostolic Church to monophysitism.
In the early 8th century the Albanian Apostolic Church saw the
Byzantine Empire as able to rescue it from the dominance of the
Arab Caliphate. The Church lost its autocephaly, and began to
function on the basis of an equal union under the supervision of
the Armenian Catholicos. Following 704 the population of the

*
Maniism is a teaching founded in the Sassanid Empire by Mani (216-277). Ac-
cording to this doctrine, the world exists on two planes – Good and Evil, Light and
Darkness. Mani opposed Zoroastrianiam and called on the people to revolt against
the shahs, officials and feudal rulers. Maniism was widespread in different forms
and with different names from China to Spain..
**
According to monophysitism, Jesus Christ had only one nature (divine or di-

vine-human), unlike the Orthodox doctrine that Christ had two natures (one wholly
divine, the other wholly human). 85
Caucasian Albanian regions of Arsakh and Uti underwent religious
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

and cultural assimilation or Gregorianization. The Ingiloys, who

formed the population of the north-western regions of the country,
the Ereti-Cambysena provinces, turned towards the neighbouring
Georgian Orthodox Church and became Georgianized. Thus, in a
tragic turn of history the religious factor alienated people of the
same root, background, and the aphorism ‘brother of a different
faith’ entered the vocabulary. The Albanian Apostolic Church, which
was waging a struggle against the Armenian Gregorian Church, on
the one hand, and the Georgian Orthodox Church, on the other,
restored its autocephaly in the mid-13th century, and Gandzasar
Monastery* became the residence of the Albanian Autocephalous
Orthodox Church. The temple was built in 1216-38 on the orders of
the representative of the Mihranid dynasty, Prince Hasan Jalal**, one
of the rulers of Lower Khach.
Unable to accept the functioning of the Albanian Apostolic
Church, the Armenian Gregorian Church managed to enter the
court of the Romanovs in the late 18th century in order to influence
Russian policy in the Caucasus in their favour. By the 1830s the
Russian Empire had occupied the northern territories of Azerbaijan.
Giving preference to ‘the Armenian card’, Russia decided to place
the Albanian Apostolic Church under the authority of the Armenian
Gregorian Church, thereby striking a heavy blow to the historical
heritage and memory of Azerbaijan.
Though the position of Christianity weakened after the spread
of Islam in the country, for many centuries Christianity remained
the moral compass of the indigenous peoples. According to the
Albanian chronicler Mkhitar Gosh, some of the Albanian population
of the country remained loyal to Christianity in the 12th century.
This shows that the history of Azerbaijani multiculturalism has
specific cultural layers.
*
Gandzasar Monastery is a gem of medieval Albanian architecture. It lies in the vil-
lage of Vangli in Nagorno-Karabakh.
**
Hasan Jalal was a descendant of Grigor Hammam of the Mihranid dynasty. He was
86 murdered by the Mongols in 1261.
To maintain the historical traditions of Azerbaijani multiculturalism

Section II
the monuments of Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam are
protected by the state. The path taken by the forefathers of the
Azerbaijanis has over history shaped a culture of tolerance towards
different religions amongst the Azerbaijani people.
The history of Azerbaijani multiculturalism is associated with
the ethnic diversity of Azerbaijan. In the early 20th century the
outstanding ethnographer Valiyev (Baharli) declared that Azerbaijan
was an ethnographic museum. Alongside the Azerbaijanis, the
Azerbaijani people included the Udis, Ingiloy, Khinaliq, Qriz,
Budugs, Tats, Talysh, Russians, Lezghi, Jews and others. These

Chapter 3
minorities are from Caucasian-, Persian- or Turkic-speaking groups.
Some form part of the original Azerbaijani population, others
settled in the country for socio-political reasons in different periods
of history.
According to the 2009 census, minorities form 8.4 per cent of
the population of the Republic of Azerbaijan. The Udis of Albanian
origin are a minority classified as part of the original indigenous
population of Azerbaijan. In the 5th century BCE the Greek scholar
Herodotus (484-422 BCE) wrote in his History that the Udi language
belongs to the Nakh-Daghestani language group. Strabo wrote
in his Geography in the 1st century BCE that the Udis were one of
the indigenous Albanian tribes who lived in Caucasian Albania. He
found 26 languages amongst the tribes. The Udis mainly lived in
Uti and Arsakh provinces of Caucasian Albania. The famous French
writer Alexandre Dumas, who travelled to Azerbaijan in the second
half of the 19th century, also mentioned the Udis in his travelogue
Tale of the Caucasus. The Udis had survived difficult periods of
history and were registered in the province of Yelizavetpol (Ganja)
in the second half of the 19th century. Though they had preserved
their identity, there was a period of rapid, artificial Armenianization
after the signature of the treaties of Turkmenchay (1828) and Edirna
(1829). This process was accelerated by the Decree of the Russian
87
Tsar Nicholas I of 11 March 1836 and the Senate’s ratification of the
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

‘Regulations on the Management of the Activities of the Armenian-

Gregorian Churches in Russia’. The Armenian-Gregorian Church
deliberately perpetuated the myth of ‘Great Armenia’ and sought
to assimilate the Udis, taking ownership of the cultural and material
heritage of Caucasian Albania. The Armenianization of the Udis in
the province of Yelizavetpol (modern-day Ganja) proceeded rapidly
in the early 19th century because of socio-political developments
in the region. Under the Soviet regime some of the Udis residing
in the territory of Ganja scattered to different parts of the USSR,
while those who remained in the territory of Armenia became
assimilated.
At present some 4,000 Udis live in the town of Oghuz and the
settlement of Nij in Gabala District in the Republic of Azerbaijan.
Their language consists of two dialects: the Nij and Vartashen
dialects. The Udis are the bearers of the historical memory of
Azerbaijan. They have gone through all the evolutionary stages
of cultural strata in the history of the country: they followed
polytheistic religions, then adopted Christianity in the early Middle
Ages. Their church, the Albanian Autocephalous Apostolic Church,
is one of the oldest churches in the Caucasus and in Christendom
as a whole.
The Ingiloys are also Albanian descendants. They were one of
the tribes in Cambysena province of Caucasian Albania amongst
whom 26 languages were found. Greek authors mentioned the Gel
tribes, the ancient ancestors of the Ingiloy. Though the language
of the Ingiloy living in the districts of Qakh, Zaqatala and Balakan
in the Republic of Azerbaijan has yet to be studied phonetically,
the outstanding Academician N.Y. Marr compared the Ingiloy
and Georgian languages: ‘What is known about the Ingiloy so
far is the opinion of the Georgians, but not that of the Ingiloy.’ In
the early Middle Ages, when Christianity was disseminated in
Caucasian Albania, the Ingiloy accepted Christianity, like the Udis.
88
At present, unlike the Udis, the Ingiloy profess both Christianity

Section II
and Islam. That is, Shah Abbas I consolidated support for Islam in
the Azerbaijani lands bordering on Kartli-Kakheti and made the
Christian population in this area adopt Islam. Russia, which invaded
the northern territories of Azerbaijan in the first 30 years of the 19th
century, pursued a policy of Christianization in order to consolidate
its power in the Muslim country, now absorbed into the empire,
and began to disseminate Christianity by force among the Ingiloy
living in Zaqatala District in the 1850s. The Ingiloy protested
against the Christianization policy pursued by the Russian Empire,
which was one of the reasons for the revolt of 1863 in Zaqatala.
Consequently, the Russian Empire stopped the Christianization of

Chapter 3
the Ingiloy and declared freedom to all those who wished to return
to Islam. Thus, only two parishes out of nine remained in Zaqatala
District. As a result, the Ingiloy were divided into Muslims and
Christians. Though exposed to a policy of Georgianization from
the 1930s, the Ingiloy remained a part of Azerbaijani history and its
socio-cultural legacy.
The Persian-speaking Talysh, another minority in the Republic of
Azerbaijan, have been recognized in Azerbaijani historiography as
descendants of the Cadusii. They belong to the indigenous group
in the classification of minorities. The Talysh language belongs to
the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages. The
Talysh profess Islam. At present they live in the south-east of the
Republic of Azerbaijan, mainly in the districts of Lankaran and
Astara and partially in Masalli and Lerik. According to the census of
2009, 111,996 citizens of Azerbaijan are Talysh.
Another Persian-speaking minority is the Tats, who belong to
the non-indigenous (allochthonous) group of minorities. They
settled in Azerbaijan in the early Middle Ages, as the Sassanid
rulers pursued a settlement policy in order to subdue Caucasian
Albania in the 3rd and 4th centuries.
In his work Gulustani-Irem (Garden of Eden) A.A. Bakikhanov
writes that the Sassanid rulers placed Persian-speaking tribes in
89
the strategically important areas of the country, including the coast
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

from the Absheron Peninsula up to Derbent. These tribes were

known in history as the Tats and they formed a social base for the
Sassanid rulers.
According to Russian scholars of the Caucasus, Ilya Berezin and
P. Zeydlis, the migration of the Tats continued during the rule of
Khosrow Anushirvan I, who settled the Persian-speaking tribes in
the strategically important areas of the country.
Early 20th-century sources say that before the revolution 34 out
of 37 villages on the Absheron Peninsula were Tat villages.
Three religious affiliations are found among the Tats: Islam, the
Armenian-Gregorian sect of Christianity and Judaism. Muslim Tats
now live on the Absheron Peninsula and in the districts of Quba
and Davachi, while Jewish Tats live in Krasnaya Sloboda (the Red
Settlement) in Quba District, the village of Vartashen in Oghuz
District and Baku, as well as in Dagestan. The Armenian-Gregorian
Tats used to live in the villages of Madrasa, Karkanj, Dara-Karkanj,
Kalahana, Masari, and Sagiyan in Shamakhi District, in the districts
of Goychay, Ismayilli and Absheron, and Gilvar village in Davachi
District. They spoke their own languages among themselves.
The tangible and spiritual culture of the Muslim Tats has some
similarities with that of the Azerbaijanis. The Tats are Persian-
speaking people belonging to the Iranian group of the Indo-
European language family. There are now some 10,000 Tats in the
Republic of Azerbaijan.
Azerbaijan also has a Jewish minority who are also a non-
indigenous group. There is great interest in Azerbaijan’s Jews
both ethnically and linguistically. At present there are three Jewish
communities in Azerbaijan: the Mountain Jews, the European Jews
(Ashkenazi) and the Georgian Jews. The oldest among them is the
Mountain Jews who settled in Azerbaijan in ancient times and lived
mainly in Quba and Derbent districts. Since the end of the 19th
century European Jews (the Ashkenazi) began to settle in Baku.
90
According to the census of 1913, there were 9,690 European Jews

Section II
in Baku. The Georgian Jews also arrived later and 700 Georgian
Jews now live in the Republic of Azerbaijan. In all, 9,100 Jews live in
the Republic of Azerbaijan. The Mountain Jews speak a Tat dialect,
while the Ashkenazi speak Yiddish, which belongs to the German
branch of the Indo-European language group.
The Kurds are another non-indigenous ethnic minority in
Azerbaijan. In the distant past Persian-speaking Kurds of the Maday
tribes crossed from Central Asia to Western Asia and in the Middle
Ages settled in Azerbaijan. In the early 19th century the Kurds lived
mainly in the territory of the Irevan Khanate and there were 10,737

Chapter 3
of them. In terms of religion, the Kurds were divided into Muslim,
Yazidi and Nestorian Kurds. On the eve of World War I there were
over 114,000 in the Baku, Yelizavetpol and Irevan provinces of
Azerbaijan. In 1918-20 the Dashnaks murdered 43,000 Muslim
Kurds and 7,000 Yazidi Kurds in the territory of Irevan as part of
the policy of genocide pursued by the Republic of Ararat. In 1988
Armenian nationalists pursued a policy of ethnic cleansing in the
Armenian SSR; they began a new stage in the invented ‘Nagorno-
Karabakh’ problem, driving out Kurds and Azerbaijanis. Some
18,000 Kurds found refuge in the Azerbaijan SSR.
Azerbaijan’s history up to 1900 created the colourful culture of
multiculturalism and the multi-ethnic and multi-faith composition
of the population.

3.4. Azerbaijani Multiculturalism in the Modern

Period (19th and early 20th centuries)

Azerbaijani multiculturalism entered a new stage in the early

19th century when it became part of the Russian Empire. Russia
invaded the northern khanates of Azerbaijan in the first 30 years of
the 19th century. The empire pursued a policy of resettlement in the
19th and early 20th centuries in order to expose the local population
91
– the Azerbaijanis – to assimilation, and absorb the Muslim lands
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

within the empire. To this end the Russian Empire began to

resettle in the country Christian peoples from outside the empire;
new ethnoses, i.e. Germans and Russians, became part of the
population, while the number of Armenians increased considerably
as a result of mass resettlement from Iran and Turkey. This was a
time of change in the demography of the country.
From the early 19th century the Germans took their own place
in the history of Azerbaijani multiculturalism. When the Germans
migrated to the south Caucasus, including the territories of
Azerbaijan, the main goal of the Russian Empire was to introduce a
Christian element into the Muslim country.
The first wave of German settlers consisted of Protestants from
the German kingdom of Wurttemberg. Some of the Germans
migrated to the south Caucasus and settled in the territory of
Azerbaijan. In 1818-19 four German colonies were established in
the country: Helenendorf and Annenfeld in the territory of Ganja,
Katharinenfeld and Alexanderhilf in the territory of Borchali.*
While the Germans may not have met the requirements of
Russian colonial policy, they nevertheless managed to introduce
western elements into the country’s economy. Viticulture,
viniculture, tobacco cultivation and the production of mineral
waters were associated with them. By World War I there were
15,990 Germans who left their mark on Azerbaijani history.
The Germans influenced the development of the multicultural
environment in the country. They experienced the socio-political
unrest of the first half of the 20th century, but after the Soviet Union
joined World War II they were exiled to the east of the USSR – to
Central Asia and Siberia – as an undesirable ethnic group.
By the end of the 20th century when Azerbaijan had regained its
independence, the Republic of Azerbaijan declared the protection
*
In order to weaken economically Ziyadoghlu, governor of Karabakh, Nadir Shah
presented Borchali as a gift to Teimuraz, tsar of Kartli-Kakhetia, in 1743, using the
92 surrender of Sam Mirza II, leader of the second revolt of Shirvan, as a pretext.
of the rights and freedoms of minorities to be a priority in its

Section II
state policy, and the German community benefitted from this
policy. Since then the cultural monuments of the Germans have
been restored and are now protected as part of the heritage of
Azerbaijan. To promote further research into the history of the
Germans in Azerbaijan, President Ilham Aliyev signed an instruction
‘On the 200th anniversary of German settlement in the South
Caucasus’ on 30 August 2016.
In the first 30 years of the 19th century the Romanovs resettled
Russians from the central provinces of the Empire to Azerbaijani
land. The Russian language belongs to the eastern branch of the
Slavic language group of the Indo-European language family. The

Chapter 3
Russian settlers were members of dissident Russian Orthodox sects
– the Molokans, Dukhobors, Subbotniks, Skoptsy and Priguns. The
imperial authorities thought the resettlement of sectarian Russian
farmers from the central provinces of Russia to Azerbaijan would
weaken protests against the Russian Orthodox Church. From the
second half of the 19th century, however, the empire preferred
to resettle Russian Orthodox Christians to northern Azerbaijan.
According to statistical data for 1886, 85,356 Russians were
registered in three provinces of Azerbaijan – Baku, Yelizavetpol and
Irevan. In the all-Russian census of 1897, the number of Russians
had reached 119,236. In the early 20th century the Russian Empire
gave preference to the resettlement of Orthodox Russians and, as
a result, 60 Russian Orthodox settlements were established in the
province of Baku and 29 in the province of Yelizavetpol in 1912.
Thus, on the eve of the overthrow of the Romanov dynasty there
were 249,835 Russians in northern Azerbaijan.
As a result of the mechanization movement in the 1920s-30s
the number of Russians in Azerbaijan continued to grow. By
the end of the 1980s there were more than 500,000 Russians in
Azerbaijan, but following the collapse of the USSR there was a
wave of departures for ‘the historical Motherland’. According to the
census of 2009, 119,307 Russians lived in Azerbaijan.
93
In the distant past Thracian tribes (ancestors of the Armenians)
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

settled in the province of Phrygia in Asia Minor. Armenia emerged

as a state on the banks of the River Euphrates in the 2nd century
BCE, but after its collapse in 387 Armenians were scattered
geographically. The non-indigenous Armenians joined other
minorities in the Azerbaijani population. In the first 30 years of
the 19th century there was a sharp increase in the non-indigenous
population because of the mass resettlement of Armenians by the
Russian Empire. In 1828-30 some 120,000 Armenians were resettled
from Iran and Ottoman Turkey to northern Azerbaijan, where they
settled mainly in Irevan, Nakhchivan, Ordubad, and Karabakh.
Touching on the issue of mass resettlement of Armenians
to territories to the north of the River Aras, Academician Ramiz
Mehdiyev drew attention to the erection of a monument in 1978
in the village of Margushevan (historical name Shikharkh) in
Aghdara District of Azerbaijan by the Armenians to mark the 150th
anniversary of the resettlement of 200 Armenian families from
Maragha to this area in 1828.* Armenian resettlement to Azerbaijan
continued in subsequent stages of Azerbaijani history. By the
early 20th century Armenians made up 32.65% of the population
of the country, whereas in the first 30 years of the 19th century
Armenian Gregorians made up 9% of the population of northern
Azerbaijan, the majority of whom were Gregorianized Albanians.
In the early 20th century Armenians established their fabricated
state in the territory of Irevan – historical Azerbaijani land that had
never belonged to them. They made unfounded claims against
Azerbaijan and introduced the fabricated ‘Karabakh problem’ to
history.

*
To erase the historical truth the Armenians destroyed this monument during the
94 Karabakh War (1992-94).
Section II
Chapter 3
The monument erected by Armenians in the village of Margushevan
in Aghdara District, Azerbaijan, in 1978 to mark the 150th
anniversary of the resettlement of Armenians from Maragha, Iran.
The inscription ‘Maraga-150’ was written in Armenian at the base
of the monument.

The monument was destroyed by Armenian militants.

In terms of religious affiliation, the Armenians are divided

into Gregorian Armenians, Catholic Armenians, and Orthodox
Armenians. 95
In the first 30 years of the 19th century, following their
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

occupation of Azerbaijan, the Russian Empire pursued a settlement

policy in order to establish their political power in the country. As
part of this policy, they added new Christian elements (Germans
and Russians) to the population. The Azerbaijani people continued
to live in their own historical territories, preserving their mentality,
tangible and spiritual culture, ethnic identity and confessional
tolerance. They played a special role in the synthesis of eastern and
western cultures, protecting their historically existing multicultural
values.

Resettlement of Armenians to northern Azerbaijan from the

Ottoman Empire in 1828-1930*

Cities and prov-

Number of
inces from which Place of settlement
families
settlers came
Provinces of Borchali, Sharur,
Erzerum 7,298
Surmali, Alinjachay, Mavazin
Ardahan 67 Bambak and Shoragal
Kars 2,264 Bambak and Shoragal
Kars 200 Armenian and Talysh provinces
Beyazit 4,215 Armenian province
Total: 14,044 families or over 84,000 people

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries the country experienced
an awakening of national consciousness and Azerbaijani
multiculturalism entered a new stage. An Azerbaijani movement
for enlightenment, supported by members of the Azerbaijani
bourgeoisie, inspired a renaissance of national identity.

*
Вердиева Х.Ю. (Verdiyeva, Kh.Yu.) Переселенческая политика Российской
империи в Северном Азербайджане (The Russian Empire's resettlement policy in
96 northern Azerbaijan). 2nd edition with addenda, Baku, 2016, p. 157.
The main goal of these philanthropists was to awaken the

Section II
people and show them the real essence of the colonial policy of
the Russian Empire. To this end, the philanthropists paid serious
attention to the development of culture, literature, science, press
and education. An outstanding enlightener, educator democrat
and one of the first Azerbaijani philanthropists, Hasan bay Zardabi,
declared that secular schools should be opened to create national
consciousness. He laid the foundations of the national press as a
way of spreading this idea. The newspaper Akinchi (Farmer), which
he founded in 1875, became a tool for the dissemination of the
ideas of democracy, education and enlightenment. The newspapers

Chapter 3
Ziya (Light), Ziyayi-Qafqaziyya (Light of the Caucasus) and Kashkul
(a bowl carried by dervishes) took up the Akinchi baton. Haji
Zeynalabdin Taghiyev, a prominent member of the Azerbaijani
national bourgeoisie, a millionaire thanks to Baku oil and known
for his charity, opened a school for girls in 1873. The architect
of the school was an ethnic Pole, Jozef Goslawski (1865-1904).
The construction of the building started in 1898 in the present
Istiqlal Street (pre-revolutionary Nikolayevskaya) and was finished
in 1900. At present it houses the Manuscripts Institute of the
National Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan. Taghiyev faced serious
opposition from aggressive clergy. The opening ceremony of the
school for girls was held at the Taza Pir Mosque. Two outstanding
Muslim scholars (Mir Mahammad Karim, a Muslim judge of Baku
province, and Akhund Mirza Abuturab) read and interpreted
paragraphs from the Holy Koran at the ceremony, explaining
that, ‘Like male Muslims, female Muslims are obliged to acquire all
knowledge.’ Haji Zeynalabdin Taghiyev’s efforts yielded fruit. The
first classes at the girls’ school began on 7 April 1901. As 35 pupils
out of 58 came from poor families, the philanthropist had them
study at his own expense.
Haji Zeynalabdin Taghiyev also funded construction of the first
theatre in 1883, designed by the architect Kognovitsky. Though
97
capitalist Baku embraced the theatre, part of Western culture, it
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

did not abandon its own national mentality: special boxes were
created for women to watch the performance, respecting traditions
of behaviour. The first opera to be performed there was Leyli and
Majnun in 1908.
A country with an Oriental civilization and in the early stages of
capitalism became acquainted with the values of Western culture,
thereby approaching the world of multiculturalism. It was at this
time that painting entered a new period, with Realism appearing
under the influence of Russian and European culture. Azerbaijani
artist Azim Azimzada founded the school of caricature and satire in
Azerbaijan.
Buildings in capitalist Baku were built in Western architectural
styles. German architects Von der Nonne, Lemkul, Edel and Eichler
helped to turn Baku into a city with a new architectural style. The
church or Kirche built in the German Gothic style in 1899 to a
design by German architect Eichler combined elements of Oriental
and Western architecture in capitalist Baku.
Construction of the marvellous seafront promenade, known as
the Boulevard, was launched under the supervision of the talented
engineer and patriot Mahammad Hasan Hajinski in 1909. German
architect Eichel was one of the leading architects in designing the
Baku Boulevard, which can be considered a multicultural piece of art.
Azerbaijani charitable donors were active in the provinces,
too. To counter the Christianization policy pursued by the Russian
Empire in Azerbaijan, they began to build new mosques to
maintain the Islamic values and morals of the people. These include
Teze Pir Mosque, designed by Kazim bay Hajibabayev in the town
of Shamakhi in 1870. In those years provincial philanthropists had
mosques built in other regions as well. In 1854 Sakina Khanum
had a mosque built in the province of Quba. In 1877-78 Israfil bay
Yadigarzada had the famous medieval Imamzada complex restored
in Ganja. In 1899 Israfil Agha had a mosque built in Qazakh.
98
This shows that in the provinces Azerbaijani philanthropists

Section II
maintained the traditions of tolerance and the historical memory
of the people and were inclined to build on Islamic traditions, while
in capitalist Baku Azerbaijani philanthropists not only maintained
Islamic values, but also nurtured Western culture. One example
is the Orthodox church of Zhen Mironosets funded by Haji
Zeynalabdin Taghiyev.
Azerbaijani multiculturalism continued its rapid development
after the October revolution, too. The Azerbaijan Democratic
Republic passed its Act of Independence on 28 May 1918, and
granted equal rights to all people residing in the territory of the

Chapter 3
country. From its creation the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic
waged a struggle for the territorial integrity of the country, but did
not give up the traditions of tolerance. When forming the state
legislative body – the parliament, it gave seats to representatives
of minorities who had served the socio-political life of the
country. Seats were assigned according to the relative size of the
population group: of 120 seats in the parliament 80 were given
to Muslims, 21 to Armenians, 10 to the Baku Russian National
Council, one to the German National Council, one to the Georgian
National Council, and one to the Polish National Committee. The
Azerbaijan Democratic Republic treated the history and culture of
the non-Muslim ethnoses with respect. It created conditions for
the celebration of the centenary of the establishment of German
settlements in the country, taking into account the possible impact
on the formation of a multicultural environment and development
of democracy, and the jubilee was solemnly celebrated in
Helenendorf on 9 June 1919.
Another event illustrates the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic’s
respect and sympathy for the Germans. When the Russian absolute
monarchy declared restrictive laws against the German colonies
during World War I, a group of elders from Ganja asked the
governor of Yelizavetpol province, G.S. Kovalev, not to apply those
99
laws to the German colonies in Azerbaijan. This testifies to the
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

multicultural approach of the Azerbaijani towards people who do

not share their roots, language, and religion, and is evidence that
the Azerbaijani people attach great importance to universal values.
Thus, in the 19th and early 20th centuries Azerbaijani
multiculturalism was filled with new additions; new ethnoses
– Germans and Russians – became part of the population of the
country. They brought their own cultures, languages, religions,
customs and traditions into the social life of the country, enriching
oriental Azerbaijani multiculturalism with Western colour and
creating unforgettable pieces of art and architecture.

3.5. Peculiarities of the Ethnic Relations

Policy in the Soviet Period

The Bolsheviks took power after the April coup (28 April 1920).
They overthrew the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, the first
secular, democratic state in the East, which had existed for 23
months. Although the Bolsheviks built their national-cultural and
religious (actually anti-religious) activities in the Azerbaijan Soviet
Socialist Republic on the basis of an authoritarian-totalitarian
regime, the historical multicultural environment and tolerance were
maintained in the Soviet period too.
On taking power the Bolshevik dictatorship decided to strike
a blow to the national spirit of the people in order to break
their resistance. On 15 May 1920, by decision of the Military
Revolutionary Committee, the Ministry of Religion abolished
the Board of Muslims of the Transcaucasus and the institution of
Sheikh ul-Islam. The Constitution of the Azerbaijan SSR, approved
at the First All-Azerbaijan Congress of Soviets on 19 May 1921,
recognized the freedom of all citizens to perform religious
rituals and to campaign against religion. However, the articles
of the Supreme Law remained only on paper and the proletarian
100
dictatorship launched a struggle against religion. Consequently,

Section II
120 mosques were closed in the districts of Azerbaijan in 1929,
while 400 mosques were closed in the whole of Azerbaijan in
1930. Waging a continuous struggle against religion, the Soviet
authorities resorted to acts of vandalism, and in 1936 Bibi-Heybat
Mosque was blown up. In 1920-44 the Board of Muslims of the
Transcaucasus remained frozen.
In their struggle against religion, the Bolsheviks clo­sed Christian
churches in Azerbaijan, too; the Orthodox Alexander Nevsky
Church in Baku, known as the Golden Church, was blown up in
1936.

Chapter 3
During World War II the attitude towards Islam began to change
in the USSR. One of the factors influencing this was the conversion
to Islam of some generals of the German Army who prayed in
mosques during the occupation of the north Caucasus. Taking into
consideration the socio-political situation, the Soviet leadership
gave up its radical position against religion in order to mobilize the
population against the common enemy, and on 14 April 1944 the
Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted a resolution
on the restoration of the Board of Muslims of the Transcaucasus.
When considering inter-ethnic relations in the USSR, it is
worth paying attention to the Bolshevik slogan ‘Workers of all
countries unite!’ The Soviets tried to solve the national issue on the
principles of Bolshevik-proletarian ideology. They built the map of
the USSR on the principle of ‘scissoring’ which aimed to form an
artificial historical category – the Soviet people by giving formal
independence to the nations, but not taking into account the
historical territories of peoples, and uniting them in administrative
territorial structures. The main aspects of the nationalities issue
in Azerbaijan were built on the basis of artificial principles of
‘internationalism’; the alphabet of the Azerbaijani people was
twice changed to deprive them of their historical memory. Those
who uttered the words ‘land’ and ‘motherland’ were labelled ‘pan-
101
Turkists’; Azerbaijani émigrés were painted as ‘enemies’. Along with
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

the Azerbaijani people, the Germans, who considered Azerbaijan

their second ‘motherland’, suffered political and moral pressure
during World War II: they were exiled to Central Asia and Siberia
by Decision 001487 adopted in October 1941. The principles of
authoritarianism and enforcement led to a number of national and
ethnic conflicts on the eve of the collapse of the USSR. This was
seen clearly when Mikhail Gorbachev was the general secretary of
the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
(1985-91). Bloody tragedies occurred in the USSR, of which the
fabricated Nagorno-Karabakh problem stands out in particular.

3.6. Armenia-Azerbaijan, the Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict

and Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

In the early 20th century terror and genocide committed

by Armenian nationalists constituted a bloody obstacle to the
development of Azerbaijani multiculturalism. In autumn 1917,
during World War I, the devastating anti-Russian policy of the
Kaiser’s Germany ended in the overthrow of the Romanov
dynasty and the Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia. Unable
to realize the idea of ‘Great Armenia’ in eastern Anatolia, the
Armenian separatists decided in those days to solve the ‘Armenian
issue’ at the expense of Azerbaijani territory. At the end of 1917,
while World War I was still going on, the Armenian nationalists
committed massacres in Azerbaijani territories, destroying 157
villages in Karabakh alone in order to achieve their insidious goal.
Encouraged by impunity, the union of Armenianism (the Armenian-
Gregorian church, Armenian political parties and the Armenian
lobby) pursued a policy of ethnic cleansing in order to realize the
idea of ‘Great Armenia’ in Azerbaijani territory, in land historically
alien to them. Thus, at the beginning of 1918, cloaking the essence
102
of Armenianism in Bolshevik ideology, Stepan Shaumyan and his

Section II
gangsters murdered tens of thousands of Turkic Muslim civilians
in Baku and the surrounding area, carrying out ethnic cleansing,
the goal of the Dashnaksutyun Party. But the declaration of the
Azerbaijan Democratic Republic and a march by young Turks and
units of the Turkish national army towards Baku foiled the plans
of Shaumyan and his gangsters. Then Armenianism turned its
attention towards the territory of Karabakh, bringing the ‘Karabakh
issue’ into Azerbaijani history.
Since ancient times the Armenians have been in search of ‘a
motherland’ in territories they never possessed. After establishing

Chapter 3
their fake institution in the province of Irevan, they did not rest
and set their sights on the province of Shusha. Acting on the
instructions of the Dashnaksutyun party, the Armenian community
of Shusha created a slogan ‘determine the fate of Nagorno-
Karabakh’ in the summer of 1918. This is how the distorted
Nagorno-Karabakh idea entered history. Encouraged by the terms
of the Mudros Armistice signed on 30 October 1918, the Armenian
nationalists committed massacres in Zangazur, slaughtering the
population of Tat village in this province. Overall, they destroyed
115 Muslim villages, murdering or mutilating 10,068 Azerbaijanis.
The Zangazur bloodshed was discussed at an emergency sitting of
the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic government on 20 December
1918. The members of the government noted that Armenian
commander Andranik’s plan was to cleanse Zangazur and Shusha
of the Muslim population and take this territory from Azerbaijan.
The Armenian nationalists had no desire to abandon their
insidious plans and forgot that they were incomers in Azerbaijani
territories, particularly Karabakh. After the signing of the
Turkmenchay and Edirne treaties (1828 and 1829 respectively), the
Armenians had moved to different regions of Azerbaijan in large 103
numbers, in particular Karabakh, as a result of the resettlement
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

policy of the Russian Empire. They settled in Karabakh in later

stages of history, too. According to the census of 1897 conducted
by Russia, of the 415,721 population of Karabakh 172,872 were
Armenians. They constituted 41.3 per cent of the entire population
of Karabakh while the number of Azerbaijanis was 235,304 (56.6
per cent of the population of Karabakh). These statistics prove that
despite the mass and regular resettlement in Azerbaijani territories,
the Armenians could not become the dominant ethnos in Karabakh
and were incomers in Azerbaijani territory.
In winter and spring 1919 Armenian militants became active in
Karabakh. The Armenian National Council* supplied the Armenians
with arms in Zangazur, Goris and Shusha. They urged them not to
recognize the government of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic
and directed their actions against the governorate of Karabakh. In
order to put an end to the atrocities and terrors of the Armenian
nationalists, the leadership of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic
together with the governor-general of Karabakh, Sultanov, stopped
the operation of the Armenian National Council in Karabakh. The
members of the separatist organization were driven out of Shusha
on 5 June 1919. On 10 June 1919, a meeting was held with the
participation of Dashnaks and the bishop of Karabakh. At that
meeting the Armenian community decided to recognize the
government of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic. In August 1919
the Seventh Congress of the Armenian Community of Karabakh
adopted an Act on recognition of the government of the Azerbaijan
Democratic Republic. But subsequent socio-political events in the
region and the Bolshevik April revolution revived the Karabakh
issue in Azerbaijani history.
*
Between July 1919 and April 1920 Armenian separatists held nine congresses. After
the second congress, held on 15 September 1918, the government created by the
104 Armenian separatists began to be called the Armenian National Council.
Using the sovietization of the south Caucasus for their own

Section II
purposes, the Armenians annexed Zangazur and other territories
of Azerbaijan in 1920. Investigating the issue, Academician Ramiz
Mehdiyev found documentary evidence in various archives of
Azerbaijan that Soviet Azerbaijan ‘gave 405,000 dessiatins of
land to Armenia from the Province of Zangazur’ at the end of
1920 (Azerbaijan possessed 7,989,105 dessiatins of land). He also
highlighted the fact that this process went on later, too. Based on
a resolution of 18 February 1929 adopted by the Transcaucasus
Central Executive Committee, ‘the villages of Nuvadi, Arnazir and
Tughut in Jabrail Province, some parts of the villages of Karkivan

Chapter 3
and Kilid in Ordubad Province’ were torn away from Azerbaijan and
Megri Province was established within Armenia. Thus, Nachchivan
was separated from Azerbaijan and the highways were cut off.
On 7 June 1923, the Armenians who had moved to Upper
Karabakh, Azerbaijan, were granted the status of an autonomous
province (in Russian Nagorno Karabakh Autonomous Oblast
– NKAO). The creation of the NKAO badly broke up the pre-
1923 administrative division of Azerbaijan, and according to the
decision of the Soviet government, the provinces of Javanshir,
Qubadli and Shusha were divided and given to the NKAO. Under
the ‘Regulations’, Shusha, Khankandi and 115 villages from the
province of Shusha, 52 villages from the province of Javanshir, 30
villages from the province of Qaryagin and the village of Qaladarasi
from Qubadli were given to the NKAO.
This not only damaged the territorial division of Azerbaijan,
but created a precedent for further Armenian territorial claims
against Azerbaijan. This was when the name Nagorno-Karabakh
appeared. However, Khankandi was written as the regional centre
in the Decree on the Establishment of the Autonomous Province;
soon after, however, on 18 September 1923, by decision of the 105
Nagorno-Karabakh Provincial Party Committee, the name of the
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

town of Khankandi was changed to Stepanakert in honour of Stepan

Shaumyan. That marked the beginning of the replacement of
Azerbaijani names of historical places, districts, regions and villages
in Karabakh.
Although the Armenians living in the upland areas of Karabakh
had autonomy in political, economic, social and cultural spheres
during the Soviet period, Armenian nationalists several times made
territorial claims on this Azerbaijani land. After World War II, on the
instruction of the Soviet leadership, Armenian nationalists made
territorial claims against Turkey but these claims failed. Later, they
made territorial claims against the Nagorno-Karabakh province
of Azerbaijan and demanded the resettlement of Armenians
from abroad in Armenia as well. Failing to obtain Nagorno-
Karabakh from Azerbaijan, the leadership of Armenia suggested
the resettlement of Armenians from other countries, to which
the Soviet government gave its consent. However, Armenia did
not have the right conditions for the resettlement of Armenians
from abroad. Using this pretext, they suggested displacing the
Azerbaijani population of Armenia to scarcely populated cotton-
growing districts of Azerbaijan and using the abandoned land and
houses for the reception and placement of the Armenians who had
arrived from other countries.
According to the decision of the Council of Ministers of the
USSR ‘On the migration of collective farmers and other members
of the Azerbaijani population from Armenia to the Kura-Aras
lowlands of Azerbaijan’ adopted on 23 December 1947 and 10
March 1948, some 150,000 Azerbaijanis were forcibly moved to the
lowlands of Azerbaijan in a mass deportation of Azerbaijanis from
their historical lands in 1948-1953, in particular from Irevan and the
106 surrounding districts.
Moreover, Armenia continued its territorial claims, pur­suing an

Section II
aggressive policy. It raised the issue of including Nagorno-Karabakh
into the territory of Armenia. A draft resolution on the annexation
of Nagorno-Karabakh to Armenia was drafted in March 1948 by
Nikolay Shvernik, chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet
of the USSR. The document sent to Azerbaijan also included a
map showing the projected changes to the borders of Azerbaijan.
Fortunately, this attempt was resolutely prevented as well.
The Nagorno-Karabakh issue was raised several times in the
1960s. In November 1960, on the initiative of Anastas Mikoyan
a document was drawn up transferring Nagorno-Karabakh to

Chapter 3
Armenia and it had to be discussed at a sitting of the Supreme
Soviet of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of
the Soviet Union. Despite the Armenians’ serious preparations,
during discussions held before the sitting their draft was rejected
after a report from N. Hajiyev, the-then secretary of the Central
Committee of the Communist Party of Azerbaijan. In early 1969,
Mikoyan suggested to Khrushchev that Arme­nia annex Nagorno-
Karabakh. Khrushev made an interesting response: ‘I am ready to
give 12,000 military trucks for the transportation of the Nagorno-
Karabakh Armenians to Armenia within 24 hours.’ Repeatedly
failing to achieve their goal, the Armenian leadership and Armenian
lobby did not stop looking for an opportunity. They found it in the
late 1980s. Taking advantage of the policy of glasnost (openness)
and democracy of the USSR, the Armenian nationalists made their
territorial claim against the Nagorno-Karabakh region of Azerbaijan.
When the events of 1988 began, Armenian nationalists who had
long nurtured the idea of ‘Great Armenia’ and their supporters in
the leadership of the Soviet Union organized mass demonstrations
in Khankandi and Irevan. In the second half of the year the situation
became so fraught that the Azerbaijani population of Nagorno-
Karabakh province was exposed to armed aggression. In late
107
August and early September, Armenians attacked Karkijahan
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

and Khojali. On 18 September, Armenians brutally expelled

15,000 native Azerbaijanis from Khankandi, making them move
to Shusha and other neighbouring districts. On 12 January
1989, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR issued a
Decree setting up a special executive committee in Nagorno-
Karabakh Autonomous Region under the authority of the USSR
administration. Though the main duty of the Committee was ‘to
prevent further deterioration of relations between the nations and
stabilize the situation in the region’, the situation worsened under
the rule of the Committee. With so much tension in Nagorno-
Karabakh, on 1 December 1989, the Supreme Soviet of Armenia
violated the sovereignty of Azerbaijan by passing a resolution
on the annexation of Nagorno-Karabakh by Armenia, which
contradicted the Constitution of the USSR.
In late 1990 and early 1991, the grave and inexcusable blunders
and pro-Armenian policy of the Soviet leadership made the situation
worse and Armenian aggression became widespread in Nagorno-
Karabakh and the regions bordering on Armenia. Thousands of
Azerbaijanis were killed as a result of terrorist acts committed on
a Moscow-Baku train and on buses travelling on the routes Tbilisi-
Baku, Aghdam-Shusha and Aghdam-Khojali.
From 1991, tension grew in the mountainous part of
Karabakh. In June-December that year 12 civilians were
killed and 15 more wounded in an attack by Armenian
armed forces on the village of Qaradaghli in Khojavand District and
on Meshali in Asgaran District. In late Octo­ber and November 1991
more than 30 settlements in the mountainous part of Karabakh,
including Tugh, Imarat-­Qarvand, Sirkhavand, Meshali, Jamilli,
Umudlu, Qaradagh­li, Karkijahan and other strategically important
villages were set on fire, destroyed and plundered by the Armenians.
108
Overall, in 1988-91, i.e. from the onset of events till the collapse

Section II
of the USSR, the Armenian leadership under the patronage of the
USSR ruling circles pursued a policy of open aggression against
Azerbaijan. As a result, 50,000 Azerbaijanis were forcibly driven
from their homes in Nagorno-Karabakh; 514 died and 1,318
were wounded. As a consequence of the ethnic cleansing of the
Armenian SSR during that period, about 250,000 Azerbaijanis were
driven out of 185 Azerbaijani villages in Armenia; 216 Azerbaijanis
were killed, and thousands of women, children and elderly people
were wounded and thousands of families lost their property.
Starting in 1992, the Armenian army invaded the last remaining

Chapter 3
Azerbaijani settlements in Nagorno-Karabakh. Thus, on 12 February
the villages of Malibayli and Qushchular in Shusha District were
invaded by Armenian forces. From 13 to 17 February the village
of Qaradaghli in Khojavand District was attacked and 118 civilians
(women, children, and the elderly) were captured and 33 shot;
the dead and wounded were thrown together down a well by the
Armenians. Sixty-eight of those taken captive were ruthlessly killed,
while 50 were freed from captivity with great difficulty. Eighteen
of the freed captives died of their wounds. Eight members of two
families from the village of Qaradaghli were killed, 42 families lost
their breadwinners, and around 140 children became orphans.
Academician Ramiz Mehdiyev who studied the Qaradaghli tragedy
points out that this was the first operation commanded by the
terrorist Monte Melkonian. Melkonian was an active member of
the ASALA terror organization and did not hide his criminal nature
in the attack on Qaradaghli. The operation under his command
was exceptional in its mercilessness. From Qaradaghli onwards,
the Armenian fighters committed ruthless atrocities against the
Azerbaijanis.
109
On the night of 25-26 February 1992, Armenian armed forces
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

with the help of military personnel and equipment from the 366th
Regiment of the Commonwealth of Independent States, based
in Khankandi, attacked the town of Khojali and levelled it to the
ground. The town was set on fire, and the inhabitants brutally
killed. A total of 613 civilians were killed in the massacre, of whom
63 were children, 106 women and 70 elderly; eight families were
wiped out and 487 civilians, 76 of them children, were permanently
disabled. Moreover, 1,275 people were captured, and 150 remain
missing.
On 8 May 1992, a trilateral meeting of the Azerbaijani, Armenian
and Iranian leaders was held in Tehran as part of an Iranian
initiative. The same day Shusha was occupied. Later it emerged that
the Armenian side had had a different plan when they agreed at
the meeting to cease fire along the Armenian-Azerbaijani border
and in Nagorno-Karabakh. The Armenian side needed that meeting
to conceal its real aim from the international community. The
Armenian leadership was certainly aware of the planned attack in
advance, because the time of the occupation of Shusha coincided
with the time of the negotiations in Tehran and the signed peace
treaty would be valid as soon as the ink dried. Besides, the
Armenians as usual disseminated disinformation about heavy
attacks from Shusha on Khankandi. Thanks to modern military
equipment Armenian forces occupied the district of Shusha, with its
289 square metres of territory, 24,000 population, one town and 30
villages.
After the occupation of Shusha, Armenian armed forces blocked
the Shusha-Lachin route and fired shells into Lachin from the
territory of the Armenian Republic. On 18 May, the old Azerbaijani
town of Lachin was occupied. The occupation of Lachin showed
that the war had gone beyond the boundaries of Nagorno-
110
Karabakh and the Armenian occupiers wanted more. In 1993, with

Section II
the help of the states patronizing Armenia, the Armenian forces
occupied and ethnically cleansed Lachin, Kalbajar, Aghdam, Fizuli,
Jabrayil, Qubadli and Zangilan, districts outside Nagorno-Karabakh,
a territory four times the size of Nagorno-Karabakh.
At present Armenian armed forces occupy 20 per cent of
the territory of the Republic of Azerbaijan. As a result of the
occupation nearly 900 settlements and 22 museums, and 40,000
museum exhibits – rare and valuable historical items – have been
destroyed or plundered. The Aghdam Bread Museum, unique in
the post-Soviet republics, has been completely destroyed, and

Chapter 3
13,000 exhibits from the Kalbajar Museum and 45,000 valuable
exhibits from the Lachin Ethnography Museum have been taken
to the Republic of Armenia. The list of items stolen from museums
is long: 500 exhibits of the Shusha History Museum; exhibits of
the Shusha branch of the Azerbaijani State Carpet and Folk Art
Museum; 1,000 exhibits of the Karabakh History Museum; 300
exhibits from the Memorial Museum of the great Azerbaijani
composer Uzeyir Hajibayli; 400 exhibits from the Memorial
Museum of the great singer Bulbul; 100 exhibits from the Memorial
Museum of prominent musician and artist Mir Mohsun Navvab;
2,000 exhibits from Aghdam Ethnography Museum; 3000 from
Qubadli Ethnography Museum; and 6,000 exhibits from Zangilan
Ethnography Museum. Moreover, four art galleries, nine palaces of
historical importance, 44 Albanian temples and nine mosques have
been ruined, plundered and burned; 4.6 million books and valuable
historical manuscripts in 927 libraries have been destroyed.
Soon after the occupation of Shusha, the Republic of Azerbaijan
called on the chairman of the UN Security Council and the
international community to prevent Armenia’s aggression against
Azerbaijan. However, the UN Security Council took no practical
111
steps against Armenia. Armenia’s impunity led not only to the
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

occupation of Nagorno-Karabakh, but to the further expansion of

aggression too.
From 27 March to 3 April 1993, Armenian armed forces
occupied Azerbaijan’s Kalbajar District. On 30 April 1993, the
UN Security Council adopted Resolution 822 on the Armenian-
Azerbaijani conflict. The Security Council expressed its grave
concern at the escalation of armed hostilities between Armenia
and Azerbaijan, thereby confirming the involvement of the Republic
of Armenia in the conflict. Moreover, the resolution reaffirmed
respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all states
in the region, the inviolability of international borders and the
inadmissibility of the use of force for the acquisition of territory.
On 23 July 1993, Armenian armed forces occupied Azerbaijan’s
Aghdam District. Immediately after the occupation of Aghdam
the Azerbaijani government addressed the chairman of the UN
Security Council over the situation in the region. On 29 July, the
UN Security Council adopted Resolution 853 on the seizure of
Aghdam District. The Security Council expressed its serious concern
at the tension between Azerbaijan and Armenia; reaffirmed the
inviolability of international borders and inadmissibility of the use
of force to acquire territory; demanded the immediate cessation
of all hostilities and the immediate, complete and unconditional
withdrawal of the occupying forces from the district of Aghdam
and all other recently occupied territories of Azerbaijan.
In summer 1993, Armenia ignored the resolutions of the
UN Security Council and went on to occupy other territories of
Azerbaijan. Thus, on 23 August 1993, Armenian forces occupied
Azerbaijan’s Fizuli and Jabrail districts and on 31 August Qubadli
District. On 14 October 1993, the UN Security Council adopted
Resolution 874 on the Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict. Enjoying its

112 impunity Armenia ignored UN Security Council resolutions 822, 853

and 874 and further expanded its aggression, occupying new areas

Section II
of Azerbaijan.
On 12 November 1993, at the request of the Azerbaijani
government the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 884 in
response to the expansion of the conflict and Armenian occupation
of Zangilan District. Armenia ignored this resolution, too.
All the documents adopted in 1993 by the UN Security Council
and leading countries of the world in response to Armenia’s
aggression against Azerbaijan affirmed the territorial integrity,
sovereignty and inviolability of the borders of the Republic of
Azerbaijan. But the permanent members of the Security Council did

Chapter 3
not agree to recognize Armenia as the aggressor.
On 24 March 1992, the first supplementary meeting of the
Council of Foreign Ministers of the Conference on Security and
Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) decided to seek a peaceful solution
to the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. After the Lisbon Summit of the
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE – the
successor to the CSCE) in December 1996, the representatives
of Russia, France and the USA were appointed co-chairs of the
Minsk Group. In 1997-98, proceeding from the Lisbon Principles,
the Minsk Group co-chairs put forward a two-part proposal: that
is, the withdrawal of the Armenian armed forces from the seven
occupied districts outside Nagorno-Karabakh and determination
of the status of Nagorno-Karabakh. The Azerbaijani side did not
fully agree with this, but they accepted it, while the Armenian
side took a non-constructive position, declaring the proposal
unacceptable. On 8 November 1998, the co-chairs suggested a
third proposal, which contradicted the norms of international law;
this was unacceptable to Azerbaijan and could have hindered the
mediation process as well. The artificial ‘common state’ proposal
not only contradicted the interests of Azerbaijan, it also ignored
the resolutions adopted at the OSCE Budapest and Lisbon summits. 113
After the failure of the co-chairs’ ‘common state’ proposal, the
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Minsk Group was deadlocked.

Negotiations between the presidents of Armenia and Azerbaijan
were stepped up in the first months of 2001. The two presidents
held negotiations with the participation of the Minsk Group co-
chairs first in Paris on 26 January 2001 and again on 5 March, then
in Key West, Florida on 4-6 April.
A proposal entitled ‘The Paris Principles’ emerged, which
attempted to bring together the provisions of the three previous
settlement proposals (‘package’, ‘staged’, and ‘common state’),
which could satisfy both parties.
On 6 April 2004, a new stage of talks known as the ‘Prague
Process’ began. The talks focused on a new peace plan for step-
by-step regulation of the conflict. The basic principles of the new
peace plan were:

1. A
rmenia withdraws its troops step by step from the occupied
territories (Aghdam, Fizuli, Jabrail, Qubadli and Zangilan)
along the borders of the Nagorno-­
Karabakh region of
Azerbaijan.
2. Azerbaijan and Armenia restore diplomatic and economic
relations.
3. T
he Azerbaijanis return to the liberated areas, with the
exception of Lachin and Kalbajar, under the protection of
international peacekeeping forces.
4. T
he status of Nagorno-Karabakh is to be resolved later by a
referendum there.
In order to speed up the process, the Basic Principles of a
settlement to the Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict over Nagorno-
Karabakh were presented to the parties in Madrid at the end of
114
November 2007. The Azerbaijani and Armenian presidents have

Section II
held 21 meetings about these Basic Principles since June 2008.
The Basic Principles worked out over five years during the Prague
Process became the Madrid Document. There is agreement to a
certain extent on some of these principles, while the outlines of
agreement on other principles can be sensed during discussions at
the presidential level. Once common agreement has been reached
on all the issues in this context, a final document could be adopted.
If we look at the history of the talks to settle the Armenian-
Azerbaijani conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh, we shall see that from
1992 international organizations and leading states increased their

Chapter 3
mediation efforts and from April 1999 steps were taken in a new
format – direct dialogue between the presidents of Azerbaijan and
Armenia. More than 50 meetings have been held between the
presidents of the two states.
In this arduous talks process the Azerbaijani side has faced
some difficulties in defending its just position, because from
the start of the conflict, aggressive Armenia has taken a non-
constructive position in the talks and has refused to give up
its occupation policy. On the other hand, the talks have been
hampered by the double standards of the international community
towards solution of this conflict and the inactivity of international
organizations such as the UN and OSCE in implementing the
proposals and resolutions they adopted. At the same time, the
failure to take practical steps against aggressive Armenia has not
only damaged the reputation of the OSCE, it has destroyed hope
in the Minsk Group. Nevertheless, the Azerbaijani government
regularly takes an active part in the meetings of international
organizations and respects the OSCE proposals for a peaceful
settlement of the conflict.
Azerbaijan has enjoyed a number of diplomatic achievements.
On the initiative of the Azerbaijani delegation, the ‘situation 115
in the occupied territories of Azerbaijan’ was included on the
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

agenda of the UN General Assembly session on 29 October 2004.

Later resolutions ‘On the situation in the occupied territories
of Azerbaijan’ were adopted at the 98th plenary meeting of
the 60th session of the UN General Assembly on 7 September
2006 and at the 86th plenary meeting of the 62nd session on 14
March 2008. The resolutions condemn Armenian settlement and
arson in the occupied territories. The four resolutions adopted
by the UN Security Council call for the immediate, complete and
unconditional withdrawal of Armenian armed forces from the
occupied territories of Azerbaijan. In addition, they affirm the
sovereignty and territorial integrity of Azerbaijan and the right of
refugees and displaced persons to return to their homes.
Similarly, some international organizations have taken positive
action for a solution of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. The
Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and its member states
support Azerbaijan at the international level and are committed to
the ideas of Islamic solidarity set out in the organization’s charter.
The OIC supports a just and fair settlement of the Armenian-
Azerbaijani conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh based on the principles
of the inviolability of borders and territorial integrity of Azerbaijan.
It should also be noted that the OIC is the first international
institution to recognize Armenia as the aggressor and the genocide
committed in Khojali against the Azerbaijanis.
Resolutions adopted at the European Parliament and at
NATO summits unanimously recognize the territorial integrity of
Azerbaijan and call for an end to the occupation of Azerbaijani
territories. The final declarations adopted at the NATO summits in
1994 in Brussels, in 2006 in Riga, in 2008 in Budapest, in 2009 in
Strasbourg and Kehl and in 2010 in Lisbon reaffirm the territorial
integrity, sovereignty and independence of Azerbaijan. Moreover,
116
a resolution recognizing the territorial integrity of sovereign states

Section II
was adopted at the 62nd session of the NATO Parliamentary
Assembly, held in Istanbul in November 2016.
All the documents on a peaceful settlement of the conflict
adopted by international organizations aim to strengthen the
position of Azerbaijan and affirm the need to settle the conflict in
accordance with the principles of international law. Azerbaijan’s
position on settlement of the conflict has not changed. The conflict
should be settled within Azerbaijan’s internationally recognized
borders and in accordance with its territorial integrity. This position
is based on the norms and principles of international law, the

Chapter 3
UN Charter, Helsinki Final Act and numerous other international
documents on the settlement of conflicts. Therefore, if the leading
states want to prevent the threat of aggression in international
relations, they have to take practical measures in accordance with
Chapter VII of the UN Charter and force Armenia to obey the will of
the international community.
Armenia ignores the documents on the peaceful settlement
of the conflict adopted by international organizations, regularly
violates the ceasefire, fires on Azerbaijani villages close to the
border with Armenia or the contact line separating the two
sides, and carries out sabotage to provoke hostilities. A sabotage
operation took place in early April 2016 and has become known in
Azerbaijan’s contemporary history as the ‘four-day war’. Successful
counter-attacks by the Azerbaijani army on 2-5 April 2016 achieved
significant strategic goals for Azerbaijan. First of all, Azerbaijan
won psychologically. The Azerbaijani army struck knock-out blows
against the enemy and liberated strategically important highlands
in the north and south of Karabakh. Thus, Azerbaijan demonstrated
its ability, potential and fighting spirit to liberate its territories. As
a result, the four-day war reminded the world that 20 per cent of
Azerbaijan’s territory is occupied by Armenia. 117
As a logical continuation, the President of the Republic of
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Azerbaijan signed an instruction ‘On measures to restore the

liberated village of Jojuq Marjanli in Jabrayil District’. The document
states that the successful counter-attacks of the Azerbaijani army
in April 2016 made it possible for civilians to live in peace in Jojuq
Marjanli. The instruction called for fundamental restoration work so
that the civilian population can return home to their historical land,
which is now under the complete control of the armed forces of
Azerbaijan. All this shows that the April battles were the beginning
of a significant military victory. Moreover, the restoration of the
village of Jojuq Marjanli marks the start of the mass return of those
displaced from their homes.
Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev has repeatedly and
unequivocally stated that ‘The territorial integrity of Azerbaijan is
not up for negotiation.’ This boosts hopes for a just settlement of
the conflict that will ensure the territorial integrity of the country.
Similarly, President Aliyev has emphasized that Azerbaijan
has grounds to liberate its territory, which are recognized by
international legal norms:

‘The territorial integrity of Azerbaijan must be restored. We will

not accept the creation of a second Armenian state in the territory of
Azerbaijan. We will never grant independence to Nagorno-Karabakh.
If anyone is waiting for it, they are waiting in vain. It will never
happen!’

At the same time, drawing attention to Armenia’s inability to

live without financial assistance from abroad President Aliyev said:
‘If the Armenians could achieve some success in their mythological
activities prior to the April battles, the April battles devastated their
propaganda and shook Armenian society. The after-shock can still be
118
felt there. The April events have led to a severe military and political

Section II
crisis.’ The President noted that these were short-term battles and
stressed that the administration of aggressive Armenia should learn
a lesson from this event. He added that Azerbaijan would never
agree to the occupation of its lands and would restore territorial
integrity: ‘Today the Azerbaijani flag is flying in Lalatapa and
Aghdara. It will fly in Shusha and Khankandi, too.’
Multiculturalism as a positive institution of the modern world
stands against the blot of Armenian terrorism on the modern
world. Multiculturalism aims to preserve the achievements of
humanity throughout history, to manage the coexistence of

Chapter 3
polyethnic and poly-confessional society based on the principles
of tolerance and to take practical measures to protect the material
and cultural heritage of mankind. One way to further this aim is the
settlement of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. A basic condition of
a settlement is to abandon double standards in the international
relations system and put an end to the fantasies, dreamt up by the
Armenian lobby. If these objectives are fulfilled, multiculturalism
will enter a new stage in its development.

Questions

1. What has made the Republic of Azerbaijan one of the world’s

main centres of multiculturalism today?
2. What role has the historical factor played in the creation of
Azerbaijani multiculturalism?
3. What role has the geographical factor played in the creation
of Azerbaijani multiculturalism?
4. What role have the Azerbaijani people played in the creation
and formation of Azerbaijani multiculturalism?
119
5. What factors explain the strengthening of the multicultural
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

environment in Azerbaijan during the years of

independence?
6.
Why does the measure of identity characterize the
development of multiculturalism?
7.
What are the forms of identity and the interconnection
among them?
8. What are the main results of the World Values Survey?
9.
What is the percentage of ethnic minorities in the
population of the Republic of Azerbaijan?
10. What can you say about the indigenous ethnic minorities of
the Republic of Azerbaijan?
11.
What can you say about the non-indigenous ethnic
minorities of the Republic of Azerbaijan?
12.
Which ethnic groups joined the population of Azerbaijan
between 1800 and 1830?
13.
What can you say about the ethnic composition of the
Republic of Azerbaijan at the beginning of the 19th century?
14. What was the main purpose of the Russian Empire’s
resettlement policy in Azerbaijan in the 19th century?
15.
What can you say about the ethnic composition of the
population of Karabakh in the second half of the 19th
century?
16.
In what way did capitalist Baku turn a new page in the
Azerbaijani multicultural environment?
17. What evidence does Academician Ramiz Mehdiyev provide
when speaking about the mass resettlement of Armenians to
the territories north of the Aras River?

120
18. What contribution did Azerbaijani philanthropists make to

Section II
the Azerbaijani multicultural environment?
19.
What changes took place in the Azerbaijani multicultural
environment in the years of the Azerbaijan Democratic
Republic?
20. What were the layers of Azerbaijani multiculturalism in the
19th and early 20th centuries?
21. Which religions were targeted by the Bolsheviks’ anti-
religious policy?
22. Which architectural monuments were destroyed as a result
of the Bolsheviks’ anti-religious policy in the Azerbaijan SSR?

Chapter 3
23. Why was the map of the USSR drawn according to the ‘cut
and paste’ principle?
24.
What were the main principles at the basis of the
nationalities issue in the Azerbaijan SSR?
25.
What were the bitter consequences of the principles of
domination and violence in the nationalities issue?
26.
What can you say about the historical reasons for the
Nagorno-Karabakh conflict?
27. What can you say about the role of the Armenian National
Council established by Armenian nationalists?
28. What can you say about the consequences of the genocide
policy of Armenian nationalists carried out in Azerbaijani
territories in 1918-20?
29. Why were the land routes connecting Nakhchivan and other
Azerbaijani territories cut?
30.
Why was the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region
established and what were the consequences?
31. What territorial claims did Armenia make against Azerbaijan
in the Soviet period?
121
32. What were the demands of the Armenian separatists who
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

brought the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict to a new stage at

the end of the 20th century?
33.
What were the causes of the military aggression of
Armenian armed units against the Republic of Azerbaijan in
the late 1980s and early 90s?
34. Outline the Khojali genocide and its consequences.
35. What can you say about the material and cultural damage
done by the Armenian nationalists to the Republic of
Azerbaijan during the Karabakh war?
36.
What UN resolutions were adopted on the Armenian-
Azerbaijani conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh?
37. What measures have been taken by the OSCE to settle the
Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh?
38.
What is the position of the Organization of Islamic
Cooperation on the Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict over
Nagorno-Karabakh?
39.
What can you say about the Madrid Document on the
Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh?
40. What is the position of NATO on the Armenian-Azerbaijani
conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh?
41. What is the place of the Four-Day War (April battles) in the
modern history of Azerbaijan?

References

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doqquz ayının sosial iqtisadi inkişafının yekunlarına və qarşıda
duran vəzifələrə həsr olunmuş iclası keçirilib. http:// www.
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2. Prezident İlham Əliyev noyabrın 28-də Ümumrusiya Dövlət

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Chapter 3
Azərbaycan, 21 February 2001.
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ümhuriyyətin və sovet dövrünün şeyxülislamı. Baku, 2011.
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xalq təşkilatlar. Baku, 1998, p. 138.

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131
Chapter 4
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

THE SOURCES OF AZERBAIJANI MULTICULTURALISM

4.1. Four Sources of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Down the centuries classical Azerbaijani literature has fully

reflected the atmosphere of multiculturalism and tolerance and this
can be seen in specific works.
A desire to embrace humanity as something whole, a need to
find mental parallels uniting different peoples, attempts to bring
different religions closer together by finding common features, an
equally respectful attitude towards the holy places of all religions,
morals that judge people not on their religious beliefs but on their
personal qualities, a call to compassion, mercy and empathy, and
love as the highest and most important feeling, as a common
principle of life uniting all peoples regardless of language and
religion – all these and other values reflected in Azerbaijan’s
literature describe better than anything its inner spirit.
Every exponent of our classical literature, with its centuries
of history, not only held these values but also transmitted them
through the prism of their worldview. Not every work of literature is
able to capture the spirit, rhythm and pulse of the society of its era.
These literary examples give a fine illustration of the atmosphere
of multiculturalism and tolerance that reigned in Azerbaijani society
in different eras. They are an artistic cardiogram of pictures of the
real life of our historic past, which we can no longer observe for
ourselves.
These examples show that our people, including progressive,
creative individuals, retained other common human values
132 alongside tolerance and open-mindedness towards religion,
and often made no division between what they considered

Section II
‘ours’ and what they considered ‘other’. The opposition ‘us and
them’ appeared in its mildest form throughout the history of the
emergence of our people.
Azerbaijani literature is saturated with love from the work of
Nizami, who declared the idea ‘Love is a heavenly altar’ to be the
quintessence of his work, to Javid, author of the lines ‘My lord is
beauty and love’. At all times this literature has sung the praises
of love for all humanity, without dividing it along racial, ethnic,
linguistic or religious lines. Through their literature, imbued with
these moral and artistic values, the Azerbaijani people have made a

Chapter 4
lavish contribution to the treasure trove of common human values.
Abdulla Shaiq said: ‘We are all atoms of a single sun!’
Muhammad Hadi laid down the challenge to mankind: ‘Oh,
people, we are all brothers!’
In a work by Huseyn Javid the little girl Gulbahar is taught to love
the whole of humanity.
Through the language of the kamancha Mirza Jalil touched the
soul of a centurion, thirsty for revenge. He urged him to be merciful
towards the helpless, but bitter enemy; that is, he challenged him
to win a victory over himself.
Seyid Azim Shirvani believed, ‘To be a man does not depend on
being a Muslim.’
As he put all the misfortunes and sorrows of humanity in the
mouth of Majnun, Fuzuli was concentrating them in his own breast
as well and dreaming of saving the world from grief.
And finally, Nizami, creator of the literary masterpiece Seven
Beauties, which celebrates the friendship of peoples, so loved the
slave he had been given that he married her, though she spoke a
foreign language and followed a different religion. Thereby he
became an example to future generations.
Besides the literary, scientific, philosophical, journalistic,
political and legal sources of Azerbaijani multiculturalism, this
133
chapter presents sources in art and culture, including music,
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

architecture, theatre, cinema and even cuisine. The diversity and

abundance of the sources of Azerbaijani multiculturalism show
it has been typical of our people down the centuries. President of
the Republic of Azerbaijan Ilham Aliyev noted that ‘the traditions
of multiculturalism, which is a relatively new term in our language,
have always existed in Azerbaijan. Simply, it had a different name,
but its essence has not changed.’ The presentation in this chapter
of the old, abundant sources of Azerbaijani multiculturalism allows
readers to see Azerbaijani literature, philosophy, journalism, art and
culture in a new light.
Looking at Azerbaijan’s literature, philosophy, journalism, essay
writing, art and culture from the position of multiculturalism is one
of the fundamental criteria of its greatness. It allows us to see the
social and philosophical history of Azerbaijan in a more colourful,
multifaceted paradigm and to hear the dialogue of its eras.
Through his Sheikh Sanan, Huseyn Javid answers the questions
raised by Khaqani in his Habsiyya (Prison Poem). By dedicating his
poems to an Armenian called Susen, Vazeh responds to Nasimi,
who wrote a ghazal (a poem consisting of rhyming couplets)
in which the second line of each couplet ended with the words
‘Armenian girl’. It is clear from this that had the values we are
talking about not been scattered like stars across the firmament
of our literature and culture, the path to the common treasury of
humanity’s spiritual values would have been thorny and impassable
for us. In fact Azerbaijanis overcome it with ease, because:

• t o respect peoples who have different languages and religions,

to talk reverently about every people, to treat them with
genuine friendship and love, are embedded in the early classics
of Azerbaijan, in the poetry of the Middle Ages and Renaissance
and the work of writers of the democratic enlightenment too;
134
•A
zerbaijan’s poetry refers respectfully to those held sacred by

Section II
different faiths – to Abraham, Moses, Solomon, Jacob, Jesus,
Mary; the finest comparisons and similes, restrained in the spirit
of the captivating paths of eastern poetry, are created in works
dedicated to their lives and deeds; artistic figures are created
with comparisons and without, and they all attract attention as
striking examples of a multicultural and tolerant spirit;

• t his can also be seen in the great respect shown in our

classical literature for the scholars and writers of other peoples
– Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, Hippocrates, Goethe,

Chapter 4
Schiller, Shakespeare, Hugo, Voltaire, Rousseau…

•p
raise for beauties from different lands and different faiths, the
expression of pure, ardent love for them, and the deprivations
and sufferings born in the name of that love actually enriched
the lives of Qan Turali, Karam, Sheikh Sanan, Bahadur, Ali and
other heroes. Even despite the sometimes tragic outcome,
these magnificent symphonies of love are unquestionably great
works;

• t he genuine, benevolent attitude towards all languages and

countries (regions and cities) in classical Azerbaijani literature
is not only a reflection of the artistic interpretation of public
opinion in that period, but an attempt to direct and shape
public opinion too.

All these initial generalizations are evidence that national

and common human values have historically been intertwined
in the psychology and worldview of our people. This immense
spiritual treasure trove has been preserved unchanged to this
day. Even today the sensitivity and subtleness of the hearts of
the Azerbaijanis surprise very many people in the world. We can 135
confirm that the tolerance and inclination towards multiculturalism
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

typical of our people ruled for centuries in the minds of our

ancestors.
In this chapter we cite incontrovertible evidence and convincing
answers to the question ‘who created these values and how?’
Throughout history the examples created by Azerbaijani
literary, artistic, scientific, philosophical and journalistic thought
have made an inestimable contribution to the world treasury of
multiculturalism and tolerance. This knowledge benefits everyone.
At the same time, since political dynasties and states have
replaced one another throughout history, the multicultural reflexes
under way on Azerbaijan’s political plane create favourable
conditions for the comprehensive study of these values. The
presence of multicultural political values that have come down to
us today in a mainly fragmented form make it inevitable that the
idea should arise that they were once whole and systematic. This
is why historical need led to an outstanding individual taking up
the majestic, political baton, like a light shining from the depths
of the centuries, from the time of Caucasian Albania, the ancient
Azerbaijani dynasties – the Atabays, Safavids, Afshars, Qajars and
also the first Democratic Republic.
After Azerbaijan acquired its current state independence at
the end of the 20th century, National Leader of the Azerbaijani
People Heydar Aliyev became the irreplaceable historical figure
that fulfilled his historic mission to preserve the country and lead
it on the irreversible path of development. He knew very well that
multicultural values and tolerance are extremely important, crucial
conditions for a relatively small country with an ancient history and
national and spiritual traditions like Azerbaijan. In order to preserve
these values he tenaciously and systematically created the political
foundations of Azerbaijani multiculturalism, giving them legislative
136 force in his political statements and documents, decrees and orders
and in articles of the Constitution. In this way, a systematic political

Section II
foundation with bright prospects was created steadily, step by step
for this rich, spiritual treasure trove.
In declaring 2016 the Year of Multiculturalism in Azerbaijan,
President Ilham Aliyev relied on the spiritual, scholarly and political
sources that took shape in the distant historical past of the
Azerbaijani people and are preserved to this day. These sources are
the richest wellspring and give a fine reflection of the inner world,
mentality and spiritual wealth of the nation.
Today, President Ilham Aliyev, worthily continuing the political
course of his great predecessor, tells the world: ‘Multiculturalism is
state policy in Azerbaijan and has no alternative!’

Chapter 4
And this is really how it is: there is no alternative to the political
will, to the world of words and ideas, to the feelings of the
Azerbaijani people that produced Nizami, Mayaneji, Urmavi, Fuzuli,
Nasimi, Akhundzada, Seyid Azim, Mirza Jalil, Zardabi, Javid, Abdulla
Shaiq and hundreds and thousands of other giants of literary, artistic,
scholarly, philosophical and journalistic thought and the historic
politician who played an irreplaceable role in the fate of his state.

4.2. Literary and Artistic Sources of Azerbaijani

Multiculturalism

Since ancient times peoples of many different ethnicities,

languages, religions and beliefs have lived in peace and security,
and enjoyed equality in Azerbaijan. Such a tolerant environment
and historical multicultural situation is naturally reflected in the
poetry and ideas of the Azerbaijanis, in their oral and written
literature.
Multicultural thinking can be seen in classical Azerbaijani
literature in the following ways:

1. t here is great esteem for peoples of different religi­ons and they

are offered friendship and respect; 137
2. there is great reverence for the holy figures of other religions
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

and their morals and behaviour are held up as examples;

3. b
eautiful women of other races and religions are written about
with feelings of sincere love, and the torments and pains
suffered in order to win their love or get close to them are given
artistic expression.

The majority of poets and writers of classical Azerbaijani

literature gave a prominent place to these spiritual values in their
works, encouraging their readers to hold these values too.
The Avesta can be considered the first ancient, precious
religious scripture to reflect the multicultural way of thinking in
Azerbaijani literature. It is the common scripture of a number of
peoples in the Middle East including the Azerbaijanis, who once
were fire-worshippers. The Avesta expresses interesting ideas
based on multicultural values. For example, in the oldest part of the
Avesta, entitled the Gathas, the Prophet Zoroaster appeals to Ahura
Mazda, the highest god: ‘ I raise my hands and pray... I need your
help to make all the people follow the right way.’
In this part of the Avesta, the author of which is definitely
Zoroaster, it becomes apparent that there have never been ethnic
conflicts in the territory of ancient Manna, i.e. the present-day
territory of Azerbaijan, and that the inhabitants of this country lived
in peace and security.
The following examples in the Avesta also distinctly express
multicultural values: ‘I shall try with all my strength and ability to
show people the right way of religion to follow. This true religion
will unite them and lead to kindness.’ ‘The absence of hostility in
the world means happiness.’ ‘Do not restrict the freedom of people,
because freedom leads to friendship and love.’ ‘Let water flow
unhindered in the channels. Let friendship and honesty reign among
the people.’
138
A number of interesting moments in terms of multicultural

Section II
values can be found in the heroic epic of Azerbaijan, the Kitabi
Dada Qorqud (The Book of Dada Qorqud). The epic dates to the
7th century CE, but the roots of some of the episodes are thought
to go much further back. For example, one of the stories in the
epic concerns the daughter of the king of the Christian principality
of Bayburt, who falls in love with Beyrak, a Muslim of the Oghuz
tribe who has been captured by her father. She releases him from
captivity because of her love. Beyrak swears to marry her, but
breaks his promise, and as a consequence, he is treacherously
murde­red. This creates a strong association in the epic – it is the

Chapter 4
punishment for breaking a promise.
Another Oghuz warrior in Kitabi Dada Qorqud, Qan Turali, marries
the daughter of the head of Trabzon province who is of a different
religion. This shows the positive attitude of the Oghuz towards
people of other religions since ancient times.
Kindness and respect towards other peoples are seen in the
behaviour of the heroes of the epic such as Salur Qazan and his
son Aruz.
Other examples in Azerbaijani folklore, such as the love epic
Asli and Karam and the legend Sheikh Sanan, feature genuine love
between Christian girls and young Muslim men. It is to the point to
note that the legend Sheikh Sanan was written in rhyming couplets
by the lesser known Azerbaijani poet Molla Jamal Ranji in the 17th
century. Several manuscripts of this poem are kept at the Fuzuli
Institute of Manuscripts of the National Academy of Sciences of
Azerbaijan. In the poem Sheikh Sanan, who is no longer young and
has 50 murids, or disciples, falls in love with a Christian girl whom
he saw in a vision. The poem depicts love and equality among
people of different religions. Although Sheikh Sanan changes his
religion for love, he is not permitted to marry the Christian girl.
At the end of the poem the Christian girl falls in love with Sheikh 139
Sanan, adopts his religion and the couple throw themselves off a
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

cliff.
Many exponents of classical Azerbaijani literature expe­
rienced
multicultural values in their own lives. The mother of the famous
12th century poet Afzaladdin Khaqani Shirvani was a Christian who
adopted Islam. The poems of Khaqani clearly show that the great
poet knew the rules of Christianity very well and respected them.
Mujiraddin Beylaqani was a student of Khaqani, and his mother
was also a Christian. The fact that the great Azerbaijani poet Nizami
Ganjavi married Afaq, a Christian, who was sent to the poet as a
servant, demonstrates his multicultural outlook.
After the adoption of Islam classical Azerbaijani literature
was traditionally written in three languages – Arabic, Persian and
Turkish, and this tradition continued until the 20th century. Some
Azerbaijani poets of the 9th century wrote in Arabic. The qasidas
(odes) written by the mystic, dervish poet Khuraymi in Arabic
clearly demonstrate the idea of the equality of different people.
Khuraymi writes in one of his poems:

To me all people are equal in life,

So I choose no difference in my grave.

Multicultural values are clearly seen in the works of Azerbaijani

philosopher and poet Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani Mayaneji who lived
three centuries after Khuraymi. Hamadani was hanged for the
philosophical ideas written in his Tamhidat (Prelude):

Come, let us light a fire in the world,

Let us gather Muslims and non-Muslims around it,
Let us be one in the light of togetherness,
Let us strive to find Adam in the world.
140
The philosopher-poet does not distinguish people in terms of

Section II
their religion and beliefs, but invites all people to hold one another
in esteem.
One of the outstanding poets and thinkers of classical
Azerbaijani literature, Nizami Ganjavi, gave concrete, vivid
expression to multicultural ideas in his works. Humanist thoughts
such as love and equality, social justice and kindness, are central:

Bear everyone’s burden if you can,

To help is man’s highest honour.

Chapter 4
Were it within my power in this wide world,
I would let no man be dependent on another

If everyone loved man like Jesus,

Mercy would spread all over the world.

Nizami Ganjavi created splendid images of people from

different nations in his poems The Seven Beauties and The
Book of Alexander (Iskandarnama). They show the high ideals
and multicultural attitudes of the poet. The main hero of The
Seven Beauties, Bahram was born in Iran and is surrounded by
seven beauties from different lands and faiths. The beauties
are from India, Byzantium, the Slav lands, the West (Maghreb),
Khorezm, China and Turkey. Bahram develops in the multicultural
environment created by Nizami. The main hero of The Book of
Alexander is Alexander the Great. The poet writes with great
love of the Western characters, thinkers and scholars such as
Philip, Aristotle, Socrates, Plato, Hermes, Balinas, Porphyry and
Archimedes. Alexander was a real character, but the plot of the
poem is fictional. It begins with the conquering Alexander waging
141
a campaign of invasion to the east and west, north and south. He
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

then spends time with scholars and grows in wisdom, realizing that
it is impossible to conquer the world by war, only by science and
knowledge. Unlike his first military campaign, the aim of his second
trip is to call all people to justice and to convey to them the power
of intelligence and knowledge. On this trip he arrives at a place in
the north where he is fascinated by what he sees. All citizens of this
prosperous country have equal rights. There are no rich and poor,
master and slave. The elders rule the country and everyone is free
and happy. Nizami says the reason for this happy life is the people’s
justice and humanism, fidelity and loyalty, but most important of all
their great belief in God and endless love for Him. Seeing all this,
Alexander said:

God has created such a world

For these noble people.
They brought brilliance to the world,
They are the pillars of the world.

The basic values of Azerbaijani multiculturalism can be found in

many other poems of Nizami Ganjavi. For example:

You cannot take the world with tyranny,

Only with justice can you gain anything…

Wisdom is everyone’s support,

Wisdom is man’s wealth and property…

Instruct your soul like Isa,

Like Musa light a candle of love.

142
The prominent Azerbaijani philosopher and poet Sheikh

Section II
Mahmud Shabestari writes in his Sufi work The Secret Rose Garden
(Gulshani-raz) that he does not discriminate against anyone
created by God. Referring to Verse 3 of the chapter Al-Mulk
(Sovereignty) of the Holy Koran, the poet writes:

These are not my words, they are the command of the Koran,
God’s creatures are all equal before him.

In another part of the poem the philosopher-poet writes:

Chapter 4
All-merciful God created the idols too, think on this,
All that he has created is good.

The values of multiculturalism can be traced in the work of

Imadaddin Nasimi, a prominent poet of Azerbaijan in the 14th and
15th centuries. His work focuses on human factors, human values
and the freedom of man. Turning his face to mankind he writes
that man is more valuable than any precious stone or jewel and
everything under the earth:

You who value land and precious stones,

Is not man of greater value than precious stones?

In another couplet the poet glorifies the perfect man, who is the
hero of his poems:

Having gazed upon your grace and beauty,

They dared not call you God, they called you man.
Nasimi was a religious, pious man, who believed that God is
everywhere so there must be no discrimination against religions
and sects:

143
Blind man, you say that God is everywhere,
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Then why do you distinguish between Kaaba

and heathen temple?

Nasimi often mentions the Prophet Isa (Jesus) in his verse,

recalling that the touch of his breath revived the dead. He believes
that his words as a poet are as valuable, but they have no effect on
those who do not believe in God:

The words of Nasimi are like the breath of the

Messiah, infidel,
But this brings you no good, for you lack the
true faith.

Multicultural ideas occupied a considerable place in the work

of another great poet of classic Azerbaijani literature, Mahammad
Fuzuli, whom the British orientalist E.J.W. Gibb described as a ‘poet
of the soul’. Suffice it to say that the Prophet Isa occupies a special
place in his longest poem on a religious topic Garden of Delights
(Hədiqətüs-süəda). Fuzuli took as his source for this poem a
work written in Persian by Husayn Vaiz Kashifi, Garden of Martyrs
(Rövzətüs-şühəda), which does not include this section. This means
that Fuzuli must have had real sympathy for the Prophet Isa to have
added a special chapter to his poem devoted to him.
In his masterpiece Leyli and Majnun, the poet writes about
the hero Majnun’s childhood, comparing him to the Sun and the
Prophet Isa in his perfection:

Bright as the Sun in youth,

Perfect as Isa in childhood.

In these lines Fuzuli refers to Majnun’s intelligence, hinting at

parallels with Isa, who began to speak just as he was born. It is
144
possible to see a similarity between the great humane missions of

Section II
Majnun and Isa in the following couplets at the beginning of the
poem. Turning his face to the suffering world, Majnun says:

I came to this world to share

the burden of grief.
Lay on me the burden of grief,
But show me how to bear it,
And free the world from grief.

Fuzuli’s humanistic ideas greatly influenced the work of Husein

Chapter 4
Javid, a great Azerbaijani poet and dramatist of the 20th century. For
example, Arif, the hero of his tragedy Iblis (Devil), appeals to God
because he cannot bear the bloodshed and strife on earth:

Raise me to the heavens that I may not

witness the tyranny of man.

In his ghazals (a specific kind of oriental verse), the peak of

his wonderful lyric poetry, Fuzuli recalls the image of Jesus the
Messiah. He says that it is easy for his lyric hero to die for the sake
of his beloved, because he is the Messiah of his time. According to
Fuzuli, the crucified Jesus joined the Holy Father, just as the poet
lover joins his beloved – Allah:

It is no hardship for the lover to give his

life for the beloved,
It is easy for you to give your life for you are
the Messiah of your time.

Multicultural ideas occur in the Azerbaijani literature of the

17 and 18th centuries as well. For example, the great 18th century
th

Azerbaijani poet Mollah Panah Vaqif devoted one of his poems to 145
Tbilisi and another to a beautiful Christian girl, whom he saw as
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

she was leaving church. While praising the Georgian girl’s beauty,
Vaqif recalls the legend of Sheikh Sanan; he justifies his conversion
to Christianity out of love for the Christian girl, and confirms once
more that love is higher than religion. The poet writes in the last
stanza of his mukhammas (an oriental form of verse) that starts
with the line ‘Exuding grace, the beautiful maiden is coming out of
church’:

I am Vaqif who was so bewitched by her brows,

I scarce remembered mihrab and minbar,
Now I understood what befell Sheikh Sanan,
Inconsolable, I wash all Tiflis with my tears,
Then perhaps for my sake she will come out of church.

Multicultural ideas were widespread in Azerbaijani literature

in the 19th and first two decades of the 20th century. The northern
regions of Azerbaijan became part of the Russian Empire and
the foundations of relations between the local Muslims and
Christian Russians were laid. In that period some of the Azerbaijani
intelligentsia began to be educated in the Russian language,
got acquainted with Russian culture and, through it, European
culture. As a result, the first translations from Russian and
European literature appeared in the Azerbaijani language. It is
clear that such a multicultural atmosphere had a positive impact
on Azerbaijani literature. Some valuable works were written on
global problems. For example, Abbasqulu Agha Bakikhanov, who
worked in the military administration of tsarist Russia and was
promoted to the rank of colonel, described his visit to Warsaw,
his impressions of what he saw there and his acquaintance with
the Russian intelligentsia in a novel entitled Miratul Jamal (The
Mirror of Beauty). He translated one of Krylov’s popular fables
from Russian into Azerbaijani. The friendship and literary relations
146
between Bakikhanov’s contemporary, Mirza Shafi Vazeh and

Section II
German scholar Friedrich von Bodenstedt, catches the eye in terms
of multiculturalism. Bodenstedt came to Tiflis (Tbilisi) in 1844 and
taught French and Latin there. While in Tiflis, he studied Azerbaijani
and Persian with Vazeh, describing him as the ‘Oriental Sage Mirza
Shafi’. Bodenstedt’s book A Thousand and One Days in the Orient,
published in Berlin in 1850, is the first valuable work to acquaint
the scientific and literary public with the Caucasus, including
Azerbaijan and Azerbaijani literature.
Another German scholar, Adolph Bergé, published a Collection
of Works by famous Caucasian and Azerbaijani Poets in 1867

Chapter 4
in Leipzig. Both books are an important source on German-
Azerbaijani and east-west literary relations and the history of
multicultural values.
The highly multicultural outlook of Mirza Fatali Akhundzada
(1812-78) can be seen in the work of this important philosopher
in the history of Azerbaijani thought and playwright, who laid
the foundations of drama not only in Azerbaijan, but the whole
Muslim Orient. In 1837, at the age of 25, Akhundzada wrote an
elegy on the death of the great Russian poet Alexander Pushkin.
He describes Pushkin as ‘the leader of the poets’ army’ and pays
tribute to prominent figures in Russian science and literature –
Lomonosov, Derzhavin and Karamzin. It is evidence of his familiarity
with Russian science and literature and love of them. He expressed
his respect for Western culture in the character of the French
enlightener Monsieur Jordan in his comedy The Botanist Monsieur
Jordan and the Celebrated Sorcerer, Dervish Mastali Shah. Ethnic
Russians, Armenians and Germans also feature in his comedies and
are depicted with national colour.
Many ideas reflecting multicultural values can be found in the
poetry of Akhundzada’s contemporary, Seyid Azim Shirvani. This
great educator and poet of the Muslim Orient had an Islamic
higher education in the famous religious centres of the Orient, but 147
preferred the profession of teacher. He taught his pupils their mother
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

language, the canons of Islam, the humanist ideas of the thinkers of

the Orient and his own ideas and took care of their development as
true citizens with a healthy spirit. The educator and poet saw that
the cause of much misfortune was prejudice, ignorance, illiteracy,
religious discrimination and ignorance. He emphasized education
as the only solution:

The cause of all the sorrows in this world,

Is ignorance.
The cure for this misfortune
Is true learning.

Addressing his compatriots in his poems of enlightenment,

Seyid Azim Shirvani urges them to appreciate others not because
of their religion, but because of their knowledge:

Don’t say, ‘He’s an infidel, but he’s a Muslim.’

Whoever is educated is a good man!

The poet understood the importance of the Russian language

and advised the younger generation to learn it.
In the early 20th century the development of the media and
creation of cultural and literary ties with foreign countries opened
wide horizons for the development of multicultural views. Ahmad
bay Aghaoghlu, a prominent intellectual of this period, delivered
lectures on Islamic values at one of the European centres of
learning – the Sorbonne University in Paris, and his lecture was well
received by the European scholars.
At the beginning of the century conflicts between Arme­nians and
Muslims had grave consequences. A prominent poet of this period,
148 Mirza Alakbar Sabir, urged both sides to peace and reconciliation in
his poem International (Beynəlmiləl) in 1905. A little before the 1905

Section II
clashes, a prominent public figure, writer and dramatist, Nariman
Narimanov, in his novel Bahadur and Sona criticized people’s
attitudes towards people of different religions, describing it as ‘an
abyss’. In the same period the great philosopher poet Huseyn Javid
protested against discrimination on religious grounds. Taking the
line ‘My God is beauty and love’ as the motto of his life, he wrote in
his play The Prophet:

Whoever can stop bloodshed

Will be this Earth’s true saviour.

Chapter 4
Husein Javid taught for a long time, seeking to bring up the
young generation in a spirit of love irrespective of religions. These
ideas are expressed clearly in his poem At the Girls’ School. The
poem is written as a dialogue between the poet and a little girl,
Gulbahar:

‘Who do you love most in this world, my dear? Tell me.’

Gulbahar replies: ‘I love Allah first of all, creator of the earth and
heavens.’
The dialogue continues:
‘Go on – who do you love after Him?’
‘I love his messengers, the prophets.’
‘Don’t you love anyone else?’
‘Yes, I do.’
‘Then who?’
‘My father and mother, my teacher, and all people on this earth.’

The poem We are All Atoms of a Single Sun, written in 1910 by

Huseyn Javid’s contemporary, Abdulla Shaiq, is a perfect example
of the multicultural thinking prevalent in the literature of Azerbaijan
at the beginning of the 20th century: 149
We are all atoms of a single sun!
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

We are all fledglings of a single nest!

Different tongues cannot divide us.
Different places cannot divide us.
The Bible and Koran cannot divide us.
The borders of shahs cannot divide us.
The oceans and the sea cannot divide us.
Miles of desert cannot divide us.
The magnificent mountains cannot divide us.
North, South, East, West cannot divide.
That’s enough hatred and hostility!

The representative of the UN Development Program in

Azerbaijan, Paolo Lembo, used the line from Abdulla Shaiq’s poem
‘We are all atoms of a single sun’ as an epigraph to his ‘Report on
Human Development in Azerbaijan – 1995’. Presenting this book as
a gift to the Abdulla Shaiq House Museum, he said, ‘In these lines the
outstanding Azerbaijani poet, Abdulla Shaiq, expressed the hopes and
aspirations for brotherhood and accord of all the Azerbaijani people.
This line of poetry could be said to encompass the entire programme
of the United Nations.’
As the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan Ilham Aliyev
said, multiculturalism is a way of life inherent to the Azerbaijani
people. Multicultural values are, therefore, highly appreciated in the
classical literature of Azerbaijan and have been promoted widely.

150
4.3. Scholarly and Philosophical Sources of Azerbaijani

Section II
Multiculturalism

From ancient times to the present day the land of Azerbaijan

has been a place where civilizations intersect. It has been home
to the birth of many civilizations since the beginning of human
history. When we look back at history, we can see traces of many
cultures in the territory of Azerbaijan, beginning with examples of
material and spiritual Sumerian culture.
Alongside the influence of ancient civilizations, religions have
also played an important role in the formation of Azerbaijani

Chapter 4
culture. The mythical thinking of the ancient Oghuz Turks, the
religious outlook of Zoroastrianism, and later the people’s
acquaintance with Christianity all enriched the spiritual treasury
of values of the Azerbaijani people. After Azerbaijan’s conversion
to Islam, the values of Islam were synthesized with the national
spiritual values accumulated by the people. Azerbaijani culture
went on to develop and make its contribution to the Islamic world.
Zoroastrianisn and its holy book the Avesta taught universal
values. It called on people to live in peace, unity, and harmony,
brotherhood and friendship. This tendency is observed in Islam and
Christianity, too.
Christianity, unlike Judaism, is a religion open to all people.
This integrational aspect of Christianity enabled it to spread over a
vast area. Azerbaijan is one of the first countries to be acquainted
with Christianity and the religion played a major role in shaping
Azerbaijani culture. The richness and diversity of Azerbaijani culture
can be explained by its foundation on elements of Zoroastrianism,
Christianity and Islam.
The value system of multiculturalism and tolerance has
travelled a long road of development, showing its peaceful nature
and openness to dialogue with other cultures and religions. The
151
demonstration of tolerance and a multicultural mentality could be
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

seen in medieval Azerbaijan too.

The Azerbaijani people’s commitment to multicultural values,
the spiritual values of the people and society as a whole, can be
seen in their world outlook and manner of thinking, in the life style
and work of the famous Azerbaijani poets and thinkers, including
the authors of the Middle Ages. One such was the great Azerbaijani
poet and philosopher Khaqani Shirvani. His father was a Muslim
and his mother a Christian, who later adopted Islam. This was
reflected in his life and work.
The ideas of multiculturalism and tolerance were at the centre of
the life and heritage of the great Azerbaijani poet Nizami Ganjavi.
His marriage to a Christian Kipchak girl Afaq and his cherished
children from this marriage are conspicuous examples of it.
Commitment to the values of multiculturalism can be seen in
the legacy of Khaqani and Nizami. In their work, these poets gave
equal treatment and showed love for all without discrimination
among cultures or religions.
Both poets frequently mentioned Biblical topics in their poems,
recalling the characters of Biblical stories in their own way and
adding new meanings and colour to them.
Khaqani’s qasidas (odes) To the Byzantine Emperors confirm
once more that the poet knew Christianity and its various trends
much better than many a Christian. This was a natural result of his
multicultural identity.
Khaqani and Nizami praised pre-Islamic oriental culture with
equal enthusiasm. When Khaqani was in Baghdad, the centre of the
Islamic world and the catipal of one of the most powerful empires
– the Arab Caliphate, he praised in his poem the city of Ctesiphon
(al-Madain), which once existed near present-day Baghdad.
Ctesiphon was the capital of the Sassanid Empire, its religion was
Zoroastrianism and its ideology differed from that of Islam.
152
Khaqani’s thinking was attuned to multicultural values; he

Section II
appreciated the magnificence of al-Madain which he described as
equal to that of Mecca. He displayed interest in Zoroastrianism,
studying research into the religion and surviving excerpts from the
Avesta, the holy book of Zoroastrianism.
As a Muslim, Nizami Ganjavi highly appreciated Islam and its
Holy Koran, showing great interest in them. He also paid great
attention to the ancient religions, particularly Zoroastrianism and
the Avesta, as well as to the Bible and the cultures of different
nations, including the Greeks, Arabs, Persians, Turks, Georgians,
Jews and Russians. This shows the poet’s tolerance of other cultures

Chapter 4
and his close relationship to multicultural values. An example of
this is that he could read all decrees in the ancient Pahlavi language
and wrote about the Christian stories.
Nizami depicted an ancient Persian emperor Khosrow in his
poem Khosrow and Shirin, and another Persian ruler, Bahram Gur,
in his poem The Seven Beauties. Nizami wrote about Alexander the
Great and Queen Nushaba, ruler of Azerbaijan, in his poem The
Book of Alexander (Iskandarnama).
Nizami praised the founder of Islam, the Prophet Muhammad,
and the ideas of the great Azerbaijani thinker Zoroaster. In his
poem The Book of Alexander, he wrote appreciatively in his own
style of the teachings of the Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato and
Aristotle, which tells of the poet’s tolerance of other ideas.
Azerbaijani scientists and poets typically knew Arabic and
Persian and the philosophical and scientific works written in these
languages. The world-renowned Azerbaijani scientist Nasraddin
Tusi (Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, 1201-74) knew Arabic, Persian and Greek
perfectly and wrote remarkable work in Arabic and Persian.
A strong multicultural attitude underpinned Nasraddin Tusi’s
ideas and actions. He was one of the colossal figures who could
find common ground in the values of Islamic culture and nomadic
Mongolian culture, which was alien to him. 153
The Azerbaijani poet and philosopher of genius, Imaddadin
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Nasimi (1369-1417), who commanded the hearts and minds of the

Muslim world for decades, may have lagged behind Tusi in terms
of political activity, but surpassed him in his philosophical work.
Nasimi knew Arabic and Persian as well as his mother tongue.
He created his divans (collections of poems) in three languages,
demonstrating not only his talent and intellectual power, but also
his commitment to multicultural values. Nasimi also showed his
multicultural values in his attitude towards mysticism, which he saw
as above Islam. To Nasimi mysticism was neither a part of Islam nor
outside it, but above it. Further evidence of Nasimi’s multicultural
values can be seen in his profound study of religious and
philosophical teachings from different parts of the world and his
creation with his teacher Naimi of a new religious and philosophical
doctrine, Hurufism.
Nasimi managed to spread this teaching to many countries.
This shows that Azerbaijani culture profited from world culture and
contributed to it too.
Nasimi, his supporters and followers in Azerbaijan and the
region spread the Sufi-Hurufi doctrine far and wide. Western
scholars consider the Sufis to be Islamic missionaries. But in fact
the Sufis were not Islamic fanatics; they shared values linked to the
non-traditional explanation of the transcendental idea and a very
different explanation of orthodox Islam. The Sufi interpretation
can bring all religions together around a common meaning, or to
put it in a modern way, it is multicultural. They propagated their
faith in Azerbaijan and around the world among nations with
different cultures, languages and religions. They saw all cultures
and religions as having the same root, because God is the creator
of mankind and God is the same and unique for all mankind. There
is religious diversity among nations because they comprehend,
imagine and express God differently and pray to God in different
ways.
154
The tendency towards tolerance typical of the Azerbaijani

Section II
mentality and culture since ancient times can be clearly seen in
the late Middle Ages too. The Azerbaijani poet Muhammad Fuzuli
followed the examples of Khaqani Shirvani, Nizami Ganjavi, and
Nasraddin Tusi and wrote his poetry and philosophical works
in Azerbaijani, Arabic and Persian. He was the first Azerbaijani
philosopher to write a treatise on the history of philosophy. His The
Origin of Faith (Matla ul-Itiqadi) demonstrates his philosophical
erudition and deep knowledge of the philosophers of the Islamic
world and beyond – Thales of Miletus, Heraclitus, Pythagoras,
Plato, Aristotle and others. This showed his commitment to a

Chapter 4
multicultural outlook.
Medieval Azerbaijani thinker Ayn al-Quzat Mayaneji wrote that
if a contradiction emerges between the ideas of different religious
scriptures, the accuracy and conformity of those ideas should
be examined before a decision is taken on the truthfulness of
the creeds based on those scriptures. This could be important in
creating a multicultural environment. In a letter to his friend Ghazi
Kamaudovla he protested against prejudice. He said how tired
he was of the poor state of religious teaching and his inability to
tackle it fully. He thought it would be better to die than to live in
such conditions. His letter shows that the growth of ignorance and
prejudice in religion creates tensions in society in all periods of
history.
Mayaneji believed that society should be designed in
conformity with the laws of God. These are the principles on which
all disagreements should be resolved. What happens in society
is connected with the nature of that society. The solution of the
problems within a society requires consideration of the features
of that society and the way it works. ‘I studied the holy books as I
sought to rise from the foot of imitation to the peak of wisdom. I did
not reach my goal. I found fallacy in the creeds.’
155
Society never regulates itself, but should be regulated,
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

according to the philosopher, lawyer and statesman Sirajaddin

Mahmud ibn Abu Bakr of Urmia (1198-1283). A serious governance
mechanism based on serious scientific principles is required in
society in order to create a multicultural environment. Quoting
from the Koran and the teachings of the Prophet Mohammed,
Sirajaddin Mahmud ibn Abu Bakr wrote that the processes under
way in society are governable and that it is possible to change
the nature of people. If the character of each person changes to
a certain degree, the processes in society can also be regulated.
This is a response to those who say there is no multiculturalism
in society and civilizations and national interests are bound to
clash. He said that wisdom and intellect should be shaped on the
principles of the universe. If this is done, wisdom will find harmony
between the interests of society and its own interests.
Sirajaddin Mahmud ibn Abu Bakr’s ideas on governance are
very important. He gave this example: ‘When the brain governs
the body in conformity with the law of medicine, the body becomes
sounder and stronger. This in turn makes the mind healthy,
enabling it to take the right decisions.’ According to this philosophy,
society should be ruled by its governor in conformity with that
society’s principles. This will lead to the successful administration
of the country. For harmonious development and the creation
of a multicultural environment in society everybody needs to
be provided with an occupation according to their ability and
experience. The philosopher stated: ‘There are two things a human
being needs to survive: the first belongs to nobody – water, plants,
animals, fish and the like, while the second belongs to someone.’
‘Society needs rules and bans in order to reduce or abolish
tyranny and violence, and to maintain order and stability.’
‘There is a saying: Property is governed by men, men are
governed by wealth, and wealth is governed by crea­tivity, but only
156 creativity is governed by justice and politics.’
‘If it were not possible to change the morals and nature of man

Section II
and replace them with something better, then it would be impossible
to call for an improvement in the morals and nature of man.’
Shahab al-Din Yahya Suhrawardi (1154-1191) thought that the
various tension and confrontations between people and social
groups in society appeared due to the reasonable desire that arose
later. In fact, it contradicts the natural essence of the universe.
All religious sources, oriental philosophy, tasavvuf (an eastern
religious and philosophical trend) and Islam think that the desire
of man must be brought into conformity with the principles of the
universe. Therefore, the universe requires the establishment of a

Chapter 4
cultural environment in conformity with the universe’s principles of
existence and action.
Proceeding from the philosophy of Suhrawardi, it is possible
to analyse the essence of society and the ideas reflected in its
different social strata. In each social stratum there are different
opinions about the community. When a conflict arises among the
social stata, it must be solved by taking into account the essence of
society. The harmony existing in the essence of society derives from
its multicultural essence. According to Suhrawardi, everybody
should regulate themselves internally, rely on the rules of the
universe and feed from the universe in order to get energy from it;
everybody should be attentive to material values and benefit from
them without wastage. His fundamental philosophy is the ultimate
purity of individuals; every individual according to the rules of
the universe has to take sustenance and enjoy material values.
However, a predilection for wealth damages the formation of
multicultural values. A moral environment should be developed for
the formation of multicultural values in society. For the formation
of a multicultural environment the moral and spiritual environment
must develop further. Then society will regulate itself with the
energy it receives from the universe.
157
In his works about society Nasraddin Tusi wrote about the search
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

for the laws of harmonious coexistence. He compared society to a

body, in which all the organs coexist in love and unity. They must not
wage war with each other, but coexist in mutual harmony in order
to make the body healthier. We can see ideas that are now called
tolerance in his work. Tolerance is now used in the meaning of ‘to
tolerate each other’. In its best meaning it is a sense of justice. A
sense of justice is superior to a feeling of tolerance. Nasraddin Tusi
considers the sense of love to be natural and far superior to a sense
of justice. He said that the more natural sense of society is a sense of
love; i.e. people living in society do not tolerate each other, but love
each other, which is right and more natural. He thought that justice
is the perfect human virtue, as when love among people is absent or
weak, justice is needed to maintain law and order. Thus, the meaning
of tolerance is to tolerate each other and to live in an ordered
society. Nasraddin Tusi shared the views of the philosophers that
came before him that to be forced to coexist, to coexist against one’s
will, prevents development. The root of the multiculturalism that
Azerbaijan wants to spread across the world excludes violence and
force and artificial regulations; it includes only love. Different ethnic
groups, religious confessions and all people in society should live
and communicate in love. ‘The basis of such work changes, depending
on changes in circumstances, the victories of rulers, the overthrow of
states, the diversity of peoples and states.’ He continued: ‘The aim of
the philosopher is to investigate and analyse the general works and
commands lest they be destroyed, lest the nations be destroyed, lest
states be substituted by others when they grow old, overall that they
should have practical wisdom.’ ‘A state can live a long time only on the
basis of justice. The main condition of justice is to create harmony
among all the strata of people.’ *

*
The views on tolerance of Khagani Shirvani, Nizami Ganjavi, Muhammad Fuzuli,
Mahmud Shabustari and other poets and thinkers are covered in Section 4.2 Liter-
158 ary Sources of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism.
The development of a multicultural and tolerant envi­ ronment

Section II
in the history of the philosophy and culture of Azerbaijan can be
seen in the life and work of Azerbaijan’s educators and thinkers.
Abbasgulu Agha Bakikhanov (1794-1847) is one of these thinkers,
who sought the education of the perfect human being and the
establishment of a just and fair society. Bakikhanov’s philosophical
and ethical views are set out in his Moral Perfection and The Book of
Admonition.
In his day Bakikhanov was known for his encyclopaedic
knowledge and multicultural values featured widely in his work.
He was also one of the first historians in Azerbaijan and his

Chapter 4
work is, therefore, varied; he wrote on philosophy, ethics and
religion. A tendency towards humanistic and universal values
and multiculturalism can be clearly seen in his work. It manifests
itself in his work on love, friendship, brotherhood, peace, security
and moderation. Overall, the main aspects of the concepts of
coexistence and unity can be seen in his works of philosophy.
He saw ‘goodness’ as man’s main mission in the world. A kind
deed reflects the life of peace and the feelings of brotherhood and
love.

‘Nothing in the world can contradict nature; things cannot fulfil

the expected task in their existence. But man is an exception, because
he is free to act or not to act. From this point of view, he can do
both good and evil. As goodness and kindness is the real goal in the
world, man, who is the most honourable creature in the world, must
repay his debts and not fail to perform the duties laid on him. He
must always try to do good and should know that doing good is a
greater goal than moral cleansing, reform and education, because
any action deprived of goodness is like a fruitless tree.’

Mirza Fatali Akhundzada (1812-78) is known in the history

of philosophical thought in Azerbaijan for his commitment to 159
multiculturalism both in his life and work. As the founder of
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

the philosophy of enlightenment in Azerbaijan, Akhundzada

showed pluralism in religious teaching and atheist ideas against
religious dogmas in his philosophical work. He expressed the
multicultural and tolerant ideas existing in society in his literary
and philosophical works. The thinker was an example of tolerance
towards religious conflicts and disputes raised at high-level
meetings of religious scholars.
Akhundzada expressed his respect for the work of famous
writers and poets around the world, which was an expression of
the multicultural thinking of the Azerbaijani people. In his letters he
referred to the prominent poets and writers of different nations and
to the universal character of their work.
Akhundzada wrote that many creeds and sects had spread in
Iran (and Azerbaijan) after the adoption of Islam and expressed his
tolerance towards them in Three Letters from Indian Prince Kemal
ud-Dovle to Iranian Prince Jemal ud-Dovle, which is written in a
question and answer format.
Hasan bay Zardabi (1837-1907) is popular for his mul­ticultural
work and outlook in the history of the philosophical thought
of Azerbaijan. He was a distinguished educator and his work is
rich in the ideas of tolerance and multiculturalism. In his article
‘Community Charitable Foundations’ published in the newspaper
Hayat (Life) on 25 November 1905, he wrote freely about the
creation of Armenian charitable foundations in Azerbaijan. In his
article ‘Language and Religion’ he appreciated the important role of
language and religion in the life of every nation. These articles
reveal his belief in liberal ideas and the rule of law and show his
tolerance and multicultural values.

‘Every nation as it develops in science and education must keep

160 in mind two things, which form the backbone of the nation: one of
them is language, the other – religion and faith. When one is lost,

Section II
it is as though the nation has broken its back. When both are lost,
the nation becomes mixed and mingled with other nations and
disappears.’

Another leading figure in Azerbaijan’s enlightenment movement

was Firidun bay Kocharli (1863-1920). His article on the death of
Anton Chekhov, published in Shargi-­Rus (Russian Orient) newspaper
on 16 July 1904, is a significant source on multiculturalism and
tolerance. Kocharli wrote about the talent of the Russian author
Anton Chekov, noting with regret that the writer of splendid
comedies and prose died in Germany far from his motherland. This

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article can be appreciated as a source comprising the multicultural
values and spirit of tolerance of the philosophers of the Azerbaijani
enlightenment movement.

‘The death of Anton Chekhov on 2 July 1904, which was

reported in the newspapers, is sad, heart-breaking event for all the
writers of Russia. Chekhov was a real, resolute writer with a sharp
pen and sweet tongue. Much of his work has been translated into
the European languages. He was read with great enthusiasm.
He wrote short humorous stories about the lives of all the classes
of contemporary Russian society. He described with irony the
deficiencies of each stratum of Russian society. He was described as
a connoisseur of the word able to express deep meaning in a few,
tender words. He mixed light humour and irony in his short stories
and novellas, as he described oppressing and oppressed societies.
He left a literary legacy of 12 volumes. Many of his works are short
stories and he also wrote comedies. He died when he was 44, in the
prime of life, in Germany, far from his motherland.’

Ahmad Aghaoghlu (1869-1939) is another thinker who

respected multicultural and tolerant ideas. In his work he paid great
161
attention to the ideas of national progress, the development of the
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Turkic peoples and to the benefit of world culture. The following

quotations show Aghaoghlu’s multicultural world outlook:

‘When a nation with its own historical traditions, ancient history,

religion and literature comes into contact with another nation, it
is exposed to the material and spiritual influence of the latter. As
a result of rivalry between the old and new religion, old and new
traditions, an average level emerges between the past and the
present, which is a merger or combination of the two religions. Thus,
the present adapts to the past without losing its past qualities and
takes knowledge from the past.’

Taking into consideration the scholarly and philosophical

sources of Azerbaijani multiculturalism, we can see that the
Azerbaijani people have throughout history respected the ideas
of tolerance and multiculturalism and respect all ethnic groups,
religions and confessions. This can be seen in the work of the
Azerbaijani writers, poets and philosophers listed above, from
Akhundzada to Zardabi, Aghaoghlu to Suhrawardi.

4.4. Journalistic Sources of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries social and political
journalism in Azerbaijan focused on enlightenment and a wide
range of issues concerning multiculturalism, the unity of different
cultures and tolerance. Articles, poems and reviews by prominent
figures in Azerbaijan were published in such newspapers as
Akinchi (Farmer), Shargi-Rus (Oriental Russia), Hayat (Life),
Fuyuzat (Enjoyment) and others. The holders of the office of
Sheikh ul-Islam during that period – Ahmad Huseynzada Salyani,
Abdussalam Akhundzada, Movlazada Shakavi – Transcaucasus
162 Mufti Huseyn Gayibov and other progressive religious figures
such as Abu Turab Akhundzada, Molla Ruhulla, Akhund Yusif

Section II
Talibzada, Mir Mahammad Karim al-Bakuvi, alongside intellectuals
such as Mirza Kazimbay, Mirza Fatali Akhundzada, Hasan Zardabi,
Mohammadagha Shahtakhtli, Seyid Azim Shirvani, Huseyn Javid,
Uzeyir Hacibayli, Mohammad Hadi, Ahmad Aghoghlu, Ahmad
Huseynzada, Jeyhun Hajibayli, Jalil Mammadquluzada and others
wanted to save the Azerbaijani people from ignorance and religious
prejudice through their articles on the problems of religious sects,
enmity towards the secular sciences and the problem of education
of women.
Sheikh ul-Islam Ahmad Huseynzada Salyani and Mirza Fatali

Chapter 4
Akhundzada both supported alphabet reform and wrote in articles
in Akinchi about the importance of teaching the new secular
sciences alongside religious ones.
In an article in the newspaper Ishiq (Light), the Mufti of the
Transcaucasus Huseyn Qayibov defended the idea of equal
opportunities for women and men in education, quoting hadith
(sayings of the Prophet Mohammed) on the subject, and said that
Christians and Muslims could live in peace. These ideas were also
supported by Abdussalam Akhundzada, who said that Muslims
should treat non-Muslims with respect. He said that the clergy
of both sides bore serious responsibilities for the solution of the
Muslim-Armenian conflict. Abdussalam Akhundzada was also one
of the clergy who supported the teaching of the secular sciences
together with religious ones.
Sheikh ul-Islam Movlazada Shakivi, author of The Interpretation
of the Koran in Azerbaijani, published a series of articles entitled
‘The Virtue of Science’ in Sharqi-Rus which gave examples from the
Hadith and Holy Koran to support the ideas of enlightenment and
stressed the need to go to study science even if it meant travelling
as far from home as China. 163
In an article ‘The Causes of Schism in Islam’ and elsewhere in his
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

work, another progressive religious figure Abu Turab Akhundzada

criticised sectarianism as one of the major problems in the Islamic
world, stressing the idea of unity expressed in the Koran. His
article ‘What Sciences Do We Need?’ published in Hayat noted
the importance of the secular sciences. Islamic unity, the issues of
religion and secular education were the main topics of articles by
Molla Ruhulla published in Irshad. These religious figures thought
there could be no development for Muslims without study of the
secular sciences.
Mir Mahammad Karim Bakuvi, a prominent religious figure
and ghazi of Baku, was the first to interpret the Koran in the
Azerbaijani language in his The Discovery of Truth, a masterpiece
of Islamic enlightenment. His social action, work and sermons are
very rich in terms of multiculturalism. He played a pivotal role in
the solution of the Muslim-Armenian conflict in 1906 together with
the members of the ad hoc Commission, Alimardan Topchubashov,
Ali bay Huseynzada and Ahmad Aghaoghlu, and tried to encourage
religious unity. His work The Discovery of Truth and sermons
published in Irshad supported unity in Islam, the study of the
secular sciences and even the principles of the coexistence of
Muslims and non-Muslims.
Alongside the various religious figures, the secular thinkers and
intelligentsia also made their contributions in their work to the
idea of multiculturalism, tolerance, and respect for other religions
and cultures. For example, the writing of the prominent orientalist
Mirza Kazimbay is of particular interest from the point of view of
multiculturalism. He focused his attention on oriental philosophy,
literature, and religious freedom. His articles are important
sources on multiculturalism; for example, ‘Sheikh Sadi Muslihiddin
Shirazi’s ‘Flower Garden’’ published in Kazansky Vestnik (Kazan
Herald), ‘Ferdowsi and Persian Mythology’ published in Severnoye
164
Obozreniye (Northern Review), ‘Muridism and Shamil’, ‘Islam,

Section II
Muhammad’ and ‘Bab and the Babis’ published in Russkoye Slovo
(Russian Word). Mirza. Kazimbay, who later adopted Christianity,
pointed out the spiritual closeness of the different holy scriptures.
He seriously analysed the religion of Islam, criticizing sectarianism.
He considered Sufism the most reformist movement in Islam and
conducted extensive research into Babism, describing it as the
most reformist religious movement of its time. He emphasized the
movement’s importance for enlightenment and its struggle against
fanaticism. He supported the Babi poet Zerrintaj Tahira khanim who
fought for the freedom of women. As a prominent orientalist, Mirza

Chapter 4
Kazimbay closely studied oriental literature and made interesting
comparisons between Persian and Greek literature, Ferdowsi and
Homer.
The work of the Azerbaijani thinker Mirza Fatali Akhundzada
is also of great interest from the point of view of multiculturalism.
In his ‘Three Letters from Indian Prince Kemal ud-Dovle to Iranian
Prince Jemal ud-Dovle’ he noted the importance of reform in
Islam, and as an example mentioned Western culture in the fight
against religious fanaticism. In his letters to Hasan bay Zardabi
published in the newspaper Akinchi he wrote of the need to put
an end to sectarian conflicts so that Muslims could develop. He
demonstrated the importance of secular education and the study
of foreign languages, citing as an example the Western nations that
had developed by relying on secular education. In his Letters of
Kemal ud-Dovle and in his article ‘The Babi Creeds’ he wrote about
religious freedom and the progressive ideas of Babism, one of the
religious movements of the time, which called for unity, and about
the views of poet Zerrintaj Tahira khanim and her views on the
freedom of women.
In his poems published in the newspaper Akinchi the prominent
poet Seyid Azim Shirvani noted the importance of the study of 165
languages, particularly Russian. He wrote, ‘To me all the nations in
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

the world are equal’ and respected all nations, irrespective of their
faith. He did not make any distinction between Shia and Sunni or
between Islam and Christianity.
Another leading figure in Azerbaijan’s enlightenment movement
was Hasan Zardabi, who published the country’s first newspaper
Akinchi. In an article in Hayat newspaper on the building of a
Muslim theatre in Baku, Zardabi criticized people who fanned
the flames of the Sunni-Shia schism, pointing out that the aim of
Muslim festivals such as the Feast of the Sacrifice, of fasting and
the Hajj pilgrimage is to unite all Muslims. His article ‘Our songs’
highlights the importance of studying the secular sciences for the
development of Muslims.
The newspapers Ziya, Ziyayi-Qafqaziyya and Kashkul,
published by the Unsizada brothers, are interesting sources on
multiculturalism in the late 19th century. For example, in an article
entitled ‘Muqaddima’ (Foreword) published in Kashkul Jalal
Unsizada wrote that the Christian nations living in the Caucasus
had developed because of secular education and emphasized the
need for Muslims to follow their path of development.
Another leading figure in the Azerbaijani enlightenment
movement was Mohammadagha Shahtakhtli, founder of the
Shargi-Rus newspaper. In his articles ‘Our Dreams and Medicines’
and ‘How to save Turkey?’ he wrote about the importance of the
assimilation of European culture for the development of Muslims.
In his newspaper he published articles by distinguished Muslim
religious figures such as Akhund Mavlazada and stressed the unity
of the secular and Islamic cultures.
The satirical magazine Molla Nasraddin founded by Jalil
Mammadquluzada, which cooperated with Shargi-­Rus, can also
be considered a source of social and political journalism on
166 multiculturalism in Azerbaijan. Despite his controversial views on
religion, Mammadquluzada defended freedom of conscience and

Section II
belief, which was a significant issue in religious enlightenment.
He fought against those, who created interreligious conflicts
and defended freedom of choice in religion. In his article ‘Babi’,
published in Molla Nasraddin, he quoted a verse from the Holy
Koran that there is no compulsion in religion. He supported the
idea that no one should be forced to adopt a religion or belief
against his will. The article supported the ideas of Babism and its
successor the Baha’i faith, in particular the views of Baha’u’llah,
leader of the Baha’i. Mammadquluzada referred to Baha’u’llah’s
article ‘On the Unity of the Universe’ published in Baku in 1922,

Chapter 4
in which he defended ideas that are multicultural, such as that all
people are members of one family.
The prominent Islamic scholar Ahmad bay Aghaoghlu in his
article ‘The Congress of the Orientalists’ in the newspaper Kavkaz,
analysed the influence of the ancient Persian and Indian cultures on
Islam. In a series of articles entitled ‘The Situation of the Muslim
Nations’, he expressed his ardent support for the idea of the unity
and social development of the Muslim nations, as he thought that
the unity of Islam would lead to national development. Starting
with his article published in the very first issue of Hayat newspaper,
Aghaoghlu suggested the idea of a synthesis of Islam and Turkism.
One of the main problems of that time was the Sunni-Shia conflict.
In his work Aghaoghlu defended the principle set out in the Holy
Koran that ‘all believers are brothers’. In ‘Iran and Revolution’ he
praised the struggle of Nadir Shah against sectarianism and his
efforts to unite the Sunni and Shia sects. In articles published in
the newspaper Irshad he condemned the conflicts between the
Sunni and Shia, giving preference to unity in religious thought. He
spread the idea of ‘Turkify, Islamicize and Modernize’ put forward
by Ali bay Huseynzada, suggesting it as a national ideology. The
idea was multicultural in nature and embraced Islamic morals and
167
spirituality, a modern Western scientific outlook and Turkic culture.
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Aghaoghlu studied Azerbaijanis’ relations with neighbouring

nations. In his article ‘The Truth about Baku’ published in the
Russian newspaper Sankt-Peterburgskiye vedomosti he wrote
that Armenians and Azerbaijanis had historically enjoyed friendly
relations and condemned those who created conflict between the
two nations. In a series of articles entitled ‘The General Character
of Russian Literature’ published in the newspaper Cumhuriyyet
(Republic) in Turkey, he wrote extensively for Azerbaijani readers
on the history of Russian literature and classic Russian authors and
their work.
The work of Ali bay Huseynzada, another prominent member
of the intelligentsia of that period, is of great interest from the
point of view of the study of multiculturalism, national and
religious unity. In his article ‘An exemplary school’ published in
the newspaper Hayat the author presented Turkic nationalism
as an integral part of Islam; to him Turkism and Islam were equal
and he saw them as the ideals of life. Huseynzada edited and
published the journal Fuyuzat, where he focused attention on the
ideology of Turkism; at the same time, he wrote about Western
scientific methodology as well, encouraging its use. His articles
‘Our Writing, Our Language, Our Second Country’ published in the
newspaper Taraggi (Progress) and ‘We criticize and are criticized’
published in Fuyuzat saw the salvation of the Islamic world in
Muslim-minded patriots, who had absorbed European thinking,
science and technology. By ‘Europeanization’ he did not mean the
assimilation of Muslims, but the acquisition of European scientific
and technological achievements. He also praised the efforts of
Nadir Shah to put an end to the Sunni-Shia confrontation.
The symbolic value of the three colours of the Azerbaijani
flag (blue, red and green) of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic
and today’s independent Republic of Azerbaijan comes from
168 Huseynzada’s idea of ‘Turkify, Islamicize and Europeanize’.
Articles by the Azerbaijani composer Uzeyir Hajibayli are also

Section II
rich in the ideas of multiculturalism. In his article ‘Here and There: a
Warning’ published in the newspaper Taraqqi, he severely criticized
those who called the enlightenment intelligentsia ‘Babis’ and
blasphemers. In his article ‘Their Eminences the Sheikhs ul-Islam
and Education’ published in the newspaper Haqiqat (Truth) Uzeyir
Hajibayli recommended the institution of higher religious schools in
the south Caucasus to produce genuinely educated Muslim clergy.
He also encouraged the spread of secular education for Muslims.
His brother Jeyhun Hajibayli (1891-1962) also produced social and

Chapter 4
political journalism, promoting enlightenment and multiculturalism.
His articles in Kaspi (Caspian) newspaper are especially interesting.
In one, ‘On the translation of the Koran’, Hajibayli wrote that the
cause of religious conflicts was the lack of a single interpretation
of the Koran. He put forward the idea of Muslim solidarity and the
desire of Muslims to live together with other nations. According to
Jeyhun Hajibayli, the reason for the illiteracy of most mullahs was
the lack of higher ecclesiastical schools. He thought it important to
open a seminary not just for one Islamic sect, but for all. He saw
the philosophy of the unity of Islam as the only way out of the
situation.
Azerbaijani playwright Husein Javid had a complete madrasa
(Islamic school) education and worked as a teacher of Shariah
(Islamic law). He criticized the illiterate mullahs for their limited
intellect and the damage they inflicted on religion and the nation
in his articles ‘Urmiya’ and ‘Revealing the heart’ published in the
newspaper Sharqi-Rus. He said the study of the sciences knows
no borders and stressed the need to study not only the religious
sciences, but also the secular ones such as history and philosophy.
He advised students to benefit from the learning of foreign
countries and quoted hadiths from the Prophet Muhammad:
169
‘Seek knowledge even if you have to go as far as China’ and ‘Seek
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

knowledge from the cradle to the grave’.

In the early 20th century there was a great need for a journal
that addressed women and their problems. Khadija khanim
Alibayova (1884-1960) took up this task: she edited the newspaper
Ishiq (Light), with the financial support of Zeynalabdin Taghiyev.
From 12 January 1911 to the end of 1912 the newspaper published
68 issues. Although it was in Azerbaijani, some articles appeared
in Russian too. The newspaper came out weekly and dedicated
its first issues to housekeeping, although there were columns on
other topics too such as Islamic laws and secular issues. From its
first issue the newspaper emphasized the importance for Muslim
women of studying secular sciences along with religious sciences,
noting that secular education would help Muslim women to protect
their rights. Articles by the Mufti of the Caucasus Huseyn Afandi
Qayibov and progressive cleric Molla Ruhulla also appeared in
Ishiq.
The media in the late 19th and early 20th centuries investigated the
Azerbaijani people’s relations with their neighbours and their cultural
ties. They wrote about the impact of Azerbaijani multiculturalism on
the culture of the neighbouring nations. From the second half of
the 19th century the newspapers Mshak (Labourer), Murj (Hammer)
and Nordar (New Century) published in Armenian wrote about the
literary and social atmosphere of Azerbaijan. For example, in his
newspaper Mshak ethnic Armenian writer Aleksandr Shirvanzada,
who lived in Azerbaijan, praised the publication of Akinchi. In a letter
to the editor of Mshak, the editor of Akinchi, Hasan bay Zardabi,
expressed his desire to develop cultural relations.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries relations between the
Georgian and Azerbaijani peoples are also interesting from the
point of view of multiculturalism. The newspaper Sakhalkho (The
170 nation) published in Georgian at the beginning of the 20th century,
and the magazine Teatri da sxovreba (Theatre and life), reported

Section II
on the successful performance of the operettas of Hajibayli. The
newspaper Ishari contained news about Azerbaijani culture and
praised the talented people of Azerbaijan. Literary critic Abdulla
Tofiq Shur noted the importance of translations both ways of
Azerbaijani and Georgian literature. In his article ‘A look at the
literature of our Georgian neighbours in the Caucasus’ published
in the newspaper Hayat he wrote widely for Azerbaijani readers
about the Georgian national poet Shota Rustaveli and the Georgian
writer Ilia Chavchavadze. In his articles in the newspaper Iveria
Chavchavadze in turn praised the Azerbaijanis and wrote about

Chapter 4
their positive traits: ‘The Azerbaijanis are frank, calm, discreet and
noble.’ Firudin Kocharli conveyed his positive impressions of the
Georgian people in an article in Irshad newspaper ‘The knanate of
Karabakh under the rule of the Javanshirs’. Azerbaijani-Georgian
relations developed further in the Soviet era, especially through the
work of Azerbaijani poets Samad Vurghun, Suleyman Rustam and
others.
In the early 20th century the Azerbaijani media also wrote about
the work of prominent Russian writers, as well as their Armenian
and Georgian counterparts. For example, Hashim bay Vazirov
published a series of articles in the newspaper Ittifaq (Union) about
the work of the Russian authors Tolstoy, Gogol, Griboyedov and
Nekrasov. Tolstoy was translated and published in the newspapers
Fuyuzat and Shargi-Rus. The Kashkul publishing house printed
Lermontov’s ‘The Heavenly Ship’, and the books Mother Tongue and
Kalila and Dimna by Aleksey Chernyayevskiy and Safarali Valibayov.
The promotion of famous Russian writers continued during the
Soviet era in Azerbaijan because of their importance for friendship
among the nations.
We can say in conclusion that the journalistic work of both
the religious and secular intelligentsia of the time was based on 171
traditions of religious and national unity, integration into world
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

culture and multiculturalism, and that it can serve as a source and

example for the younger generation on how to tackle the problems
of the modern era.

4.5. Political and Legal Sources of Azerbaijani

Multiculturalism

The political and legal sources of Azerbaijani multiculturalism

are connected with the tribal unions and ancient states that existed
in the territory of Azerbaijan.
The religious and secular views of the state of Arrata to the
north of Tabriz were connected with the gods of the Sumerian and
Akkadian city states in southern Mesopotamia. These views formed
the roots of the political sources of Azerbaijani multiculturalism.
The Kutis and Lullubes, who made up the population of Arrata,
worshipped the Sumerian deities – Inanna, goddess of beauty
and war, Nanna, god of the Moon, and Enlil, god of the winds and
storms. At the same time the population of Arrata also worshipped
Suen, the Akkadian god of the Moon, and Adad, the god of storms
and rain. Thus, the religious system of Arrata was connected
with Mesopotamia, which was one of the ancient centres of
civilization in the East. This constituted the first political source of
multiculturalism in Azerbaijan.
The state of Mannea, which emerged at the beginning of
the 1st millennium BCE, succeeded the states and civilizations
of the Lullubes and Kutis. Alongside the Kutis and Lullubes other
tribes and tribal groupings, including the Hurrians, Turukkis and
Urartians, contri­buted to the civilization of the Mannea state. At the
beginning of the 7th century BCE other tribes such as the Scythians
(also known as the Iskuzai or Askuzai) added their civilization to the
172 sources of Azerbaijani multiculturalism. Archaeological excavations
near Hasanli unearthed a golden bowl which is evidence of the

Section II
Manneans’ relationship to the theological worlds of Egypt and Asia
Minor. The bowl shows the winged headgear of the gods of the
Wind, Sun and Moon respectively, which are linked to the Hurrian
traditions in Asia Minor.
The civilization of the Achaemenid era made its contribution
to the cultural, socio-political and theological life of Azerbaijan. In
the Achaemenid period, it was not only the Persians but also the
population of Azerbaijan that worshipped Ahura Mazda, known as
the cult of Mithra and Anahita, the gods of Zoroastrianism. Thus,

Chapter 4
the Avestan objects of worship were similar in the Albanian and
Caspian tribes, who worshipped dogs, while corpses were exposed
to the carrion birds as in Bactria.
Thus, elements of the cultural layers of the ancient Eastern
world left their traces in the initial political sources of Azerbaijani
multiculturalism.
From the 1st century CE, the political sources of Azerbaijani
multiculturalism began to include a new layer of religious and
ideological views. The country passed from polytheism to
monotheism. The Christian apostolic missionaries Thaddeus,
Bartholomew and Elyseus began to spread Christianity in the
country.
This new ideological layer first penetrated the north of
Caucasian Albania. Though the south of the country kept its loyalty
to paganism, the Albanian Catholicos Lazar (late 3rd and early 4th
centuries) spread Christianity in the country. His work is evidence of
the coexistence of paganism and Christianity and the development
of a multicultural atmosphere in Azerbaijan.
After the proclamation of Christianity as the state religion
of Caucasian Albania in the first three decades of the 4th century,
the Christian rulers were tolerant and did not subject the pagans 173
to violence. During the rule of the Arshakid dynasty in Caucasian
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Albania, there was no restriction on the activity of foreign

missionaries and they were not considered heretics. For example,
the monastery in the village of Haku in Caucasian Albania was built
by Syrian monks in 338 CE.
Though the Christian world went through an ideological
struggle between monophysitism and dyophysitism in the 5th
century, clergy with differing views of dogma could serve in the
autocephalous Albanian Apostolic Church, the oldest church in the
Caucasus.
During this period, changes took place in the ethnic composition
of the population of the country, and this proved fertile ground for
the development of tolerance. Local tribes and incoming tribes lived
in 5th century Caucasian Albania. Excavations in Mingachevir have
revealed the graves of some people of the Mongolian race who
had settled in Caucasian Albania. The burial of the Mongols in the
same graves as European races confirmed that there was no racial
discrimination in the Caucasus. Marriages between the ‘northern’
peoples and the Khazars took place in this period and continued
in subsequent eras too: Javanshir, prince of Girdiman, married a
daughter of the pagan Khazar khagan (emperor).
Cities in the early Middle Ages clearly displayed the different
shades of polyethnic Caucasian Albania. During the reign of
Vachagan III the Pious, Christian Albanians, Zoroastrian Persians,
and pagan Khazar and Hun tribes lived together in Derbent, where
an atmosphere of tolerance emerged.
In the middle of the 7th century, Azerbaijan became part of the
Arab Caliphate and a new, complete ideology – the religion of
Islam – was added to the political and legal sources of Azerbaijani
multiculturalism. The spread of Islam in the country sought to
174 understand the religious values of the people of the country, and
the monotheist Christians were not forced to adopt Islam. This

Section II
religious tolerance was enshrined in legal sources.
During their first incursion into Azerbaijan in 639 CE, the army
of the Caliphate seized Mughan. The army’s commander, Bukeir
ibn-Abdulla, signed a treaty with the people of Mughan and issued
a decree. According to the decree the population of Mughan had
to recognize the Arab Caliphate, be honest towards Muslims and
pay taxes. In return, the Caliphate would protect the property of the
population of Mughan, their religion and norms. In 642 a similar
agreement was signed with the population of Derbent.
After the second incursion of Caliphate troops into Azerbaijan,

Chapter 4
the troop commander Habibi ibn Maslama signed a new
agreement with the local population, which stated that the
property, churches and temples of the people of Nakhchivan,
whether pagan or Jewish, would be secured and the security of the
population ensured. In return the indigenous population should
pay jizya (a per capita yearly tax historically levied by the Islamic
states on certain non-Muslims) and kharaj (a land tax imposed
on non-Muslims). In this way Islamic culture entered Azerbaijani
multiculturalism and enriched its legal resources.
In 687 the Albanian Apostolic Church confirmed its
monophysite status, which suited the religious policy pursued
by the Arab Caliphate in the region. At the beginning of the 8th
century the Albanian Apostolic Church sought to break off from
the Caliphate and establish relations with Byzantium. This was
the policy of the Albanian Catholicos Nerses Bakur and Queen
Sparama, wife of Varaz-Tiridates. Ilya, Catholicos of the Armenian
Gregorian Church, informed Caliph Abd-al-Malik about the plan.
Caliph Abd-al-Malik thought Nerses Bakur’s action constituted
treason and revolt, and threw him in jail. Nerses soon died there.
According to the decision of the Barda Church Convention held
175
under the control of Catholicos Ilya, all the works written by Nerses
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

were put into trunks and thrown into the Tartar River near Barda as
they were considered heretical. In this way, in the early 8th century
one of the oldest churches of the Caucasus, the Albanian Apostolic
Church lost its status of autocephaly, falling victim to an insidious
policy of the Armenian Gregorian Church against Azerbaijan. In
704 the Albanian Apostolic Church signed an alliance with the
Armenian Gregorian Church at a church council held in Barda.
The Barda Church Convention confirmed the statutes of the newly
elected Albanian Catholicos Simeon I (704-706). Based on the
statutes of the holy apostles, they included human values such
as mercy, justice and goodness to the community. Consequently,
these statutes ensured the protection of the Albanian Christian
culture as the legal source of Azerbaijani multiculturalism.
From the beginning of 704 the old Armenian language (Grabar)
gained the status of the church language of Caucasian Albania.
But the use of Grabar in the country’s churches and schools did
not mean the ethnic assimilation of the Albanian people. Though
Grabar was the language of the church, Arab sources recorded that
in the 10th century the Albanian (Arran) language was preserved in
the country. The historian Kirakos Gandzaketsi wrote that even in
the middle of the 13th century some clergy did not know the Grabar
language.
Though the Albanian Apostolic Church managed to preserve
its autocephalous status in later periods of history, the Church
was weakened by inter-church strife in the late 18th century. As
a result of the invasion of the Azerbaijani lands by the Russian
Empire and the insidious policy of the Armenian Gregorian Church,
according to the decree of Tsar Nicholas I of Russia, dated 11
March 1836, the Albanian Apostolic Church was subordinated
to the Armenian Gregorian Church and Albanian churches began
176 to fall into disrepair. At the beginning of the 20th century the
Albanian Apostolic Church archives were deliberately burned by

Section II
the Armenian Gregorian Church and the Albanian churches were
exposed to falsification and plunder in order to realize the dream
of ‘Great Armenia’ and to justify the groundless claims of Armenian
nationalists to the land and material and cultural heritage of
Azerbaijan. After the restoration of the independence of the
Republic of Azerbaijan, the protection of historic monuments has
been ensured and restoration work is carried out. As a result, the
Republic of Azerbaijan now preserves this cultural heritage.
Thus, in the middle of the 7th century the complete ideology of
monotheism – Islam – was introduced to Azerbaijani society, and

Chapter 4
the religion of Islam continued to spread in Azerbaijan, becoming
the dominant religion. Although the position of Christianity
weakened since then, Christianity’s roots in the country influenced
the population’s ethics for centuries. According to the Albanian
chronicler Mkhitar Gosh, in the 12th century, some of the Albanian
population continued to follow Christianity and one-fifth of the
population of Ganja were Christians. This can be explained by the
fact that during the rule of the Arab Caliphate, the religion of Islam
began to spread from southern Azerbaijan to the Mil-Mughan
plains and along the coast of the Caspian and in the Kura and Aras
river basins, where Zoroastrianism and idolatry existed. But the
people living in the mountainous part of the country – the Arsakh
and Uti provinces – were Christians, i.e., monotheists. The Arabs
respected their religious beliefs, taking only the jizya (per capita
yearly tax) from them and allowing the Christian population to
worship in their churches and perform their religious ceremonies.
This in turn created a unique cultural layer that added new colour
to the Azerbaijani sources of multiculturalism.
In the late 8th century, Moisey Kalankatuklu wrote that the
territory of Caucasian Albania, restored by Grigor Hamam,
stretched from Arsakh in the west, to Shaki and Ereti in the east, 177
including the high mountains of Uti. The coexistence of Christians
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

and Muslims enriched the multicultural layers, creating a unique

environment. During this period the ruling dynasties pursued
marriage diplomacy and arranged marriages with the close
relatives of neighbouring rulers. In the 9th century the Suni rulers
took as a bride a daughter of the Mehran dynasty; in the 10th
century Atrnerse, son of the Albanian ruler Grigor Hamam, married
Dinar, sister of the Georgian ruler, Gurgen, and their son Iskhani
later became the ruler of Albania.
During this period the Albanian Apostolic Church was
dyophysite for 17 years (952-969). The Albanian Apostolic Church
had not yet left the Partav union and a multicultural environment
developed in the country. In parallel with the feudal states
governed by Muslim dynasties in the 9th-12th centuries, in the
middle of the 11th century the Christian Albanian principality of
Arsakh-Khachin, which covered the banks of the Khachinchay River
and the River Tartar basin, emerged. The cultural environment
created in the country contributed to a renaissance of socio-
political and philosophical ideas and education in Azerbaijan.
It created a bridge between eastern and western culture with
similarities in architecture, art and music. Azebaijan gave to world
culture the geniuses Nizami, Khaqani and Ajami.
In the Middle Ages multiculturalism developed in the state
of the Shirvanshahs, one of the feudal states in Azerbaijan. The
weakening and break up of the Abbasid Caliphate from the
second half of the 9th century allowed the Shirvanshahs state to
be restored after its early 8th century decline and to cover a large
area, including the Greater Caucasus, the southern provinces of
Dagestan, Tabasaran and Derbent as far as Movakan, and the
western provinces bordering on Georgia. Having different religions,
this state preserved the initial political resources of Azerbaijani
178 multiculturalism. The expansion of Islam in Shirvan contined in
the 9th century, but Christianity and polytheistic religions were still

Section II
protected by the local population.
The population of this country encompassed a variety of nations
and ethnic groups, speaking Turkic, Caucasian, Persian and other
languages. According to the sources, the Turkic tribes came to
Shirvan in the early Middle Ages; separate groups of the Turkic
tribes settled in the south alongside the Huns and Khazars who had
travelled from Derbent across Shirvan.
From the early Middle Ages the Persian-speaking peoples played
an important role in Shirvan as a result of the Sassanids’ migration
policy. In the early 13th century the population of Derbent in the

Chapter 4
north of the Shirvanshahs’ state, in the province of Qushtasfi (the
left bank of the River Kura) in the south, the Caspian Sea region
in the east and the present Ismayilli, Goychay, Ujar, Zardab and
Kurdamir regions in the west were not Turkified.
The population of the state of the Shirvanshahs was also varied
in terms of religion. The Turkic tribes and the Persian-speaking
Mascuts were Christian. According to the sources, the sons of
the Mascut ruler Sanesan had the names Moses (Moisey), Daniel
and Elijah (Yeliya), while the Huns who had adopted Christianity
decorated their flags with crosses.
In the Middle Ages Jews lived in the state of the Shirvanshahs,
mainly in Shabran. This is evidence that Muslims, Christians and
Jews and those of other religions lived together in the state of the
Shirvanshahs. In this way the state of the Shirvanshahs maintained
different layers of political sources of Azerbaijani multiculturalism.
Of the Tats that lived in the state of the Shirvanshahs some were
Muslims, some were Jews and some belonged to the Gregorian
Church. In the Middle Ages the Jewish Tats lived in Derbent,
which was part of Shirvan, in Qusar (Qusar-Chay village), in Quba
(Krasnaya Slaboda village), in Shamakhi (Muji village), in Goychay
179
(Muji-Haftaran village), and in Qabala and Shaki districts. Later
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

some of them moved to Baku.

The Tats that belonged to the Gregorian Church lived in
Shamakhi (the villages of Madrasa, Karkanj, Dara-Karkanj, Kalahana,
Masari and Saqiyan), in Goychay, Ismayilli (Bank, Rushang) and in
Absheron. At the end of the 18th century, during the reign of Fatali
Khan, they resettled in Quba.
The written sources of the period reveal that the medieval towns
of the Sirvanshahs were multi-confessional with populations of
Christians, Muslim Arabs and incomers from Iran and Jews all living
in their separate neighbourhoods, making their own contributions
to the multicultural atmosphere of Azerbaijan.
The use of different languages in the state of the Shirvanshahs
is further evidence of the multicultural atmosphere. Persian was
the official literary language, Arabic – the language of religion and
Azerbaijani Turkish – the colloquial language, and they all enriched
the political sources of Azerbaijani multiculturalism.
When Azerbaijan became part of the Safavid state, the
multicultural environment in the country was preserved and the
legal sources of multiculturalism were enriched. Tolerance was still
shown towards the Christian population and was confirmed in legal
documents. This policy began to expand steadily from the rule
of Shah Ismail I. He issued a decree ‘On determining the diocese
of the Tatev monastery’, on 10 February 1503 (12 Shawwal 908,
according to the Hijri calendar), which confirmed the episcopal
rights of Simeon, vardapet of the Christian Albanians’ Tatev
Monastery in the province of Zangazur. The decree also declared
the land to be the property of the monastery and exempted the
monastery’s clergy from state taxes and duties. Another decree of
Shah Ismail I, ‘On the exemption of the monasteries and clergy of
Gizil-Vang from some taxes’ issued on 26 August 1505 (25 Rabi
180
911) exempted the Albanian Khudavang Monastery and its clergy

Section II
from 13 types of state duties and taxes.
During the reign of Shah Tahmasib I (1524-76) the fair policy
towards the non-Muslim population of the country continued
and arbitrary behaviour by officials towards them was prevented.
A decree issued during the month of Rabi in Hijri year 970 (29
October to 8 November 1562) by Shah Tahmasib I once more
confirmed that 16 villages belonged to the Tatev Monastery
diocese of the Albanian Apostolic Church. A decree ‘On confirming
the rights of Gregor, Catholicos of Ganjasar, as patriarch’ issued on
13 Dhu al-Qa’adah in the Hijri year 977 (19 April 1570), by Shah

Chapter 4
Tahmasib I once more confirmed that the rights of the Christian
population enjoyed official protection.
During the reign of Shah Abbas, the movable and immovable
property of the Christian churches was officially declared sacred
and inviolable, like that of the Muslim religious authorities. Shah
Abbas issued a decree during the month of Rabi in the Hijri year
1015 (7 July to 5 August 1606) declaring the lands of the Apostle
Tovma (Thomas) and Aylis monasteries to be the official property of
the monasteries and giving instructions that the abbots and village
elders should collect church taxes. During the rule of the Safavids
the rights of the Armenian clergy were regularly protected and their
desires, complaints and appeals were taken into consideration;
this was reflected in a decree issued during the month of Safar
in the Hijri year 1019 (25 April to 23 May 1610). The Safavid state
protected the rights and privileges not only of the Christian church
and clergy, but also of civilians at the state level. A decree issued by
Shah Abbas in the month of Dhu al-Qa’adah in Hijri year 1029 (28
September to 28 October 1620) confirmed the decision adopted
by the Council on Religious and Legal Issues. The decree confirmed
the property rights of the Albanian prince to the properties of the
181
Azerbaijani province of Qushtasfi and Qafan and instructed the
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

governors of the province to ensure those rights were respected.

In another decree issued during the month from 27 April
to 26 May 1645, Shah Abbas protected the property rights of
the country’s Christians and allowed Philippos, Catholicos of
the Armenian Church, to restore the ruined church buildings. The
orders issued by the Safavid rulers had a positive impact on the
development of a multicultural environment in the country,
granting freedom of religion to the population and protecting
the property rights of the Christians. Thus, documents based on
human principles supplemented the legal sources of Azerbaijani
multiculturalism.
The political and legal sources of Azerbaijani multiculturalism
continued to develop during the period of the khanates. The
population of the khanates of Karabakh, Irevan, Nakhchivan, Quba
and Lankaran and of the Jar-Balakan community differed from
other regions in terms of religion and ethnicity. Mosques, churches
and monasteries were all open for worship in Azerbaijan.
Azerbaijan’s geopolitical position has attracted the attention
of neighbouring states since ancient times. At different periods in
history non-indigenous ethnic elements streamed into the country
and this process continued until the early 19th century. The Russian
Empire, which took control of the Azerbaijani territories in the first
three decades of the 19th century, began to pursue a policy of
resettlement in the country and introduced two new ethnoses – the
Germans and Russians – into the ethno-demographic composition
of the country. In this way, new layers were included in the political
sources of Azerbaijani multiculturalism.
At the same time the people could not be reconciled with
the colonial policy of the Romanovs of Russia. The tsar exerted
pressure on the Muslim population, limited their religious
182
rights and created conditions for missionaries to propagate and

Section II
disseminate Christianity. During the first Russian Revolution the
progressive forces of Azerbaijan demanded equal recognition
of the legal rights of the Muslim population of the Empire with
those of the Russians, and called for cultural education for the
Muslims. These demands were submitted for discussion at the
Third Congress of Russian Muslims held in Nizhny Novgorod on 15
August 1906 and chaired by Alimardan Topchubashov, a leading
representative of the national movement of Azerbaijan.
The Manifesto of 17 October 1905 had a positive impact on
the political and legal sources of Azerbaijani multiculturalism,

Chapter 4
particularly on the public life of Azerbaijani women. Women in
Azerbaijan became more socially active and began to publish
interesting articles in newspapers and magazines on ensuring the
rights of Muslim women. In those years Azerbaijani women took
advantage of the achievements of the first Russian Revolution and
gained the right to participate in the elections to the Baku City
Duma. All these positive changes opened new pages in the political
and legal sources of Azerbaijani multiculturalism. After the October
Revolution in Russia Azerbaijan declared its independence. The
Azerbaijan Democratic Republic was established and it brought a
new multicultural angle to the history of Azerbaijan.
The Declaration of the Independence of Azerbaijan adopted
by the Azerbaijan National Council on 28 May 1918 proclaimed
the equality of all people living in the country, thereby enriching
the legal sources of Azerbaijani multiculturalism. From its
establishment the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic fought for its
territorial integrity, but did not ignore the traditions of tolerance
of the Azerbaijani people. The minorities who contributed to
the socio-economic life of the country, including the Russians
and Armenians, who made up a large proportion of the ethno- 183
confessional composition of the population during the Russian
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Empire, were allocated places in the country’s legislative body, its

parliament. Minority factions were included in the Agrarian Reform
Programme and a German settler, Lorenz Kun, became a member
of the parliament’s agrarian commission.
The legal sources of Azerbaijani multiculturalism were further
enriched by the laws adopted by the parliament of the Azerbaijan
Democratic Republic. One striking example is the law ‘On
citizenship of Azerbaijan’ adopted on 11 August 1919.
A decision issued on 28 August 1918 provided further
confirmation that the government of Azerbaijan attached great
importance to the development of democratic principles in
the country, paying special attention to the training of national
personnel and re-building education. In developing education,
the Cabinet of Ministers took into account the interests of the
children of minorities and the Ministry of Enlightenment approved
education in the Russian language for Russian-speaking pupils.
These decisions helped to fill the gaps in the legal resources of
Azerbaijani multiculturalism.
The enrichment of political sources of Azerbaijani
multiculturalism could be seen in other areas of society too.
Azerbaijan provided assistance to those in need irrespective of their
ethnicity, language and religion. In 1919 the government made
significant contributions to the charitable societies of the Russians
and Jews, the Armenian and Jewish National Councils, as well as
the Muslim Women’s Charitable Society, and others for the care of
children, the elderly and other vulnerable people.
The April overthrow struck a heavy blow to the democratic
achievements of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, though a
number of constructive steps were taken on the protection of
the rights of minorities. The Constitution of the Soviet Socialist
184 Republic of Azerbaijan, adopted on 5 December 1937, declared
the equality of the citizens of Azerbaijan. Article 130 of the

Section II
Constitution said that the equality before the law of the citizens
of Azerbaijan was unshakable and the propagation of national or
racial exceptionality, hatred, or negligence were punishable by law.
Consequently, the legal sources of Azerbaijani multiculturalism
were enriched by that document too.
Article 50 of the Constitution of Azerbaijan of 1978 guaranteed
freedom of conscience to the citizens of Azerbaijan and the right
to define their attitude to religion, to profess any religion or no
religion, to express and spread their beliefs concerning religion or
to propagate atheism. Article 62 of the Constitution of Azerbaijan

Chapter 4
of 1978 was based on the principle of respect for national dignity
and the principle of strengthening friendship among nations and
peoples of the multi-ethnic Soviet state. This document stated the
importance of language as a means of intercultural communication.
Article 73 of the Constitution declared Azerbaijani the official
language of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic and provided
for the use of Russian and other local languages spoken by the
population in all state and public bodies and on an equal basis.
Thus, the provisions of this legal document once more enriched the
legal resources of Azerbaijani multiculturalism.
After Azerbaijan restored its independence on 18 October 1991,
the political and legal sources of multiculturalism were further
strengthened. In the first years of independence, on 16 September
1992, the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan signed a decree
‘On state support for the protection of the rights and freedoms
and development of the languages and cultures of national
minorities, small nations and ethnic groups living in the Republic
of Azerbaijan’. A law ‘On the freedom of religious belief’ came into
force on 20 August 1992, reflecting the development of the legal
sources of Azerbaijani multiculturalism in the new circumstances.
185
The further development of the legal sources of Azerbaijani
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

multiculturalism is connected with the name of the National Leader

of Azerbaijan, Heydar Aliyev. As is mentioned in Chapter 2, Heydar
Aliyev is the political founder of Azerbaijani multiculturalism.
Under his far-sighted leadership multiculturalism constituted a
main component of state policy. The Constitution of the Republic
of Azerbaijan adopted in 1995 forms the legal basis of Azerbaijani
multiculturalism. This can be seen in a number of articles of the
Constitution: in particular in the articles ‘The official language’
(Article 21, Para. 2); ‘The right to equality’ (Article 25, Para. 3);
‘The right to nationality’, (Article 44, Paras. 1, 2); ‘The right to use
the mother tongue’ (Article 45, Paras. 1, 2); ‘Freedom of thought
and expression’ (Article 47, Paras. 1,2, 3); ‘Freedom of conscience’
(Article 48, Paras. 1, 2); and ‘The independence of judges, and the
main principles and conditions for the exercise of justice’ (Article
127, Para. 10).
The development of the legal sources of Azerbaijani
multiculturalism is now connected with the name of President
Ilham Aliyev, who is developing the policy of multiculturalism in a
new historical context. He has introduced it as an important aspect
of the country’s domestic policy. ‘Multiculturalism is a state policy
in Azerbaijan. Our history, our traditions actually dictated it. At the
same time, it is our way of life. In our daily lives, we operate on
these principles. Our people have always been active defenders and
supporters of multiculturalism.’
The following political documents adopted during the rule of
President Ilham Aliyev have led to the further development of the
political and legal sources of Azerbaijani multiculturalism:

•D
ecree of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan ‘On
the approval of the national action plan on the protection
186
of human rights in the Republic of Azerbaijan’ dated 28

Section II
December 2006;

•D
ecree of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan ‘On the
national action programme to raise the effectiveness of the
protection of human rights and freedoms in the Republic of
Azerbaijan’, dated 27 December 2011.

Multiculturalism subsequently developed the state ideology,

state policy and way of life of Azerbaijan. A number of institutions
and events play an important role in the development of the
Azerbaijani model of multiculturalism and in its political and legal

Chapter 4
sources: the Service of the State Counsellor of the Azerbaijan
Republic on Multiculturalism, Interethnic and Religious Issues,
founded by instruction of President Ilham Aliyev; the Knowledge
Foundation attached to the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan;
Baku International Multiculturalism Centre; the presidential decree
of 11 January 2016 declaring 2016 the Year of Multiculturalism in
Azerbaijan and the decree approving an Action Plan for the Year of
Multiculturalism.
Azerbaijan’s cooperation with the UN, OSCE, Council of Europe,
European Union, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation and other
authoritative international organizations and its ratification of many
international conventions on the protection of the rights of ethnic,
religious and linguistic minorities have played an important role in
the development of the political and legal sources of Azerbaijani
multiculturalism. In the early years of independence Azerbaijan
joined the United Nations declarations ‘On the Rights of Persons
Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities’
and ‘On the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination’.
The second chapter also mentions that the Republic of
Azerbaijan signed the Council of Europe’s framework Convention
for the Protection of National Minorities on 1 February 1995 and 187
ratified it on 16 June 2000. At the same time, through its historic
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

law of 26 November 2009, the Republic of Azerbaijan joined

the UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of
the Diversity of Cultural Expressions, which came into force in
Azerbaijan on 15 May 2010.
Azerbaijani multiculturalism has been strengthened by the
Republic’s work in the sphere of international relations, and
particularly the international events hosted by Azerbaijan as part of
the Baku Process, an initiative of President Ilham Aliyev to promote
cultural dialogue which began in 2008, and the declarations
adopted at these events. Examples of these events include the
World Summit of Religious Leaders held in Baku on 26-27 Aril
2010, the International Humanitarian Forums held in 2011, 2012,
2013, 2014 and 2016, the World Forum on Intercultural Dialogue
held in 2015 and the 7th Global Forum of the United Nations
Alliance of Civilizations (UNAOC) held on 24-27 April 2016.
The political and legal sources of Azerbaijani multiculturalism
have as old a history as its scientific, philosophical and journalistic
sources. They began to take shape in distant times. The political
sources of Azerbaijani multiculturalism could be seen in the first
tribal communities to emerge in the territory of the country. Its
legal sources go back to the latter stages of history. The political
and legal sources of Azerbaijani multiculturalism in turn reinforce
the multicultural environment in the country by developing the
traditions of multiculturalism and tolerance in society.

4.6. Multiculturalism in Azerbaijani Art and Culture

4.6.1. Music
The musical culture of Azerbaijan is rich in the traditions of
multiculturalism. We can see their diversity in the heritage of
188 traditional oral music and in the work of composers.
Heydar Aliyev, National Leader of the Azerbaijani People, said:

Section II
‘The richness of a country depends on the number of nations and
ethnicities living there.’ The traditions of the musical culture of
the different nations in Azerbaijan combine to create the vitality
of Azerbaijani music, confirming again the country’s tolerance
and multiculturalism. In its broadest sense, the musical folklore
of Azerbaijan embraces the music of the Azerbaijanis and of the
ethnicities and national groups living there.
The close contact between the ethnicities and minority groups
and the Azerbaijanis and their influence on one another is there
for all to see in Azerbaijani musical culture. Of course, the study of

Chapter 4
the musical folklore of these separate peoples and comparisons in
terms of ethno-musicology are a major subject. While the musical
folklore of the minorities and ethnic groups has been studied to
a certain extent, the study of their relations in the context of the
musical culture of Azerbaijan is also important.
Since ancient times musical folklore has passed from generation
to generation, reflecting the world outlook, desires, way of life, rites
and ceremonies of a nation. There are features in genre and subject
that are common to the musical folklore of all nations. Lullabies are
the oldest genre of musical folklore, while circle dances, work songs
and other songs and dances connected with family and the seasons
are also common to many peoples.
Despite that, the musical folklore of each nation is unique and
not repeated. The process of work, daily life, rites and ceremonies,
songs and dances created to mark historical events are varied
and reflect the peculiarities of the musical language and thinking
of each nation. All this is reflected in the musical folklore of the
Azerbaijanis, as well as in the musical folklore of the peoples and
ethnic groups living in Azerbaijan.
The representatives of many peoples settled in diffe­rent regions of
Azerbaijan down the centuries. They mixed and mingled with the 189
Azerbaijanis, the dominant nation. They profess Islam, Christianity,
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Judaism and other religions and represent different language

families. Among them are the Meskhetian Turks (Turkic branch
of the Altay family), the Tats, Talysh, Mountain Jews, Kurds (Indo-­
European), Udis, Lezghis, Avars, Sakhurs, Ingiloy, the people of
Budug, Qriz and Khinaliq (Caucasian languages) and the Russians,
Molokans, Ukrainians (all Slav).
All these nations and groups have retained their religion,
language and cultural values and observe their customs, traditions
and rites and pass them on to future generations. They also profit
from the musical folklore of the Azerbaijanis, and take part in
the religious and national holidays celebrated in the territory of
Azerbaijan.
The oldest holiday, Novruz (the spring holiday celebrated on
19-21 March), is celebrated on an official level. The UN cultural
organization UNESCO has included Novruz on its list of intangible
cultural heritage. The celebration of this holiday by all the nations
and ethnicities living in Azerbaijan is a conspicuous display of the
traditions of multiculturalism.
Another sign of multiculturalism in musical folklore is the
performance of the dances of the Caucasian peoples in Azerbaijan.
Musicologist Bayram Huseynli has written that the dance music of
the Caucasian peoples occupies a special place in the dance music
of Azerbaijan. The most widespread is the Lezghinka, which is also
known as the Lezghi-engi or Lezghi dance. Its name reveals the
nation to which it belongs. It is a masculine dance melody, one that
conveys bravery, pride and speed. It is very much loved and danced
with enthusiasm by the people of many nations.
The repertoires of all performers include the folklore music
of different peoples and ethnic groups living in Azerbaijan. This
music is played at wedding parties, festivals and concerts. Through
190 playing these traditional instruments the musicians make them
familiar to their audiences. The folk musicians play mostly the tar,

Section II
saz, kamancha, balaban, ney, zourna, tambourine, dutar, tanbur,
qarmon and accordion.
Professional musicians and music groups keep musical folklore
alive. Cultural centres and song and dance groups in the districts
and villages populated mostly by the ethnic minorities help
to preserve musical and ceremonial culture;. these include, for
example, the Suvar Lezghi Song and Dance Company (in Baku), the
Tugan Tel Tatar Cultural Centre (in Baku), the Khinayakhdi Tat Song
and Dance Company (in the village of Daghbiliji, Shabran District)
and the Avasor Talysh Song and Dance Company (in the village of

Chapter 4
Kalakos, Astara District).
These song and dance companies give a variety of concerts and
perform at national ceremonies and international festivals, where
they present programmes to demonstrate ancient customs and
traditions, songs and dances.
The traditions of multiculturalism manifest themselves to good
effect not only in the oral traditional music of Azerbaijan, but also
in in the work of composers. From this point of view it is worth
looking at the work of Uzeyir Hajibayli, a prominent composer of
Azerbaijan.
Uzeyir Hajibayli’s work could be described in its entirety as
an example of multiculturalism. Hajibayli was the founder of the
operatic genre not only in Azerbaijan, but also in the whole Orient.
Various traces of the traditions of multiculturalism can be seen in
his operas Leyli and Majnun (1908), Sheikh Sanan (1909), Rustam
and Sohrab (1910), Shah Abbas and Khurshidbanu (1912), Asli and
Karam (1912), Harun and Leyla (1915) and Koroghlu (1937).
He composed his first opera on the basis of the narrative
poem Leyli and Majnun by the prominent Azerbaijani poet of the
16th century, Mahammad Fuzuli. The opera interprets the ancient
191
Arabian legend in the national musical spirit; i.e. though it speaks
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

about the life of the Arab tribes, to the audience the heroes of the
poem are Azerbaijanis because of the music of Uzeyir Hajibayli.
Hajibayli’s opera Rustam and Sohrab is similar. This opera
is based on the motifs of Persian 10th century poet Firdowsi’s
Shahnameh or Book of the Kings. In this mugham opera the
composer conveys the inner world of the heroes through national
music.
The operas Sheikh Sanan and Asli and Karam are striking for
different reasons. They tell the tragic love stories of heroes from
different religions and nations. Sheikh Sanan tells the tragic love
story of an Arab sheikh and a young Georgian girl, while Asli and
Karam recounts the fate of an Azerbaijani prince and a young
Armenian girl. Both are impressive operas, but they had different
fates. Sheikh Sanan was performed only once and was deemed a
failure, so the composer burned the manuscript. Asli and Karam,
however, won over its audience and is still performed on the stage
of the Opera and Ballet Theatre in Baku.
The opera’s plot is centred on the love story between the
Azerbaijani Karam and the Armenian Asli. The Armenian girl’s
father, the Black Priest (Qara Keshish) obstructs the young couple’s
love and they perish in a fire. The Azerbaijani public were deeply
moved by the tragic end to the opera. This was Uzeyir Hajibayli’s
protest at the tragic events, religious and national conflict taking
place in society and at the hatred and hostility among nations. It
should be noted that this issue remains relevant and the opera still
moves its audiences.
In the opera Koroghlu Hajibayli depicted the popular folk hero
of the same name, who was known among the Caucasian nations
for helping ordinary people and saving them from their oppressors.
In the third act of the opera, which takes place at Chanlibel, the
192
misty mountain top where the hero and his company reside, the

Section II
author portrays Koroghlu as a saviour not only of the Azerbaijani
people, but also of other nations. He describes people who come
from distant regions to join Koroghlu in search of justice and who
are welcomed with great enthusiasm. Here again the traces of
multiculturalism are visible. This shows that the Azerbaijani people
try to live in peace with other nations and to help them, and this is
honoured in the national and spiritual heritage of the Azerbaijani
people.
In his operas Uzeyir Hajibayli made use of the classical poetry
and folk epics of Azerbaijan, which also manifest the traditions of

Chapter 4
multiculturalism. Through his music the composer honours these
traditions; one may speak here of the deep impact of music on the
feelings of the nation.
The traditions of multiculturalism can be found in other areas
of Uzeyir Hajibayli’s work, too. For example, his first musical
comedy Er va Arvad (Husband and Wife, 1910), which laid the
foundations of this genre in Azerbaijan, features characters from
different nations. The libretto concerns family relations and was
written by the composer too. The comedy’s score includes dance
music and clearly reveals the inner world of the characters, allowing
the creation of vivid, lively scenes. The comedy is enriched by
the inclusion of music and dances of various nations in the final
wedding party scene, where Lezghi, Russian and Georgian folk
music and dances are performed. The comedy is indicative of the
everyday musical style popular at the time.
Uzeyir Hajibayli’s serves as a kind of mirror on events taking
place in Azerbaijani society. From this point of view, his musical
comedy O olmasin, bu olsun (If Not that One, Then This One, 1911)
is a good example. The characters – Mashadi Ibad, Rustam bay,
Sarvar, Gulnaz and Sanam all have individual musical features and
describe the environment of Baku. The characters of the comedy 193
speak in different languages, dialects and accents reflecting the
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

impact of other nations. For instance, journalist Rza bay speaks

Turkish, the intellectual Hasan bay speaks French and Russian, while
the Iranian porter and nationalist Hasanqulu bay has a distinctive
way of speaking. Through these characters Uzeyir Hajibayli showed
the interaction of different languages and cultures in the multi-
ethnic environment of Baku and at the same time mocked the
extreme features of such influences. The composer distinguishes
these characters through the chorus, which intrudes into the course
of events, rather than individually.
Uzeyir Hajibayli’s musical comedy Arshin Mal Alan (The cloth
peddler, 1913) is deeply loved for its content, packed with national
features. It was the first of Hajibayli’s comedies to achieve
international renown and bring Azerbaijani music to a new
audience. It has been translated into Turkish, Russian, Georgian,
English, Persian, Chinese, Polish and Bulgarian and has been
performed in New York, Paris, London, Beijing, Warsaw, Cairo,
Ankara, Sofia and other cities. A feature film Arshin Mal Alan was
shot in 1945, based on the operetta, and reached an even wider
international audience. Prominent Azerbaijani actor and singer
Rashid Behbudov and actress Leyla Badalbayli took the main roles.
It was dubbed into several foreign languages and shown in 130
countries to considerable acclaim. The musical comedy is based
on the love story of a young couple, Askar and Gulchohra, and has
become Azerbaijani music’s representative on the world musical
stage, promoting peace and unity among the nations for over 100
years.
Two choreographic works of Uzeyir Hajibayli, Azerbaijan and
Dagestan, should also be mentioned. In them the composer uses the
musical heritage of different nations. They were composed in 1919,
but unfortunately, were not performed. According to researchers,
194 Azerbaijan was composed in the spirit of Tarakama dance music,
and Dagestan in the spirit of Lezginka dance music, both of which

Section II
were very popular in Azerbaijan at that time.
Uzeyir Hajibayli’s work, therefore, reflected the traditions of
multiculturalism from different angles and put different aspects
of multiculturalism at the forefront of national musical heritage.
Various aspects of multiculturalism can be found in the work of
composers of the Azerbaijani school, who benefitted from Uzeyir
Hajibayli’s legacy.
From this point of view, Azerbaijani composer Qara Qarayev is
especially worthy of note. He was the first Azerbaijani composer
to make use of the literature and musical heritage of the peoples

Chapter 4
of the world. He was inspired by the poets of Azerbaijan – Nizami,
Samad Vurghun, Rasul Rza – and by the work of classic writers,
including Shakespeare, Cervantes, Pushkin, Omar Khayyam,
Lermontov and Lope de Vega, and 20 th
century poets including
Nazim Hikmet, Langston Hughes, Vsevolod Vishnevsky, Peter
Abrahams, Edmond Rostand and Henri Barbusse. Qara Qarayev
filtered the music of different nations, from Africa to Vietnam, and
presented it to his audiences in a new way.
The Azerbaijani composer took musical traditions from very
different cultures of the world and united them in the musical
culture of Azerbaijan, giving it a universal importance. At the root
of this work lies artists’ desire for freedom. For example, millions
of people of different nationalities understood the struggle
against apartheid and desire for liberation of South African writer
Peter Abrahams through the melody of The Path of Thunder, a
ballet composed by Qara Qarayev. Qarayev’s symphonic sketches
Don Quixote, based on Spanish author Cervantes’ novel of the
1600s, talks of freedom through the ideals of chivalry. The main
characteristic of Qarayev’s work is the importance of freedom for
everyone, irrespective of religion and language. He calls on people 195
to understand and live in unity, which is a shining example of
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

tolerance and multiculturalism.

Qarayev absorbed these universal ideas from Nizami and
reflects them in his work based on Nizami’s narrative poems: the
ballet Seven Beauties, the symphonic poem Leyli and Majnun, and
the Autumn chorus.
In the ballet Seven Beauties (1952) Qarayev gave his own
interpretation to the poet’s ideas. Nizami presented the tales of
seven beauties or princesses – from Byzantium, China, Khorezm, the
Maghreb, India, the Slav lands and Iran. Qarayev uses seven planets
and seven colours to represent the seven beauties. The national
identity of the seven beauties is distinctly expressed through the
ballet’s music, while the costumes and colourful scenery of the
ballet combine with the music to make a great impression on the
audience. The ballet has been very successful in many countries. In
recent years it was performed in San Diego, USA. Born of the genius
of Nizami and Qara Qarayev, the ballet Seven Beauties urges people
of different cultures towards dialogue and unity.
The traditions of multiculturalism are also clearly manifest in
Fikrat Amirov’s ballet The Arabian Nights. He revived the old Arabian
tales in his ballet and enriched them with the Azerbaijani spirit by
using a variety of means of musical expression. The composer’s
symphonic works also encourage people towards tolerance and
unity. Amirov praises the unity of the cultural traditions of the
oriental nations in his symphonic mugham Bayati-Shiraz. Mugham
is a musical art form common to the Orient and reflects the
individual spirit of each nation, and at the same time, it merges
music and classical poetry. In his symphonic poem Fikrat Amirov
interpreted the Azerbaijani mugham composition Bayati-Shiraz
through the work of the classical Oriental poets Saadi and Hafez.
196 His symphonic composition begins with an epigraph from Saadi’s
poem Gulustan (Flower Garden) and embodies the unity of music

Section II
and poetry.
Ballets composed by Niyazi and Arif Malikov are excellent
examples of good relations among the nations. Niyazi based his
ballet Chitra on the play by Rabindranath Tagore, while Malikov
composed his ballets The Legend of Love on the motifs of a poem
by the Turkish poet Nazim Hikmet, and A Poem of Two Hearts on
the motifs of a poem by the Uzbek poet and philosopher Mirza-
Abdulqadir Bedil, writing music that embodies unity and tolerance.
Stories concerning the lives of different nations constitute
a special part of the work of composers of all generations of the

Chapter 4
Azerbaijani school. The common feature inherent in all these works
of art is praise and reverence for the most humane ideas of human
culture.
A new perspective on the traditions of multiculturalism and
tolerance can be seen in the more recent works of Azerbaijani
composers. One such perspective is the use of religious topics
to cultivate ideas of tolerance and solidarity. Islamic motifs in the
composers’ works are very conspicuous and varied, while Christian
symbols (texts and genres) can be found there too.
The work of Azar Dadashov is a good example from this point
of view. Dadashov uses religious themes in his compositions
for a capella choir, including Shukurlar olsun sana (Thanks be to
you), to which the composer wrote the lyrics himself, the prayer
Ave Maria, Ay Tanrim (Oh, My God), Hallelujah with the words of
a Catholic prayer, and Who Loves God, setting to music the words
of Mahammad Fuzuli. These compositions were first performed in
2002 during Pope John Paul II’s visit to Baku. (They were performed
by the Azerbaijan State Choir Capella, conducted by Gulbaji
Imanova with Ali Asgarov the soloist.)
197
Dadashov has also composed chamber music on religious and
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

spiritual motifs: for example, a piano novella Faza Taranasi (Song of

the Heavens); a poem for cello and chamber orchestra Lutf (Mercy);
a violin and piano composition Daimi ishiq (Permanent Light); and
a piano piece Tanri Qurbani (Sacrifice for God).
Some Azerbaijani composers have used the words of prayers
from different religions, which is a striking example of tolerance.
For example, Galib Mammadov composed The Psalms of David
for mezzo-soprano, bass and chamber orchestra and Psalms 52
and 39 for a capella choir. Arif Mirzayev wrote Organ Symphony
in Memory of Bach and Prayers of Sorrow for violin and organ (in
memory of the late President Heydar Aliyev), New York Passions for
chamber orchestra, January Passions (or January Elegies, based on
Islamic mourning music, devoted to the victims of 20 January 1990)
for reader and soloist accompanied by violin, choir and chamber
orchestra, and a range of improvisations for the organ to be played
in Lutheran churches.
Similar works that cultivate tolerance and a positive attitude
towards different religions include Death Notices I, II and III for
various instruments by Jalal Abbasov; Psalm 150 for soprano,
flute, violin, organ and choir by Sardar Farajov, the poem Oath for
organ and soloist by Rufat Ramazanov, the vocal and instrumental
composition Mevlana (lyrics by Y. Solmaz) devoted to Jalaluddin
Rumi by Aghadadash Dadashov, and Prayer of Two Women (Ave
Maria) by Farhad Badalbayli.
The work of Firangiz Alizada embodies the traditions of
multiculturalism. Her composition Dervish, based on Nasimi’s
poem, was performed to great acclaim at the international Silk
Way music project by an orchestra led by internationally renowned
musician Yo-Yo Ma and the unique singer Alim Qasimov. This piece
combines traditional instruments the ney pipes, double drum and
198
qanun, and the European viola, violin and cello. Alizada’s concerto

Section II
Mersiyya (Islamic elegy) for cello, violin and symphony has been
performed in Lisbon, while her Zikr (praise of God) using Nasimi’s
words was performed in Holland by the Alas orchestra, which
consists of the musical instruments of the peoples of Europe, Asia
and the south Caucasus. Her cantata Gottes ist der Orient, based on
Goethe’s West-East Divan, for choir, organ, harp and percussion, is
remarkable. Goethe made use of the Koran and classical oriental
poetry, particularly Saadi’s Divan, when he wrote this poem.
Continuing the ideas of Goethe, Firangiz Alizada has turned to the
ghazals of the Azerbaijani poets Nizami, Shah Ismail Khatai and

Chapter 4
Mirza Shafi Vazeh and given them her own musical expression.
Another of her compositions, Mughflamenco, combines two great
musical genres – Azerbaijani mugham and Spanish flamenco. The
fusion is obvious not only from the title but from the content too.
Alizada found common features in these two traditions, which at first
sight might seem to be totally different from one another.
Cultural dialogue and multiculturalism can be seen in Alizada’s
recent opera Sanin adin Danizdir (Your Name is the Sea). The
plot centres on the love story of a young American artist and an
Azerbaijani mugham singer. The opera was performed at the
Houston Grand Opera in Texas in 2011 and starred Azerbaijani
mugham singers Babak Niftaliyev and Malakkhanum Ayyubova,
accompanied by Mohlat Muslumov, Fakhraddin Dadashov and
American opera singers, and the Houston Grand Opera symphony
orchestra and soloists.
The traditions of multiculturalism and tolerance are shown in a
wider context at the level of a dialogue of cultures in the work of
Firangiz Alizada.
In conclusion, the traditions of multiculturalism can be seen in
a variety of ways in traditional oral Azerbaijani music, or folklore,
199
and in its written compositions. All the works rely on the talent of
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

the composers to combine diverse cultures and to achieve cultural

dialogue. They have become integral parts of Azerbaijani music,
and are national and spiritual values that ensure the peaceful co-
existence of peoples.

4.6.2. Rites and Ceremonies

It is natural that the rites and ceremonies of different peoples

should have their own characteristics. At the same time, however, it is
generally accepted in folklore studies that the branches and genres
of folk culture passed down orally from generation to generation
are common to the majority of peoples of the world, reflecting
the common primitive imagination and mythological views. Rites
and ceremonies are one of the oldest branches of folk culture and
consist of various genres. The early imagination and mythological
views form the basis of these common spiritual values.
The early imagination related to the environment can be seen
very clearly in seasonal ceremonies. At the heart of seasonal
ceremonies is the desire to enchant nature in different seasons by
means of songs, music and dance and to make nature bend to
the will of the people. One of the most widespread seasonal rites
is Qodu-Qodu, which is performed when wet, foggy and drizzly
weather is lasting for too long and people want sunshine.
Children walk from house to house singing and carrying a doll
wearing an amber necklace or a ladle dressed up as a doll with
various trinkets. The doll or ladle is called Qodu. In fact, Qodu is
a symbol of the sun, artificially decorated and embellished. This is
evident from its clothes and decorations. The doll wears an amber
necklace symbolizing the colour of the sun, and a mirror as the
200 symbol of the sun is fixed on its forehead. It also has colourful
clothes resembling the sun, flame and light. The overall impression

Section II
is of a colourful, brilliant, beautiful woman. In other words, the
ancient Azerbaijani people created a human image of the sun. The
children’s songs make it clear that Qodu symbolizes the sun:

Qodu-Qodu, hey, Qodu-Qodu,

Have you greeted Qodu?
Did you see the red Sun
when Qodu passed by?
Let us rub her with oil,

Chapter 4
Let us wrap her up,
Qodu wants to laugh,
Do not let her cry.

The ethnic minorities living in the same region and natural

environment as the Azerbaijani Turks also needed sunshine and
warmth when the weather was too wet and, consequently, they
played various versions of the game Qodu-Qodu accompanied by
seasonal songs. For example, the Avars celebrate the appearance of
the sun after a long spell of wet weather. As part of this ceremony,
they cook special dishes; for example, makhara which is a pancake
cooked on an iron hotplate called a saj. The batter is poured into
the centre of the domed hotplate and trickles down the sides,
creating a round pancake with a fringed edge like the sun with
its rays. Children make a doll out of a broom, covering it with a
headscarf, and sing this song:

Qordi-qordi, qordina,
Have you greeted Qodina?
Let the sun come out today,
Let’s have butter and curds. 201
A son for the woman who gave us butter,
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

A daughter for the one who gave us curds.

The connections between the Avars’ game Qordi-Qordi and the

Azerbaijani Turks’ Qodu-Qodu are obvious – the names, the desire
to see the sun, the dressing up of a doll or household item, and the
collecting of gifts.
As well as sunshine ceremonies, the Azerbaijani Turks have also
rain-making rituals. The game Chomcha­kha­tun (Lady Ladle)
retains the traces of those rituals. The game is played as follows:
children get together and take each other by the hand. Then they
take a wooden ladle, put clothes on it and start to knock on doors.
Whoever opens the door is asked to give a gift, and then the
children start singing this song:

What does Lady Ladle want?

She wants rain from God.
She wants grass for the sheep
And milk for the lambs, b-a-a-a.

The Avars living in Azerbaijan have a similar ritual. A boy aged

between 12 and 15 is decked out in grass and tree branches. He is
called ‘a rain donkey’. The ritual is accompanied by the song:

Let it rain five days long,

Let it rain for the orphans.
Let it rain heavily in the dark of night,
Let it rain for the old women.
Amen, o Allah!

202
The common features of these games are that the main players

Section II
are boys playing the parts of animals (lambs and donkeys) who try to
influence nature by singing songs.
The ethnic minorities living in Azerbaijan also have sayachi
(counting) rituals, which are mainly performed in spring. These
rituals are to ensure abundance and fertility, especially in sheep-
breeding. The Sakhurs, for example, perform a lambing ritual. In
this ritual, products from sheep’s milk – cheese, sour cream, cream,
curds and butter – are sent as gifts to people when the lambs start
to eat green grass. This ritual too shares a common feature of most

Chapter 4
rituals: making a sacrifice (giving a gift is seen as making a sacrifice)
in order to satisfy others and ensure fertility and abundance.
The spring ritual most deserving of mention, since it covers the
widest geographical area and most nations, is the Novruz holiday.
The traditions and customs of the Azerbaijani Turks at Novruz are
also seen amongst other ethnic groups living in Azerbaijan, such
as the Talysh, Kurds, Tats, Lezghis, Avars and Sakhurs. There is no
doubt that the similarity in the traditions and customs of these
minorities at Novruz (and Ramadan and the Feast of the Sacrifice)
is influenced by their shared faith, Islam. However, the Novruz
traditions and customs are also observed by the Christian Udis. The
Udis used to celebrate the spring holiday in the middle of March
by cooking their national dish harsa (made from wheat) and dyeing
eggs red. Children would take a bag and walk from house to house,
asking for gifts and picking the first spring flowers, known as
Novruz flowers. They would also sing this song:

Novruz flower, Novruz flower,

Bring one, bring two, bring eggs!

203
They would also light bonfires in their yards in the evenings and
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

jump over them, singing:

Let my pain and sorrow stay in the fire,

Let the fire take away my pain and sorrow!

It’s an important sign of multicultural values that the Christian

Udis, just like their Muslim compatriots, should dye eggs as a
symbol of birth and fertility and light fires and jump over them as a
symbol of purity.
Multicultural values are prominent in rites of passage, just as
they are in seasonal rituals. We will take a general look at mourning
and marriage ceremonies to see the truth of that statement.
Special ceremonies to mourn the dead are typical of most
nations, including those living in Azerbaijan. It is not surprising that
the Azerbaijani Turks and the ethnic minorities in Azerbaijan should
all have traditional mourning music. The examples of elegies and
laments collected and published in Azerbaijan belong to many
of the nationalities living here. The collection of these examples
is a sign of common values. The idea of thanks­giving is another
common value of funeral ceremonies. In Islam excessive crying for
the dead, particularly in the evening, is considered ‘not pleasing to
Allah’. The Christian nations living in Azerbaijan share these ideas.
For example, the Udis consider any kind of mourning and crying
for the dead after sunset, when lights have been switched on, as
humiliation of the soul of the deceased. This applies to people who
come late to a funeral too.
There is, of course, a reason for the abstention from excessive
mourning of the deceased. According to their faith, no one dies;
instead people leave this transient, mortal life for an eternal one.
204 Therefore, excessive crying for the deceased is unacceptable. Today
Azerbaijanis frequently use the expression ‘to change worlds’ to

Section II
refer to someone dying. This has the meaning of leaving this world
for the next. Death is, therefore, believed to depend on the will of
God. The death of any close person, regardless of their age, should
be accepted with forbearance.
Muslims in Azerbaijan treat Christian customs with respect,
calling churches ‘the house of God’. Christians treat Muslim
traditions with the same respect. The Udis, who have similar
ceremonial traditions to the Muslim nations, do not serve pork at
their ceremonial events. At wedding or funeral feasts, they have
animals slaughtered by Azerbaijani Turks or Lezghis to ensure there

Chapter 4
is no concern about the meat dishes. This is a sign of mutual respect
among the various nations that live side by side.
It is not surprising that nations that live together and respect
one another should have very similar wedding traditions. The
brother or brother-in-law of the bride tying a red ribbon around
her waist, carrying a mirror in front of the bride, throwing water
after the bride, breaking a plate under her feet, taking a chicken
to her house are all shared wedding traditions of the various
ethnic minorities living in Azerbaijan. The main purpose behind
these traditions is to achieve the happiness of the young couple.
Abundance and prosperity are considered a condition of happiness,
so people wish good fortune to the bride and that she bring
abundance to the house of the bridegroom.
Symbols of abundance and prosperity are especially important
at weddings. For example, amongst the Ingiloy, when the bride
arrives at her future home, a woman greets her holding a tray.
According to tradition, there should be lit candles, bread, butter
and honey on the tray. When the bride enters the house, she is
given the tray and an old woman of the family puts a spoonful of
honey in her mouth, puts dough in her hand and a silk cocoon on
her head. The honey symbolizes sweetness and friendship in the 205
family, the dough the bread she will bake from that day onwards
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

(as well as a sign of prosperity), and the cocoon represents the

hope that the bride will always wear silk.
Decorating a branch of a tree is another widespread symbol
of prosperity and fertility at weddings. A metre or metre and a
half-long branch is decorated with expensive gifts, fruit, sweets
and pastries. This tradition is popular among the Crimean Tatars,
Gagauz, Anatolian Turks, Uzbeks, and the people of Lahij and
various regions of Azerbaijan, including Shirvan.
Decorating a tree branch is part of a belief in a World Tree. One
of the elements of this belief is the apple. Even in regions where
branches are not decorated, an apple is nevertheless a symbol at
weddings. Azerbaijani folktales often feature rejuvenation after
eating a magic apple, or the birth of a child after eating an apple.
At weddings, therefore, the apple is a symbol of life and birth. In
the Nakhchivan region of Azerbaijan the bridegroom throws an
apple to the bride, while in Shaki-Zaqatala a bride conveys her
consent to marriage through an apple: an apple is put on a plate
and sent to the future bride. She cuts it in two, eats one half and
sends the other back to the bridegroom as a sign of her consent.
But if the girl sends back the whole apple, it means that she does
not give her consent to the marriage. This is especially typical of
the Udis. Another apple tradition, widespread among the Ingiloy,
is shooting at an apple. The Ingiloy put an apple on the top of a
tree near the yard gate. According to the tradition, a man from the
family of the bridegroom should shoot at the apple, after which
the groom’s family is allowed to enter the yard of the bride. This
tradition most probably indicates the magic power of the apple.
Other marriage rituals are designed to protect the newly weds
from disaster and the evil eye. The burning of rue to ward off the
evil eye is the most widespread of these rituals. Other folk rituals
206
to give protection from the evil eye, popular amongst the minority

Section II
peoples of Azerbaijan, can also be found in the epic Book of Dada
Qorqud. For example, the young men of the village tie the skull of
an animal to the top of a tree. According to tradition, evil spirits try
to obstruct the marriage of the young man by using a dragon. The
animal skull symbolizes the dragon and is called ajdaha (dragon).
The young men shoot at the ‘dragon’ in turn. The young man who
shoots down the skull or destroys it with a shot is considered the
winner.
Interestingly, in February 1951, the great poet Samad Vurghun

Chapter 4
attended a wedding in the village of Nij in Qabala District. He shot
at the skull on top of a tree and destroyed it in a single shot. The
poet compared this moment in the wedding to the arrow shooting
ritual at the wedding of Bamsi Beyrak in the Book of Dada Qorkud.
He thanked the Udis for preserving the ancient traditions. The
similarity between shooting at the skull and shooting at the dragon
in the tale of Bamsi Beyrak shows the common values of the Udis
and the Azerbaijanis.
These seasonal rituals and rites of passage are essential
indicators of the tolerance and multiculturalism of Azerbaijan.

4.6.3. Fine Art

The contemporary art of Azerbaijan is built on centuries of

tradition, which encompass miniature painting, rock engraving
in Qobustan, petroglyphs in Gamiqaya, and balbal, ancient stone
monuments of the Turks. Azerbaijan’s art has also benefited from
the achievements of classical Russian and Western European
art, and experienced modernism and post-modernism. The
contemporary art of Azerbaijan combines the social and cultural
207
features of folklore and advanced professional style into a single
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

whole.
The traditions of multiculturalism in the fine art of Azerbaijan
have ancient roots. Because of its geographical position
Azerbaijan has always been at the intersection of various artistic
traditions, styles and aesthetics. The development of miniature
painting in Azerbaijan in the Middle Ages is a good example of
this. In the early stages, Uighur artists and the Baghdad school
of miniatures exposed miniature painting in Azerbaijan to the
Arab-Mesopotamian style. The late 15th and early 16th centuries
are considered the classical stage in the development of the
miniature art of Azerbaijan. During this period local miniature
schools emerged and developed in Herat, Qazvin and Isfahan.
Common features of plot and style were observed in the art of
book miniatures. After the occupation of Herat by the Uzbek ruler
Shaybani khan almost all the miniature artists there, including
Kamaladdin Behzad, moved to Bukhara. Therefore, Behzad’s
work had an equal influence on the cultural heritage of both the
Azerbaijani and Uzbek people. Later Herat was included in the
Safavid Empire and a new school of miniatures was founded in
Tabriz by the prominent Azerbaijani artist Sultan Mahammad. Thus,
the miniature school of Tabriz influenced the miniature art of the
entire Middle East. This influence can be seen in the Indian school
of miniatures during the reign of the Mughals as well.
Realist, or figurative, art emerged in Azerbaijan in the mid-19th
century and continued into the 20th century. Prominent Realist
painters included Mirza Qadim Irevani, Mir-Mohsun Navvab and
Ali bay Huseynzada. Ali bay Huseynzada (1865-1940) laid the
foundations of art printing, theatre design and fine art studies
in Azerbaijan. He also played an important role in shaping
the national ideology of independent Azerbaijan, defining the
208
symbolism of the colours of the national flag of independent

Section II
Azerbaijan. Huseynzada had a brilliant mind and was a popular
Turkologist, writer and public figure. His paintings display a visual
synthesis of European style and traditional cultural thinking; for
example, his portrait of the Sheikh ul-Islam of the Caucasus, Ahmad
Salyani (1900), and his painting of Bibi-Heybat Mosque near Baku
(1907).
A prominent artist of the second half of the 20th century Mikayil
Abdullayev (1921-2000) made an outstanding contribution to
multiculturalism in Azerbaijani art. In 1956 he paid his first visit
to Italy to attend the 28th International Biennale in Venice. During

Chapter 4
that trip he also visited Rome, Florence and Milan. Inspired by the
trip, he created a series of gouache paintings entitled Through the
Eyes of a Bakuvian. The series includes In the Venetian Sun, The
Spanish Quarter (in Venice), Rome. Father and Florence. Mother. As
N. Habibov writes, ‘In his Florence paintings, Abdullayev depicts this
noisy city with plenty of phaetons, monks driving fashionable fast
cars, watermelon sellers and sad funeral ceremonies, “just like in old
Baku” as Mikayil Abdullayev himself said.’
Mikayil Abdullayev also painted series of Indian, Hungarian
and Polish paintings. He was fortunate to travel widely. In 1957, he
made a three-month trip to India, visiting Delhi, Calcutta, Jaipur
and Agra. The trip made such an impression on him that he spent
four years working on his Indian series. The series includes the
paintings A Student Girl from Calcutta, Bengali Girls, Nipa with her
Brothers, Mother Feeding her Baby, Jaipuri Women and Rajastani
Women and many others based on over one hundred studies. All
of them are full of the Indian atmosphere, colours and national
character. To great decorative effect, he painted exquisite women’s
saris, typical to India.

209
Mikayil Abdullayev also visited several Hungarian cities, where
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

he met artists and writers and went to museums and theatres. His
Hungarian series of paintings includes striking portraits Sculptor
Zsigmond Kisfaludi Strobl, Ilona and Actress Stefani Moldovan on
the one hand, and multiple landscapes and genre scenes on the
other hand – Morning on the Danube, View from Gellert Mountain,
Pier at Lake Balaton, In Koshut Street, In an Artist’s Family and In a
Danube Café.
Almost all the well-known artists of the second half of the 20th
century painted several series of paintings of foreign countries.
The prominent Azerbaijani artists Boyuk­
agha Mirzazada, Salam
Salamzada, Togrul Narimanbayov and Tahir Salahov created
memorable work in this regard.
Boyukagha Mirzazada (1921-2007) is known in Azerbaijani art
for his skilful portraits, but he also painted fine urban scenes. His
Czechoslovak series of paintings focused on Prague with its Gothic
architecture, church spires, streets and squares. The works in this
series include Prague, Prague Street, A View of Prague, Prague
Landscape, On the Banks of the Vltava and Charles Bridge, all of
which were completed by 1959.
Salam Salamzada (1908-97) was one of the first pain­ters
to introduce Azerbaijani art-lovers to the Arab world. He was
honoured to receive the International Nasser Award. His series
of paintings Through the Arab Countries was exhibited in Baku,
Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Tbilisi, Dushanbe and Tripoli. Salam
Salamzada painted the series following trips to Egypt, Iraq, Syria
and Lebanon in 1960-61. These paintings include the depiction
of architectural monuments, such as The Temple of Princess
Hatshepsut (1967) and Rashidiya Street, Baghdad (1961); industrial
views such as Construction of the Aswan Dam (1967) and Soviet
Experts in Feth (1969), and genre compositions such as Banana
210
Seller, On the Road and Arab Children (all created in 1961). The

Section II
series also features important portraits of Arab artists and writers,
such as poet Muhammad al-Jawahiri (1961), sculptor Gamal el-
Sigini (1969) and writer Abd al-Rahman al-Khamisi.
The life and work of Tahir Salahov (born 1928) is bound up with
many important aspects of multiculturalism in Azerbaijani fine art.
He has always been open to foreign cultures and is well travelled.
His first trips to France and Italy made a particularly strong
impression on him. Tahir Salahov founded what is known as the
strict style, and did not lose his self-confidence when he painted
the Italian and French landscapes. ‘These landscapes are strict and

Chapter 4
serious: the architectural forms are large scale, not detailed, and
there are many carefully chosen greys and browns.’
Tahir Salahov worked for a long time in the USSR Union of
Artists and Academy of Art and did a great deal to introduce the
Soviet audience to the works of famous artists such as Picasso,
Bacon, Tamayo, Uecker, Tinguely, Manzu, Moore, Giacometti,
Rosenquist, Rauschenberg, Morandi and Dali. As an art critic said,
‘Tahir Salahov is a well-known figure in world culture.’ His life and
work are bound up with deep multicultural processes in the fine art
of Azerbaijan. ‘Salahov mastered the manner and stylistic thinking
of European painting and quickly became a major artist, but he is
a deeply Azerbaijani artist and this forms the basis of his artistic
language.’ In summer, he always visits his studio in the village
of Nardaran, on the shores of the Caspian Sea on the Absheron
peninsula.
Salahov’s boundless creative energy has led him to paint
new series of foreign paintings since Azerbaijan regained its
independence. He created the series Across China (1994) and
Across Spain (2005) and painted portraits of the actor Maximilian
Schell and artist Robert Rauschenberg, and a triptych Meeting
211
Rauschenberg. What’s most interesting is that the artist returned
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

to the Italian theme. He focused on a place with a 300-year-old

history – the Café Greco in Rome, frequented down the years
by poets and artists. Rome. Café Greco (1986, 2002) is the title
of Salahov’s sketch and painting created ten years apart. The
Azerbaijani artist left his signature on the picture by painting his
own reflection in the café’s mirror.
The series of foreign paintings by Azerbaijani artists convey not
only a sense of the landscapes, cityscapes, people and life in these
countries, but also show the Azerbaijani artists’ great interest in the
basic values of European, Asian and African cultures. On the one
hand, the paintings reflect the values of foreign cultures through
complex symbolic images, and on the other they depict the people
who hold these values.
The first trend is typical of the work of Toghrul Narimanbayov
(1930-2013). The artist, who visited India and revived oriental
mythology, created a monumental image – a giant spiral of
development – in his work. The tree-globe and the first waters of
the universe are reflected in his mural Folk Tales (1975-78) at the
Puppet Theatre and in his stage sets for Fikrat Amirov’s ballets The
Arabian Nights (1980) and The Epic of Nasimi (1973).
The second trend can be seen in Asaf Jafarov’s (1927-2000)
Italian series of paintings. These oil paintings include Bridge in
Rome, Assisi, Church Clergy and The Church of Santa Maria della
Croce (all created in 1972). The first three canvases depict Roman
Catholics against the background of various city scenes, while
the final picture is of a Catholic church. In terms of compositional
structure, Bridge in Rome is of particular interest. The silhouettes of
three Catholic nuns are walking directly towards the viewer down
the centre of the bridge. This picture conveys high spirits and
optimism.
212
Society’s interest in Italian culture has increased in independent

Section II
Azerbaijan, not fallen away. Portraiture is of particular interest in
this regard. Sakit Mammadov (born in 1958) preserves the classical
traditions of the portrait genre, having mastered the best of both
the European and Russian schools in developing his own unique
style. His sense of light is bound up in Azerbaijani art traditions. He
is a successful painter of landscapes, still lifes and genre work, but
he is known most of all for his portraits. He has painted portraits
of Pope John Paul II (2004) and the actress Monica Bellucci. These
portraits have a deep psychology, sophisticated sense of nature
and great atmosphere.

Chapter 4
The holding of exhibitions to show the work of foreign artists
in Azerbaijan and Azerbaijani artists abroad is another form of
expression of multiculturalism in art. In 1950-70, Baku hosted
exhibitions of Chinese, Syrian, Mexican, Puerto Rican, Sri Lankan,
Indian, Iraqi, Japanese, Mongolian, Norwegian and French art.
At the same time, the work of Azerbaijani painters was exhibited
in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Egypt, Mongolia, Poland,
Norway, Italy, France, Denmark, Austria, Spain and Cuba.
Since independence Azerbaijani artists have continued to
develop the foreign theme in their work. This includes a French
series by Khalida Safarova, an Egyptian series by Mir Nadir
Zeynalov, a Turkish series by Ismayil Mammadov, a Mongolian
series by Jahid Jamal and Indian series by Chingiz Farzaliyev and
Ashraf Heybatov. Altay Sadiqzada’s (born 1951) paintings of French
and British scenes deserve a special mention. The British capital has
caught the artist’s eye, which can be seen in his pictures A London
View, London and Churchill’s Statue. When it comes to France, Altay
Sadiqzada enjoys depicting places of leisure – Nice and the Côte
d’Azur (French Rivera).
It is possible to visualize 70 years of the development of
Azerbaijani art within the framework of Soviet artistic culture in the 213
example of three consecutive generations of painters. Elements of
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

modernism entered the language of Azerbaijani art in the 1960s,

while modernism had become the norm by 1985 and remained so
until 1993. Mirjavad Mirjavadov and Rafiq Babayev are considered
exponents of modernism among the older generation of painters,
while Fazil Najafov and others are modernist sculptors. Two poles in
the artistic language, namely, traditionalism based on the values of
national culture, and postmodernism, based obviously on Western
values, emerged later.
Malik Aghamalov (born 1962) is one of the main exponents of
postmodernism. A graduate of Tahir Salahov’s studio at the Surikov
Moscow State Academic Art Institute, Malik Aghamalov has a
perfect sense of composition and colour and a rich ability to depict
images and shapes. His mature period is characterized by extensive
postmodernist features, such as the use of series and abundant
quotations. But the most distinctive feature of his work is the
artist toying with the viewer, or perhaps with himself, through his
representational system. Aghamalov’s canvases feature everything
in life: genesis, the primary shapes, their growth and interaction,
spiritual and material food, erotica and piety before the sounds of
the heavens. His work is grouped thematically; for example, Angels,
Still Lifes, Games and so on. But this is all part of a postmodernist
game, as is the subject of classical painting itself. To this end, the
artist uses the effect of ‘spoiled’ paintings, when ‘spots’ and ‘flaws’
are deliberately added to brilliant images. Some of them appear
to bear a grid of crease marks, as if magazine reproductions of old
masters had been carefully folded several times and then just as
carefully unfolded and smoothed out.
In the years of independence the subjects and genres of the
plastic arts have changed. As monumental sculpture is an art form
that requires great financial expenditure, the creation of large
214
sculptures stopped during the transition period. But in the 2000s

Section II
monumental sculpture began to revive. As befits a sovereign state,
public consciousness began to see Azerbaijan as part of world
culture. This led on the one hand to public demand for statues of
foreign historical and cultural figures to be erected in Azerbaijan,
and on the other hand for statues of prominent Azerbaijanis to
be erected abroad. Statues of Navai, Pushkin, Taras Shevchenko,
Mozart and Nikola Tesla were erected in Baku and a statue of Thor
Heyerdahl was put up in Shaki. Local culture and history were
represented by statues of poet Khaqani Shirvani (2000), painter

Chapter 4
Azim Azimzada (2002), football referee Tofiq Bahramov (2004), and
composers Qara Qarayev (2014) and Fikrat Amirov (2011). A statue
of the epic hero Koroghlu, on horseback, (2014) by sculptor Tokay
Mammadov was erected in Baku. The Dada Qorqud Park, designed
by Gorush Babayev, opened in the centre of the city. (Dada Qorqud
is the narrator of the Oghuz epic Book of Dada Qorqud.)
The exquisite works of the sculptor Fuad Salayev (born 1943)
adorn the streets of Baku, including his piece Wayfarer in front of
the Museum Centre, which has a deep philosophical meaning.
Academician Omar Eldarov (born 1927), a living legend of
Azerbaijani sculpture, combines two periods in his work. His
sculptures are so capacious and diverse that it is impossible to take
them in at a glance. Omar Eldarov is still working in almost all types
and genres of sculpture. He is a skilful professional in monumental
sculpture, portraiture, busts, bas-reliefs and gravestones. In the last
25 years he has created monuments for the graves of playwright
Huseyn Javid, Academician Zarifa Aliyeva, singer and composer
Muslum Magomayev, Academician Hasan Aliyev, Academician
Ziya Bunyadov, orientalist Aida Imanguliyeva, writer Shikhali
Qurbanov, singer Rashid Behbudov, composer Tofiq Quliyev and
others. In his varied work, the great master creates forms closely 215
related to their urban environment. Omar Eldarov has recently
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

worked on sculptures to be erected abroad; for example, a bas-

relief of Uzeyir Hajibayli in Vienna (2005), a bust of Nizami Ganjavi
in Cheboksary (2004) and a statue of Ihsan Dogramaci in Ankara
(2003). The monument to the founder of the modern Turkish
state, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk in front of the Turkish embassy in
Baku is of particular significance. The sculptor’s work combines
two periods in his profession – the 20th and 21st centuries. He has
created a bronze monument, entitled 20th Century, which describes
a human silhouette broken in two; this composition represents
the dramatic collisions of two centuries was created in 2000, i.e.
at the intersection of the two periods, adding to its metaphorical
significance.
New popular names have emerged in the field of sculpture. For
instance, Natiq Aliyev (born 1958) developed his career rapidly
after graduating from the Vera Mukhina Higher School of Art
and Design in Leningrad. His monument to the Azerbaijani poet
Aliagha Vahid is especially interesting (1990). His talent is revealed
further in the monuments created in the 2000s to Mozart (2011),
Romanian composer George Enescu (2006), architect Zivarbay
Ahmadbayov in Baku (2011), and to the Serbian writer Milorad
Pavic in Belgrade. The latest thematic trends in contemporary
sculpture are concentrated in Natiq Aliyev’s work and reflected
in his new artistic language. His innovative solutions can be seen
in his statues of the national leader of Azerbaijan Heydar Aliyev
erected in Kiev (2004), Tbilisi (2007), Astrakhan (2010) and Belgrade
(2011). The ability to embody a theme in different compositions
and to penetrate the depth of the inner world of the image are
central to Aliyev’s work.
This feature can be seen in Natiq Aliyev’s monuments to the
216 genocide of Azerbaijanis, i.e. to the mass murder of civilians
in Khojaly in February 1992. He has created memorials to the

Section II
Khojaly victims in Mexico (2012), Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia and
Herzegovina (2012), and Ankara (2014). His contribution to the
development of sculpture has been highly appreciated: he was
honoured with the title of People’s Artist of Azerbaijan in 2005, and
became an honorary member of the Russian Academy of Arts.
A major multicultural event of recent years is the foundation
of the YARAT contemporary art space by a talented young artist,
Aida Mahmudova (born 1982), who studied in London. YARAT is
dedicated to nurturing an understanding of contemporary art
and creating a hub for artistic practice, research and thinking in

Chapter 4
Azerbaijan and abroad. During the five years of its existence YARAT
has brought together some 130 artists in over 120 cultural and
artistic projects. Its members create work in all the visual arts, such
as painting, graphics, sculpture, design, photography, video art and
installation, and today YARAT defines the Azerbaijani art of the 21st
century. It is appropriate that one YARAT exhibition should have
been entitled Merging Bridges. It featured both local and acclaimed
foreign artists including Sarah Lucas, Keith Coventry, James Turrell,
Idris Khan and Olympia Scarry. The exhibition was co-curated by
Aida Mahmudova, founder and director of YARAT and London-
based curator Adam Waymouth. The main goal of Merging Bridges
was to develop cultural dialogue in the modern world.
In conclusion, it should be noted that multiculturalism in
Azerbaijani fine art takes different forms. Its deepest and most
complex manifestation is the change of the artistic language
under the influence of foreign art. In more than a century this has
happened three times in Azerbaijani fine art: at the intersection of
the 19th and 20th centuries; in the 1920s and 30s; and in the early
years of independence. The thematic works of art of Azerbaijani
artists dedicated to numerous countries can be appreciated as a
remarkable and diverse manifestation of multiculturalism. A vital, 217
integral part of multiculturalism in fine art is the organization of
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

exhibitions, which introduces a local audience to world art, and a

foreign audience to the work of Azerbaijani artists. Another feature
of multiculturalism concerns the stages in the development of
sculpture: monuments are erected to foreign historical and cultural
figures of note in Azerbaijan, while monuments to prominent
Azerbaijanis are erected abroad.

4.6.4. Architecture

Dialogue among different cultures and religions is becoming

very topical. The early 21st century was marked by economic,
ecological and demographic problems, intensifying international
and inter-religious conflicts, separatism and an increase in
terrorism.
The efforts of the world community and the majority of
international organizations have been directed at tackling this
trend, at creating an environment for the coexistence of different
cultures in peace and security. From this point of view, the
experience of states where the traditions of religious and ethnic
tolerance promote inter-ethnic relations and the development of all
cultures is of great value in the contemporary world.
One such country is Azerbaijan, where favourable conditions
have been created for ethnic and religious minorities to live
together in peace since ancient times.
Located at the intersection of European and Asian, Eastern and
Western civilizations, Azerbaijan has historically been a place of
coexistence and interaction of different cultures. The caravan roads
passing through the country from east to west and north to south
have divided it into two parts. Multiple attacks on the country and
waves of migration have left their mark in its fertile lands with
218 rich natural resources, and brought a variety ethnic groups and
religions to the country. All these factors have shaped the traditions

Section II
of religious and ethnic tolerance.
The inhabitants of ancient Azerbaijan worshipped the forces
of nature, the most common of which was fire. At the beginning
of the first millennium CE, the first followers of Christianity began
to visit these lands to spread their beliefs. In the 4th century
Christianity became the official religion of Caucasian Albania,
the main state at that time in what is now Azerbaijan. Alongside
Christianity Zoroastrianism was also dominant in the southern
and eastern parts of the country. Although the Sassanid rulers
attempted to spread Zoroastrianism in the Albanian territories,

Chapter 4
this policy failed. Prior to the Arab invasions and Islamization,
the remnants of ancient local beliefs and idolatry could be found
alongside Christianity and Zoroastrianism in Azerbaijan.
The advent of Islam in the country did not shatter the traditions
of tolerance established here. Guided by the postulates of the
Koran that ‘there is no compulsion in religion’, Azerbaijan’s Muslim
rulers did not force the Christians and Jews, who were already
monotheists, to adopt Islam. As numerous historical sources claim,
in the Middle Ages, religious tolerance prevailed in the urban areas
of Azerbaijan, which could be observed in the presence of churches
as well as mosques. Shared fates played a crucial role in the
formation of close relations among the various ethnic and religious
groups living in the country. Down the centuries invaders turned
Azerbaijan into a bloody battlefield, while its population was ruled
by neighbouring states many times. Shared troubles and struggles
against them always brought the different ethnic groups together,
developing feelings of tolerance among them.
In the 20th century Azerbaijan, particularly its capital Baku, was
an example of internationalism. The end of the 20th century, when
the collapse of the Soviet Union led to interethnic conflicts in
many parts of the country, posed a serious test for the traditions 219
of tolerance. The Armenian separatist movement in Nagorno-
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Karabakh turned into a war between Armenia and Azerbaijan,

which resulted in the occupation of 20 per cent of the territory of
Azerbaijan. However, the Armenian aggression and separatism,
which resulted in thousands of victims and displaced a million
Azerbaijanis within their own country, could not change the
traditional ideological principles of Azerbaijani society. In
independent Azerbaijan religious and ethnic tolerance has become
an integral part of state policy.
The centuries-long traditions of religious and ethnic tolerance
in Azerbaijan can be seen in its architecture, particularly in the
architecture of religious buildings, which is proof of cultural
diversity. Some brief information about the numerous buildings of
the different religions to have survived to the present day provides
an excellent illustration of this.
Islamic places of worship constitute the majority of religious
heritage monuments. The first mosques in Azerbaijan were
built in the 7th century and include Derbent, Shamakhi and Agsu
mosques. Interestingly, many researchers think that the design of
these mosques was based on the basilica-type church buildings
of Christian architecture. In the Middle Ages, Islamic architecture
reached its peak of development. Dozens of mosques and
madrasahs were built in the cities of Azerbaijan, while khanegah
complexes of religious and lay buildings were common on the
caravan routes. In the Middle Ages, every district within a town or
village had its own mosque.
Mosques are the finest, most richly decorated examples of
architecture in the medieval cities. Islamic shrines and mausoleums
were also widespread. Magnificent examples have been preserved
in Nakhchivan, Ardabil, Tabriz and Baku. The specific features of
the various architectural schools of Azerbaijan, such as Shirvan-
220
Absheron, Tabriz-Nakhchivan and Aran, are evident in the

Section II
architecture of medieval places of worship and memorials.
It is interesting that the distinctive features of Azerbaijani
architecture can be seen against the background of renewed
cultural ties with the bordering countries. Although some
construction and decorative techniques were used, they were
transformed creatively in line with local cultural and defensive
traditions and absorbed into architectural practice.
Many medieval Christian buildings have been preserved
in Azerbaijan alongside the Islamic architectural monuments.
Christianity in Azerbaijan goes back to the early centuries of

Chapter 4
the first millennium. According to legend, the first Caucasian
church was founded in the first century in the village of Kish near
Shaki. Kish church was restored in 2001-03 and now houses the
Historical Museum of Caucasian Albania. In the 6th and 7th centuries
Christianity was the religion of Caucasian Albania. Even after the
occupation of the country by Arab forces and the conversion
of the majority of the population to Islam, Christianity continued
to have many adherents. The Albanian Christian principalities
were strengthened in the places where religious buildings were
erected in the Middle Ages. On the basis of a decree of the
Russian Tsar Nicolas I, dated 11 March 1836, the Russian Senate
passed regulations on 10 April that year, transferring the Shirvan
and Karabakh eparchies of the Albanian Apostolic Church to the
administration of the Armenian Gregorian Church.
Christian architectural monuments are often found in the
mountain areas and foothills of Azerbaijan. The early medieval
places of worship are basilicas with one or three naves, or round
or cruciform churches. The Qum and Aghoghlanchay basilicas and
the round Lakit and Mamrukh churches are interesting examples of
this.
221
In the Middle Ages large monasteries, including one or
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

more churches, monastic cells, accommodation and agricultural

buildings, were built in the Albanian principalities. The best known
is the Ganjasar complex built by Albanian Prince Hasan Jalal, and
the Khudavang complex built by Albanian Prince Bahram and his
wife Arzu Khatun.
There is an unbreakable link between the Islamic and Christian
architectures of Azerbaijan. The architecture of the early Islamic
era was based on the architecture of preceding periods, mastering
and developing further the planning, design and construction
techniques. Both Muslim and Christian architecture in the
Middle Ages developed on the basis of similar principles, such as
strengthening the vertical proportions and enhancing the role of
decor. Surviving monuments have the same architectural forms
and types. For example, square rooms, four freestanding pillars and
cruciform structures with domes were used in the architecture of
both Muslim and Christian religious buildings.
The Christian architecture of the Caucasian Albanian era is
an important part of the medieval architecture of Azerbaijan.
Hundreds of monuments of Caucasian Albania have been
preserved in Azerbaijan and are now included in the country’s
official heritage and protected by law. Unfortunately, most of
them are in the areas of Azerbaijan occupied by the Armenians.
Illegal repairs are being made to most of them to change their
appearance and falsify their history.
Azerbaijan was also home to followers of the Zoroastrian
religion. In the pre-Islamic era fire-worshippers’ temples were built
throughout the territory of Azerbaijan. After the occupation of the
country by the troops of the Arab Caliphate, most of the temples
were destroyed.
An attractive fire temple of the Zoroastrian religion has been
222 preserved in the settlement of Surakhani near Baku. It is in the
shape of a square surrounded by low, single-storey cells. In 1713

Section II
various buildings were constructed around the temple; the fire-
temple is thought to have existed continually since its original
construction. Despite reconstruction work in the 19th century, it has
preserved its original form. The temple, or to be more exact, the
place of fire worship, is square with four columns in the corners
and a dome covering the central part; all four sides are traditionally
open. The buildings surrounding the temple were built for the
servants of the temple and pilgrims who came and stayed for many
years to worship the permanent fire from the oil and gas-rich soil
of the Absheron Peninsula.

Chapter 4
Thus, in the Middle Ages very magnificent religious architectural
monuments were built in the country. The dominant religion in
Azerbaijan was Islam, but the temples of other religions were also
built in different regions of the country. This is evidence of the
cultural diversity, religious and ethnic tolerance of the nation. The
religious architecture of different religions developed in a single
political and economic space in tandem with the flourishing or
decline of the country as a whole. For example, in the 11th to 13th
centuries, both the Islamic and Christian architecture of Azerbaijan
flourished.
Religious architecture became even more varied in appearance
after the occupation of the northern territories of Azerbaijan by the
Russian Empire. The migration policy of the tsarist government,
as well as the rapid development of oil and other industries
in Azerbaijan, led to the settlement of new ethnic groups in
Azerbaijan. The majority of these ethnic groups were Russian
immigrants. Alongside them were European settlers too, including
Germans and Poles. The tolerance of the Azerbaijani people and
the economic development in the country created favourable
conditions for the formation of numerous ethnic communities
223
and gave them an opportunity to preserve their own culture and
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

religion.
In the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries, many
churches and temples of different confessions were built in
multi-ethnic Azerbaijan. The cultural and religious diversity and
tolerance of Azerbaijan are more clearly visible in the architectural
monuments of Baku and other big towns. The tsarist government
financed the construction of many Orthodox churches to spread
Christianity in the south Caucasus. At the same time, it did not
prevent the construction of mosques for fear of displeasing the
Muslim majority. The mosques of this period in the Shaki-Zaqatala
region are particularly interesting. They are laid out as basilicas and
surrounded outside by arched walkways. In Baku and other cities
mosques with large cupolas were built, preserving the centuries-
old traditions of religious architecture.
The Taza Pir Mosque, built in 1905 to a design by civil engineer
Zivarbay Ahmadbayov, began a new stage in the development of
religious buildings in Absheron. It is a square building with a small
prayer hall covered with a cupola resting on a low cylindrical drum.
The mosque could be clearly seen from many parts of the city,
owing to its successful position on a low hill surrounded by low-
rise buildings.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the construction of Orthodox
churches began in the territories of the Georgianized Albanian
population, i.e. in the districts of Zaqatala, Qakh and Oghuz. In
1888 the foundation of the Alexander Nevsky Orthodox Church
was laid in Baku. Tsar Alexander and his family took part in the
ceremony. As the construction budget was exhausted, the residents
of Baku began to collect money to complete the building. Seventy-
five per cent of that sum was raised by Muslims. The Alexander

224
Nevsky Church was the grandest and most central of the churches

Section II
in Baku. It was blown up by the communist state in 1936.
In 1896 the cathedral Church of the Holy Virgin Mary was built
in Baku. In 1937, when it was the only Christian church in Baku and
Absheron, it was closed and used as barracks. After the restoration
of independence in Azerbaijan the church was renovated in 1999-
2001 and has been open to the faithful ever since.
The oldest surviving church in Baku, the Michael the Archangel
Church, was built in the mid-19th century. It was closed during
Stalin’s repressions and reopened its doors to worshippers in 1946
and has been functioning ever since.

Chapter 4
The Cathedral of the Holy Myrrh Bearers was closed in 1920
after the establishment of Soviet power. It was given to the Russian
Orthodox Church in 1991. It had been built in the military church
style as the church of the Salyan regimental barracks in 1909. In
2001 after renovation funded by Azerbaijani philanthropist Aydin
Qurbanov it was given the status of a cathedral church.
Members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church appeared in Baku
in the second half of the 19th century, when the oil boom attracted
German industrialists. In 1870 they created their own community,
and as a result of their efforts in 1889 a Lutheran church was
built. It decorates one of the central streets of the city and is
now a chamber and organ music concert hall. Wholly built in the
German Gothic style, the church soars upwards with plasticity and
dynamism its distinctive features. The skilfully designed entrance
to the building is of great interest. German Lutheran churches were
also built in Helenendorf (Göygöl), Annenfeld (Shamkir) and Ganja.
In 1912 civil engineer Jozef Ploszko designed a Roman Catholic
church for his many Polish compatriots in Azerbaijan, but this
church too was demolished during the Stalin era. The foundation
of the new Church of the Virgin Mary’s Immaculate Conception was 225
laid after the visit of Pope John II to Azerbaijan. The building has a
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

dynamic composition and faces one of the city’s main highways.

Judaism is another religion in Azerbaijan especially widespread
in the areas inhabited by the Mountain Jews. Their migration
dates back to the 1st century BCE, according to the historian
Moisey Kalankatuklu. According to other sources, they migrated to
Azerbaijan during the rule of the Sassanids. Despite their centuries-
old close relations with the indigenous population, the Mountain
Jews have preserved their religion and traditions. A synagogue
was built in Baku at the beginning of the 21st century to meet
the needs of the Mountain and European Jews. It has two floors
below ground and six above ground. Its monolithic structure has
magnificent, shaded windows. It combines the features of the
religious atmosphere and architecture of Absheron.
Azerbaijan is an example of a modern state that ensures the
rights of Muslims. They form the majority of the population of the
country. It also respects all the religious and ethnic groups within
the population and ensures their rights too. The state cares about
cultural and religious traditions, including the construction and
restoration of places of worship.
This review of religious architecture in Azerbaijan over a long
period of history shows how rich and diverse it is. This diversity
is typical not only of religious architecture, but also of residential
architecture, which reflects the cultural traditions and features of
the peoples and ethnic groups living in the country. While Islamic
culture and architecture predominate in Azerbaijan, each nation
and religious group have always had the opportunity to create their
own architecture. Some beautiful examples of architecture are part
of the country’s rich and diverse heritage.
Multiculturalism can be seen in Azerbaijani architecture in
the combination of elements from different cultures and in the
adaptation of the architecture of different ethnic groups and
226 religions. From the mid-19th century the changing situation in
Azerbaijan changed its construction practice. The oil boom and

Section II
economic development attracted many Russian and European
architects to the country. With their arrival new European
architectural styles appeared in Azerbaijan. Traditional local and
European trends in architecture developed in parallel at first. Later,
European architecture strengthened its position in Azerbaijan.
Enriched with the national styles and architectural forms of
Azerbaijan, it created a distinctive oriental architectural style, which
laid the basis for development of the national-romantic trend in
architecture. The architects working in the European style tried to
reflect the features of local architecture and made professional use

Chapter 4
of local building materials. Traditional Azerbaijani ornamentation
gave the buildings a special twist. The combination of European
style and local Azerbaijani architectural traditions laid the
foundations of Baku’s unique architecture in the late 19th and early
20th centuries. Fine buildings combine the design, composition and
ornamentation of different construction cultures and are a bright
illustration of multiculturalism in architecture.
The multiculturalism of Azerbaijani society takes care of the
magnificent, unique architectural heritage of the different cultures
that have lived and are living there.

4.6.5. Monumental Art

The historical and geographical location of Azerbaijan has

determined its tolerance, its attempts to enrich its culture through
the culture of other nations and its desire to understand the
achievements of other peoples while retaining its originality and its
aspiration to join world culture. These are the main qualities and
characteristics of the development of the culture of Azerbaijan.
Azerbaijan is located at the intersection of east and west, north
and south, where Islamic and Christian cultures merge. It has 227
successfully undertaken its historical mission as a bridge between
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

these worlds.
Since ancient times – the Neolithic era – there have been
pictures of boats with many oarsmen on the rocks in Qobustan.
These galleys could not have belonged to the inhabitants of
Qobustan. The images reflect the boats the local people saw on the
Caspian Sea. Since the times of Homer, or perhaps much earlier, the
Greeks tried to cross from the Black Sea to the Caspian in galleys
rowed by many men. In those times the Caspian Sea was larger and
there was a waterway connecting it with the Black Sea. According
to Homer, the Greeks sailed these seas in search of the golden
fleece.
The Caspian Sea had links with the Aral Sea to the east in
Central Asia. There were many towns with high-level cultures
and architecture on the ancient coast of the Caspian Sea. Traces
of these cities can be seen from the air. Perhaps the Stone Age
inhabitants of Qobustan saw the ancient Greeks in their galleys
and carved their drawings on the rocks. This is the earliest evidence
of the rapprochement of the cultures of different peoples in the
territory of Azerbaijan.
Azerbaijan was a centre of Zoroastrianism and a country with
a high level of architecture and construction before the spread of
Islam; the Maiden Tower is evidence of this. Early Christian churches
remain in the territory of Azerbaijan; for example, the church in the
village of Kish. There were many similar churches in Azerbaijan in
the era of Caucasian Albania.
Located on the central part of the ancient Silk Road, Azerbaijan
was inevitably influenced by the creativity behind the goods
transported from east to west, north to south and back.
Azerbaijan, considered the land of fire since ancient times,
became a Klondike or a world centre of oil production in the 19th
228
century, attracting the attention of the economic and industrial

Section II
forces of the world. The Nobels, Rothschilds, and others came to
Azerbaijan, influencing the course of the country’s history. However,
national business circles always held the leading position in the
oil industry. Throughout history the Azerbaijani people have been
inclined towards business and have been responsible for the
majority of production.
Azerbaijan produced 90 per cent of the world’s oil during its
oil boom. Despite the fact that big major European entrepreneurs
worked in Baku, national businessmen possessed the main share
of oil production. The oil barons grew rich and invested money

Chapter 4
in construction. They would commission houses to be built in
different styles from classical, through Gothic to the modern
style of that period. The period was known as ‘the Roofless Baku
Renaissance’, as the majority of buildings had flat roofs covered in
pitch.
Architects from different countries began to move to Azerbaijan
and a building boom began, with buildings being constructed in
the European architectural style.
Architects of different nationalities worked in Baku, but it was
Polish architects that made the most significant contribution to the
construction of the city. The Ismailliya Palace (now the Presidium of
the Academy of Sciences) was built in the Venetian style by a Polish
architect, Jozef Ploszko. Another Polish architect Jozef Goslawski
also designed many buildings in Baku, the finest of which is the
European-style city hall, the present-day mayor’s office.
The buildings of Russian architect Bayev also deserve mention.
He designed many buildings in Baku connected with transportation,
and was responsible for almost all the railway stations in the
country. The best and most striking example is the central railway
station in Baku, formerly known as the Sabunchu Railway Station,
229
with a clock tower resembling a minaret and its crenelated roof.
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Bayev also designed a number of industrial buildings.

In subsequent years, avant-garde architects the Vesnin brothers
worked in Soviet Baku and Shchusev designed the Intourist Hotel.
After World War II, the architect Rudnev designed Government
House. Azerbaijani architects designed many buildings during
this period too. The buildings of Dadashov and Useynov were
particularly striking. Mikayil Useynov designed several buildings
that set the city’s main style until the independence of Azerbaijan.
The intelligentsia of Azerbaijan and its creative forces have
always tried to interact with other cultures. Mirza Shafi Vazeh,
Mirza Fatali Akhundov, Huseyn Javid and others contributed to the
development of culture through their work.
Foreign sculptors, including Erzia, Sinayski, Sabsai and
Tripolskaya, also worked in Baku. Local sculptors, including Fuad
Abdurrahmanov, Jalal Qaryaghdi, Huseyn Ahmadov and Zivar
Mammadova, took the leading role in national architecture.
The fine art of Azerbaijan acquired features of world and
European styles, but preserved its national identity too. The work
of Bahruz Kangarli and Azim Azimzada and, later, of a whole
generation of prominent Azerbaijani artists are brilliant examples
of this. The development of modern architecture and construction
in Baku and other towns and cities of the country is further
confirmation of this combination of the national and international.
These are the qualities that have helped the capital and the whole
country develop so rapidly and attract the attention of the whole
world community. The energetic and businesslike character of the
Azerbaijani people ensures their future development.
Baku and Azerbaijan, as a whole, are developing rapidly without
losing their originality because of their multiculturalism. Mugham
230 in music, carpet weaving in applied arts and ornamentation in
architecture are national achievements acquired over centuries.

Section II
National Azerbaijani views on beauty in new forms of art merge
with the views of world culture.

4.6.6. Theatre

Since ancient times many nations have lived together in

Azerbaijan. Azerbaijani culture can be said to arise from the
dialogue of these nations or to be the culture of dialogue.
Azerbaijan lies on the Silk Road, at the intersection of west and
east, where Asia and Europe meet. Its location has attuned

Chapter 4
Azerbaijan to dialogue.
Azerbaijani culture is a priori multicultural, because the cultural
process has been built on dialogue down the centuries. Azerbaijan
has always been a transmitter and a guarantor of the dialogue of
numerous cultures, which enjoyed equal rights within its borders.
It has created a unique system of culture, which relies on the active
interaction of cultures and it is now sharing its experience with the
world.
Azerbaijani mugham, carpets and cuisine are also expressions
of multicultural dialogue, the result, one might say, of multicultural
bartering and exchange. Achieving this exchange requires the skills
to build and conduct dialogue. Azerbaijan is a place where various
cultural currents have communicated independently with each
other and created qualitatively new cultural manifestations. This
factor enables the creation of a fruitful environment for dialogue
and commerce. Constant contacts and relations among the nations
and ethnic groups give birth to cultural phenomena in everyday
life and oral folklore. Multiculturalism is like a river to which many
tributaries flow from different lands, creating the shared culture of
mankind.
231
Theatre is a space that never suffers from a lack of dialogue.
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Dialogue is so important on the stage that theatre can be said to

be dialogue itself. From this point of view, the dramatic arts may
be considered the closest to multiculturalism. From the second half
of the 19th century till the present day a multicultural situation has
been typical of Azerbaijani culture, particularly theatre. From the
second half of the 19th century manifestations of European culture
appeared in the Azerbaijani environment: newspapers, theatre,
opera, and classical music put down roots in the soil of national
culture and grew. It is natural that this should be interpreted as the
result of active contact and dialogue of east and west.
It is this dialogue that led to the birth of the social institution
of theatre in Azerbaijan and its development. At first sight theatre
may seem to be far removed from multiculturalism, as each
performance is just a local manifestation of a specific socio-political
environment, in which specific socio-economic problems are
addressed to a particular group. At the same time, theatre clarifies
and interprets the ideas with the help of language; European-type
theatre is the bearer of ideas. Ethnic, social, psychological and
collective factors and language have always been dominant in
the art of the theatre. It is true that since the second half of the
20th century producers around the world have suggested bringing
actors of different nations onto one stage. People speaking
different languages on the same stage would bring the idea of
multiculturalism to the stage.
Multicultural factors have always been evident in the formation
and development of the theatre in Azerbaijan. Since the formation
of Azerbaijani theatre people of different nations have shared the
same stage. Actors from the Caucasian peoples appeared with local
actors on the Azerbaijani stage and spoke in Azerbaijani, because in
232
those times the Azerbaijani language was regarded as the ‘French

Section II
of the Caucasus’.
At the beginning of the 20th century Pamphylia Tanailidi, an
ethnic Greek (her stage name was Surayya Zangazurlu), Marziya
Davudova, a Turk from Astrakhan, Russian Yeva Olenskaya, Ulvi
Rajab from Ajaria, Georgian Gamar khanum Topuria and people
of other nations worked alongside Azerbaijanis in the theatre
and this trend continued. One of the founders of professional
Azerbaijani theatre was Alexandr Alexandrovich Tuganov, an
ethnic Russian, who for a long time was the chief director of the
National Theatre and Azerbaijan State Theatre of Young Spectators.

Chapter 4
He introduced theatre to Azerbaijani audiences and helped it to
flourish. At different times Russian, Italian, and Jewish directors
worked in various theatres of Azerbaijan. All this shows that people
of different nations created a multicultural ensemble in Azerbaijani
theatre.
In the early years actors of other nations worked with
Azerbaijani companies. True, this is inferred from fragmentary
information, rather than clearer evidence. For example, the
theatre built by the millionaire Haji Zeynalabdin Taghiyev in 1883
was rented by Polonski, who headed the Russian theatre where
the actors were Jewish. For the sake of objectivity it should be
mentioned that in the early 20th century other national minorities
living in Azerbaijani territory were not at the stage of beginning
their own theatrical performances. Therefore, progressive people
from these minorities joined the Azerbaijani companies of actors,
where they were proud to speak Azerbaijani and even wrote plays
in the language. Of course, the birth of such a cultural environment
shows that the multicultural situation was very positive in Azerbaijan
at the beginning of the 20th century.
Azerbaijani plays, particularly the national classics, rely greatly
on multicultural principles. The manners and behaviour of people 233
of different nations (English, Italian, Jewish, Arab) can be found in
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Shakespeare’s plays. This trend is evident in the work of Azerbaijani

playwrights too, especially Mirza Fatali Akhundzada, Jafar Jabbarli
and Huseyn Javid.
The multicultural background is a constant of modern
Azerbaijani theatre too; today Lezghi, Georgian and Russian
theatres have the status of state theatre in Azerbaijan and perform
regularly. Although in the 1980s the Beserer Jewish theatre held
a premiere of The Little Prince, the theatre could not survive the
Jewish migration to Israel.
The truth should be acknowledged that none of the national
theatres can survive by relying solely on the work of local
playwrights. The theatres build their repertoires on the world
classics and the work of contemporary playwrights. This is a very
important condition for the theatre and is based entirely on the
principle of multiculturalism, or more precisely, it puts this principle
into its work.
In 1968, the actor and mime artist Jean-Louis Barrault invited
the English director Peter Brook, whose parents were Latvian Jews,
to Paris. As soon as Peter Brook arrived in Paris, he set up the
International Theatre Research Centre and began to work on a
production with an international company of actors, which led him
directly to a multicultural environment. In 1979 Peter Brook staged
a similar show in France, based on The Conference of the Birds by
Farid ud-Din Attar of Nishapur and bringing together actors from
different nations and countries. The actors spoke in different
languages on stage, performing with their different cultures of
movement. The French, Indian, Russian and Polish actors entered
into dialogue on stage to clarify everything for both their partners
and the audience so everything was fully comprehensible. In fact,
234 Peter Brook presented a visual model of multiculturalism; when the
actors spoke different languages on stage, they understood one

Section II
another very well, and of course body language was not ignored.
Theatre is one of the axles that turns the wheel of culture, and is
never far from debates on culture and social issues. Theatre cannot
be isolated from political theories and experience. The wheel of
culture has many axles, each of which moves the wheel in different
directions. Language, art, architecture, music, painting, folklore,
way of life and other factors can be considered the axles. While all
these different axles drive forward the most prominent features
of humanity, they connect the wheel to multicultural values. At
this stage of history theatre is beginning to talk actively about

Chapter 4
multiculturalism, interculturalism and cross-culturalism. First was
the Italian director Eugenio Barba, who delved into the detail of the
anthropology of theatre. Seeking to continue the tradition of Peter
Brook, he staged a multicultural performance of Shakespeare’s
tragedy Hamlet in 2006. Barba gave a postmodernist interpretation
to the classic text, calling his new version Ur-Hamlet. Barba invited
professional actors, dancers and musicians from several countries
to take part in the production. Barba wrote of the experience:

‘I started working with eight of my actors in Holstebro and

Copenhagen. In Bali, 33 Gambuh performers joined my mime actors,
Akira Matsui, a Japanese Noh master, joined us and then Indian,
Brazilian and European singers and musicians came too. We brought
together 43 actors from 22 countries in Italy, where they took part in
my workshops on Ur-Hamlet.’

They played the parts of migrants obliged to leave their country

because of starvation, war and epidemic diseases who were looking
for shelter in Hamlet’s gloomy castle, where the winds of revenge
raged. Of course, to work with 43 actors from 22 countries on
235
the same stage can be considered an act of multicultural valour.
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Regardless of its emotional power, this was without doubt an

epoch-making production in the history of theatre. In reality, the
phenomenal success of this show lay in its strange synergy of styles,
movement, energy and plots on the stage connecting different
types of behaviour in the context of the text. In his interviews and
speeches Eugenio Barba has repeatedly stressed that his work has
much in common with intraculturalism, not multiculturalism or
interculturalism. If multiculturalism shows the right to existence of
different cultures in the same social environment, interculturalism
attaches importance to the intensive interrelated interaction of
different cultures in the same social environment; interculturalism
is, therefore, called a liberal mission. But intraculturalism makes
topical the unity of different cultures in the same social condition
in its own programme. There is a point that brings multiculturalism,
interculturalism, intraculturalism and cross-culturalism to a common
denominator at the end: the dialogue of cultures. It means that
names can be changed and classifications specified, but in essence
dialogue for the development of cultures never loses its relevance.
Today Azerbaijani theatre conducts an active dialogue with
different countries of the world; international theatre festivals
and thematic conferences are held every other year in Azerbaijan,
while directors, set designers and lighting specialists from England,
Russia, Georgia, Serbia, Greece and Ukraine have been invited
to stage productions for local theatres. This is an indispensable
creative factor in the multicultural background.
Opera, ballet and choreography in general are multicultural.
Ballet is a European form of musical theatre art, which expresses
content through movement and choreographic images. Ballet
began to spread around the world in the early 19th century,
expanding the cultures of music and movement of China, Korea,
236
Japan, Egypt, Latin America, Azerbaijan and other regions. But the

Section II
truth is that dance stereotypes in the minds of Europeans have
always inspired oriental motifs and movements in ballet. Oriental
exoticism has always attracted directors and choreographers.
European ballet was in turn welcomed in the orient as European
exoticism. In this sense, ballet is a cell of the arts where different
kinds of choreographic exoticism meet and establish dialogue in
a spirit of multiculturalism. New ballet emerges as a result of this
multicultural dialogue in the world of culture. The spiritual and
cultural rapprochement of east and west, of which travellers and
educators have long dreamt, is taking place astonishingly rapidly,

Chapter 4
moulding the unique essence of multicultural creativity. Intensive
international exchange, migration and the unlimited opportunities
for communication give a considerable impetus to this trend.
It is common practice in opera and ballet to invite well-
known singers or dancers from other countries to be guest
performers. This tradition emerged during the enlightenment
period of European culture. While the visiting performers may not
understand the language spoken on stage, there is no cause for
alarm. They are able to communicate in the language of gesture,
movement, pose and voice modulation. In these cases cultures
seem to be transported easily to each other; sounds and dances
are taken as examples of exoticism from one culture to another and
are modified in the process, creating a new mode of existence.
Multiculturalism has a very strong influence on modern
choreography. It is even possible to say that contemporary art
and culture are multicultural in essence, because there is chaotic
migration all around the world today: aggression, economic
recession and the public atmosphere are also very important.
Migration has created a particular feature too. There are talented
European choreographers, and this applies as well to filmmakers,
237
writers and actors who have assimilated two national cultures: one
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

is the culture (language, tradition, character, mentality) transmitted

through nurture and nature by their immigrant parents, the other
the culture they adopt while living in Europe (language, lifestyle,
social order). Oriental choreographers are also close to this group:
they have professionally assimilated the ability to think through the
images of dance culture in Europe, and have been working far from
their motherland for a long time.
The creative work of both groups is often an irreconcilable
combination of contradictory thoughts and feelings about the
world: ‘personal ambition’ exists alongside ‘noble desire’, criticism
of the freedom and achievements of the West alongside promotion
of the cultural values of the East, offence at the colonial past of
their countries alongside ‘the desire to prove something’ to the
West, criticism of European idols alongside oriental exoticism, the
desire to shock alongside encouraging revolution, severe brutality
alongside weeping sentimentality.
Other aspects, some of which we have not analysed, mould the
multicultural panorama and essence of the modern cultural world and
engender new aesthetics in dance.
The multicultural context is very obvious in Azerbaijani music; its
most striking example is Azerbaijani mugham. The involvement of
Arab, Indian, Persian music and Zoroastrian and shaman traditions
in the genesis of Azerbaijani mugham is undeniable. Azerbaijani
mugham is attuned to all the vibrations of oriental music – it has
assimilated oriental melodies, songs and sound modulations,
concentrated them and spread them around the world in the form
of mugham.
The Natiq Rhythm Group, well known in Azerbaijan today and
abroad too, does much the same for national culture; their work
could be described as ‘rhythm theatre’. The group of naghara
238 drummers play a mosaic or bouquet of rhythms from around
the world. Of course, in the context of contemporary Azerbaijani

Section II
music and its national traditions, this is an aesthetic and emotional
phenomenon. It enriches Azerbaijani music with completely new
rhythms and vibrations. The context and essence of Natiq Rhythm
Group are, therefore, multicultural.
A number of landmark events in the history of classical and jazz
music in Azerbaijan are also multicultural in nature. For example,
Azerbaijani composer Qara Qarayev composed the ballet Path
of Thunder (1958) with a libretto by Yuri Slonimsky based on the
novel of the same name by South African author Peter Abrahams.
The plot is shocking: the problems of black people are reflected in

Chapter 4
Azerbaijani music and music from many different directions. With
Prokofiev and Shostakovich on one side, African musical tradition
on the other and Azerbaijani mugham a ballet masterpiece was
created.
Qara Qarayev’s ballet Seven Beauties and Fikrat Amirov’s ballet The
Arabian Nights can both be seen as multicultural. In many cases
Azerbaijani music of the 20th century is a perfect synthesis of the
traditions of oriental and western music.
In the unique compositions of Tofiq Quliyev and Rauf Hajiyev
jazz music enters a dialogue with Azerbaijani folk music, elevating
the song genre to a new plane in Azerbaijan.
The saxophonist Parviz Baghirov followed by the pianist Vaqif
Mustafazada synthesized Azerbaijani ethno-­music with Afro-
American music, creating a completely new genre, jazz-mugham, in
the jazz history of the world. All of them reveal the multicultural
context. It should also be noted that some of the best Jewish
teachers in the world have taught for a long time at the Uzeyir
Hajibayli Music Academy, contributing to the development of
classical music in Azerbaijan. This is a sign of tolerance and of
the level of development. Sayavush Karimi, rector of the National
Conservatory, has experimented by synthesizing Azerbaijani 239
mugham and folk songs with Norwegian songs and Argentinian
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

rhythms, creating examples of multiculturalism for musical

ensembles.
To return to the idea of the wheel of culture, another of its
axles is sport and the culture of sport. The Azerbaijani team at the
first European Games, held in Baku, showed the whole world that
sport is a multicultural idea. Today the teams competing in various
championships (football, basketball, volleyball, hockey) in European
countries are multicultural too. Multiculturalism is the demand of
the times and no one can remain outside it.
Cultures cannot live behind closed doors. This might have been
possible only in such a remote country as Japan in the Middle
Ages. Since the late 19th century, an informal law has come into
force: ‘Nobody has the spiritual right to live in isolation.’ Perhaps
if integration had not begun in Japan in the 19th and 20th centuries,
the situation of the Japanese would have been miserable. In
conclusion, it should be said that when cultures are open to the
world, their development and breadth expand. The future of
modern world culture is multiculturalism.

4.7.7. Film

Two and a half years after the Lumière brothers showed their
short film The Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat Station on 21 June
1898, Alexandre Michon made his film The Arrival of a Train at
Sabunchu Station. Photographer Michon was the first to shoot
film in the reportage genre when he filmed a fire at the oilfields
of merchant James Wishaw in 1898. The film of the Bibi-Heybat
fire, kept at the cinema museum in Paris, is a visual symbol that
Baku and Azerbaijan as whole had entered the historical stage of
multiculturalism.
240
On 1 August 1898, the newspaper Kaspi informed its readers

Section II
that Alexandre Mishon’s Live Photos of Central Asia and the
Caucasus, made for the World Exhibition in Paris, would be shown
at the Vasilyev-Vyatski circus in Baku. This is confirmation that
intercultural relations arising out of multiculturalism had already
entered public discourse. These moving images showed different
cultural elements: Fire at Bibi-Heybat Oilfield was a piece of
reportage; Farewell Ceremony for His Majesty the Emir of Bukhara
on Board the Velikiy Knyaz Aleksey Steamship, commissioned by
millionaire Haji Zeynalabdin Taghiyev, was observational; Caucasian
Dance and You Stumbled were both short comedies.

Chapter 4
The new film technology allowed cameramen to film the
surrounding environment. They showed how people of different
nationalities behaved and greeted each other and the camera,
creating original information about cultural diversity.
Since the early 20th century film reels, or documentaries,
about popular games such as tightrope walking, cock fighting
or dog fighting, industrial and agricultural subjects and political
issues such as strikes and demonstrations, show the cultures.
Félix Mesguich, representing French and English film companies,
is also known to have shot several times in Baku before 1905. In
1907 the French film companies Pathé Brothers, Gaumont and
Eclair, Italian companies Cines and Ambrosio, Danish company
Nordisk, German Messter and American Vitagraph opened
representative offices in Moscow. They filmed a multicultural view
of the provinces, including Azerbaijan. The same year Gaumont
made a documentary film The Third State Duma, which showed
inter-ethnic relations in the state administration through the
extreme right winger Fedor Timoshkin and Dashnak Ivan Sagatelian
from the Baku and Yelizavetpol governerates, and Khalil bay
Khasmammadov, the only Azerbaijani to have been close to the
Constitutional Democratic Party. 241
On 8 March 1917, hostile forces filmed Stepan Shaumyan’s
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

speech after his return from exile in Saratov and election as

chairman of the Soviet of Workers’ Deputies, confirming the
violation of demographic balance in the political administration.
The following year Shaumyan led the Dashnak-Bolshevik massacre
of Azerbaijani Muslims. At the end of World War I, at the request of
the Red Cross, the painful condition of Turkish prisoners on Nargin
Island in Baku bay was filmed, confirming the threat to the Turks
and Azerbaijanis in the region.
The newsreel Red Army Parade in Baku was a piece
of propaganda for the Bolsheviks who put an end to the
independence of Azerbaijan on 28 April 1920. Film in Azerbaijan
was then dominated by documentaries about anniversaries and
the lives of political leaders. The documentary Anniversary of Soviet
Azerbaijan, shot in 1921, was a piece of Socialist Realism in the
propaganda poster genre. Though Azerbaijani films mainly focused
on industry, there were other films, such as Kalinin’s Arrival in Baku
(1923), Rest and Treatment for Oil Workers and the film about the
visit of Lenin’s wife, Nadezhda Krupskaya, and the Bolshevik writer
Demyan Bedniy to Azerbaijan all had interethnic relations in the
background.
Multicultural relations catch the eye in the two-part film Legend
of the Maiden Tower (screenwriter N. Breslav-­Lurye, 1924). The film
was based on Jafar Jabbarli’s poem narrating one of the legends of
the Tower, which was published in the magazine Enlightenment and
Culture (Maarif və Mədəniyyət, No. 4-5, 1923). The rare event at the
centre of the tale is that a father falls in love with his own daughter.
The contradiction finds its dramatic solution in the film, as in the
poem, and the tragedy shocks both of them. Though these events
find their artistic resolution in the poem through ethical, moral
and spiritual categories that are above national fanaticism, the
242 silent film failed to show the struggle of contradictions. While
the plot repeats much of the poem, the film is a melodrama, a

Section II
category deemed bourgeois by Socialist Realism, devoted to
the propaganda of Soviet ideology. Samad khan (Qantamir) is
presented as a bloodthirsty, dishonest tyrant, who had fortresses
built out of human skulls and loved orgies. By placing episodes of
riot and rebellion at the forefront, the director emphasizes the topic
of revolution. The nub of the plot centres on the khan’s plan to
marry his own daughter. The murder of the khan by his daughter’s
lover, who is also the rebel leader, adds to the socialist theme.
Unaware of her father’s death, the daughter throws herself off the
top of the tower, bringing the ballet to its climax.

Chapter 4
The dramatic focus on the revolutionary met the demands of
Socialist Realism, which was tantamount to a new ideology in the
sphere of art; a new work of art emerged, national in form and
socialist in content. National costume and palatial interiors served
to bring socialist revolution to life. The transformation of a fine
work of art based on oral folk literature into a piece of propaganda
demonstrates the colonial psychology of the foreign film-makers
who overlooked interethnic relations.
The advent of sound in films created a multicultural palette
with a new representational aesthetic, dramatic model, directorial
role and major scenes, but it could not penetrate interethnic
relations. As the new dramatic model moved further away from
representational language, the director became subordinate
to the camera and the representational plot line moved to the
background. To meet the demands of plot, actors developed a new
plasticity, learning how to convey emotion, using mimicry, gestures,
allusion and, finally, intra-textual pauses. However, plot line and text
were introduced mechanically in the new audio-visual structure
based on the method of silent cinema production. ‘Talking heads’
cross-cutting the film structure impeded the audio-visual narration.
While silent films took into consideration the external features of 243
human activity, talking films penetrated the psychological world
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

too. Events in silent films were described in the past, while in

talking films the drama presented everything in the present, as if it
were reportage of the events on screen and the audience became
participants.
Nevertheless, multicultural values could be seen in newsreels
about culture. In the four-part concert film Azerbaijani Art (1934)
Ashuq Yusif from Ganja appears before collective farmers, singing
the song Yaxan düymələ (Button your collar) to the ashuq tune
in praise of Karam. The audience shown in the film turns it into
a social and cultural documentary. In the second part of the film
the rhythmic mugham Heyrati is sung by Jabbar Qaryaghdioghlu.
Before singing he moistens his right thumb and clutches the rim
of the tambourine as he sings. This creates a visual representation
of the unique national culture. Fragments from Uzeyir Hajibayov’s
Leyli and Majnun, Muslim Magomayev’s Shah Ismayil and
Glière’s Shahsanam are extremely important in film chronicles
of Azerbaijani national music. Multicultural values can be seen,
though in passive form, in the regional audiences shown in the
background as famous artists perform in the newsreels The 15th
Anniversary of the Baku Workers’ Theatre (1936), The Ashuqs of
Azerbaijan (1938) and Long Live Azerbaijani Actors and Actresses!
(1938). Multicultural values can also be seen in information films
such as Travel to Azerbaijan, The Fire Worshippers’ Temple, The City
of Winds, Azerbaijan, Lokbatan, The National Bird Park, Nagorno-
Karabakh, Visitors to Khinaliq, Shusha Health and Recreation Centre
and Zagatala.
The first film with synchronized sound to be made in Azerbaijan,
Three Songs about Lenin directed by Dziga Vertov in 1934, showed
the drama of people living as if in slave conditions. Although the
various minorities are shown on screen in the context of Lenin’s
244
desire to bring them a brighter future, the accusing spirit of the film

Section II
could not conceal the multicultural values behind the imagery.
The film On the Shore of the Blue Sea came out in 1936. In an
article ‘Where the Bad Screen Writer Takes the Floor’ published
in the newspaper Literature on 1 June 1936, Mammadkazim
Alakbarli, literary critic and philosopher, accused the film of making
fun of Azerbaijan with its depiction in the first scene of ‘a Turkish
woman wrapped tightly in a black chador sitting alone, with no-
one else in sight; she is smoking a tobacco pipe and facing the wind,
which ruffles her loose skirt to reveal her skinny thighs’. The critic
accuses the screenwriter Yusif of making Turks resemble Kurds

Chapter 4
from the 18th century with wide trousers flapping in the wind, a
rope instead of a belt, slippers, and a swindler’s Turkish cap. The
critic said the screenwriter had distorted his language and turned it
into a laughing stock. He also criticized the film-makers for failing
to understand national policy and for accusing the minorities
of ignorance, at the same time showing that the intelligentsia
was able to influence public thought before the repressions. The
episode in question was removed following this article and at the
insistence of Samad Mardanov.
After the removal of the first scene, the film begins with two
young sailors who survive shipwreck for two days before being
washed up on an island. The island scene is set by fishermen,
fishing nets and boats, though attention is focused on the three
main characters. One of the heroes, Yusif (Lev Sverdlin) speaks
Russian with great difficulty and does not seem too keen on the
Azerbaijani instrument the tar that was rescued with him, though
he never puts it down. Although Yusif and Alyosha’s (Nikolay
Kryuchkov) travel papers have been lost in the water, they are to
spend three months working at the fishing collective farm. Both
friends fall in love with the fishermen’s team leader, Masha (Yelena 245
Kuzmina), providing plenty of comedic moments against the
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

background of Russian folk songs.

Yusif, the only ethnic Azerbaijani out of the film’s three main
characters, very often uses the Azerbaijani swear words köpək
oğlu or ‘son of a bitch’. The director adds nothing to the film by
using that expression. He simply makes the ethnicity of the hero
more conspicuous. When the string of a necklace breaks, scattering
beads into the sea, Alyosha avoids work by pretending to be ill and
goes to town to buy a new necklace in order to win Masha’s heart.
Yusif , however, continues to behave like an ethnic stereotype,
quoting the proverb ‘Dərdimi dağa desəm, dağ əriyər’ (If I tell my
sorrows to the mountain, the mountain will melt’ and the swear
word ‘Mən ölüm!’ (‘Upon my Death!’). As was common at the
time, at a team meeting Alyosha’s behaviour is considered a social
disaster. ‘The third Azerbaijani at the meeting sits silently without
uttering a word. He comes across not as a man, but a puppet. He
wears a large sheepskin hat, considered the choice of the petty
bourgeois. His name isn’t even given in the film.’ The critic who
wrote this, Mammadkazim Alakbarli, was himself subject to such a
meeting and sentenced to death as an enemy of the people.
After his friend Yusif’s speech at the meeting, Alyosha becomes
a manifestation of hatred because of his negative personality.
Aware of the warmth between Yusif and Masha, Alyosha decides
to give way to his friend. He takes Yusif by the arm when they are
on the boat and talks to him, which confirms that sympathy is built
only on political motives. Imagining his wedding to Masha, Yusuf
cups his hand around his ear and sings the folk song ‘Uca dağlar
başında’ (At the top of the high mountain), especially the couplet
‘Uca dağlar bashında bir sürü qoyun, uzaqdan baxmaqla mən necə
doyum’ (There is a flock of sheep on the top of the high mountain,
How can I be satisfied when I look from afar). This is a superficial
246
characterization of his nationality. As the sea turns stormy, the

Section II
two friends fight to win Masha’s heart. Water fills the boat and
as they struggle, Masha falls overboard. In a dramatic scene,
everybody is mourning and Alyosha and Yusuf have to return to
the town, as their time on the island has run out. The island’s social
club has been decorated for the expected harvest holiday, but
instead a funeral is to be held. As a grieving fisherman is making
a speech, Masha appears. She managed to save herself as she had
a lifebelt. The transition from mourning to joy and celebration is
accompanied by the seagulls picking up small fish from the surface
of the water. Dancers are shown in parallel, bringing the scene to

Chapter 4
life. Yusif is thought to have rescued Masha and cannot get rid of
the people; they throw him up and down to show their support.
The departure of Alyosha and Masha increases the humour. Yusuf
sets sail, singing a sailor’s song and the film ends with a flight of
seagulls against the sun and sea. Though one of the characters is
an Azerbaijani, the film distorted national culture. Soviet cinema
always opposed nationalism, and especially in the 1930s could not
reflect the manifestation of local culture.
Finally, the screen version of Uzeyir Hajibayli’s comic operetta
Arshin Mal Alan (The Cloth Peddler), released on 21 October
1943, became a positive display of Azerbaijani culture. The
dramatic structure within the operetta created the foundations
for an excellent film. The screenwriter was Sabit Rahman, who
had graduated in screenwriting from the Soviet Union’s Institute
of Cinematography in 1937 and worked as the head of the scripts
department at the Baku film studio for two years. The directors
were Rza Tahmasib and Nikolay Leshshenko, a Ukrainian. Rza
Tahmasib was a well-known director and actor with a track record
in the theatre. He had graduated in film direction from what was
known as the Rabfak (the workers’ faculty) at the Soviet Institute of
Cinematography in 1937 at the age of 43. The same year he made 247
the documentary Honoured Azerbaijan and was the second director
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

of the film Sabuhi, which was completed in 1943. He had already

staged the play in Nakhchivan, so he was well acquainted with it.
The film begins with an aria of Asgar, played by Rashid
Behbudov. Asgar sings Naledan bir ney kimi ... (Because of grief
my song sounds like a flute…), winning the sympathy of the
audience in the process. Asgar clutches his prayer beads to his
chest, changing expressions crossing his face. The servant Vali
(Lutvali Abdullayev) carries in a tray of sweets to the anxious Aunt
Guljahan (Munevar Kallatarli), the whole scene full of colour. Asgar
protests against the old traditions, because he does not want to
marry a woman whom he has not seen and loved. This is the nub
of the comedy. ‘I want to get married!’ Asgar tells Aunt Guljahan.
She weeps to hear this as she remembers the command of her late
sister, Asgar’s mother. She sings an aria, wearing a veil, but also
puts on make-up and begins to dance. Beating his tray like a drum
in accompaniment, Vali joins the range of characters conveying
national traditions. The directors show plenty of local colour in this
clip.
The director includes Asiya (Rahila Mustafayeva), Sultan bay’s
niece, and her servant Telli (Fatma Mehraliyeva) to bring merriment
to the scene when Gulchohra (Leyla Javanshirova) sings her arioso.
They try to cheer Gulchohra, up but she insists: ‘If I do not see
him, if I do not love him, I will not marry him!’ She is very upset.
To calm her down Asiya and Telli act out wedding scenes, in this
way becoming a continuation of the text. Sultan bay (Alakbar
Huseynzada) enters, showing the suffering of loneliness and old
age, adding to the richness of local characters and exaggerating
the multicultural colour. Suleyman bay (Ismayil Afandiyev) is
in a good mood as he goes to see his friend Asgar. He is joined
by Aunt Guljahan and Vali, enlivening the multicultural context.
248 He advises Asgar to walk from street to street as a cloth peddler.
On his way Asgar encounters camel caravans, an elderly woman

Section II
who wants to buy and sell, a dog running from the yard to the
street and a dirtily dressed girl running out into the street. All
this continues the folklore semantics. On the street Asgar meets
Soltan bay, a stubborn man, who tells him not to step into his
yard; Asgar promises not to go into the yard any more, creating
social drama and adding new spirit to the multicultural aspect.
But when Soltan bay is not there, Asgar goes into his yard as a
cloth peddler and shows off his wares. The young ladies encircle
him, singing and dancing in chorus. Vali sits on the wall watching
them. This carnival of different strata of society continues. Saving

Chapter 4
himself from the circle of young ladies, the cloth peddler jumps
over the wall – he has fallen in love with Gulchohra. Vali runs like
Charlie Chaplin to convey the good news to Suleyman bay, adding
to the comic effect. Grocer Mashadi Ibad (Mirza Agha Aliyev) thinks
that all that you need to get married is ‘One mullah, a big lump
of sugar and one manat in money’. But it also becomes evident
that the impoverished Soltan bay is unable to pay for the food he
has bought, which shows that the respected title of bay is losing
its social status. The grocer is not keen to give him what he wants,
which shows the greed of merchants.
Under the pretext that he left behind his wooden ruler to
measure cloth, Asgar returns to Soltan bay’s yard, where he sings
a duet with Gulchohra and they dance. Aunt Guljahan comes to
Soltan bay’s house to see the young lady whom Asgar wants to
marry. Seeing Aunt Guljahan in his house, Soltan bay is eager to
marry her. He quotes the ‘One mullah, a big lump of sugar, one
manat’ custom to great comedic effect. Asgar proposes that
Soltan bay marry Aunt Guljahan on condition that he allow him to
marry his daughter, which is rejected by Soltan bay. This heightens
the clash between social strata. But the relationship of the two
families’ servants, Vali and Telli, reveals the closeness of the social 249
strata too. Drama continues as Soltan bay drives out Vali, ending
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

up with a piece of his waistband in the process. Soltan bay takes

a slipper and throws it at Vali who catches it and presses it to his
chest. Vali collides with a man carrying a tray full of fruit. The man
drops the tray, spilling all the fruit to the ground. When Soltan bay
realises that Asgar is really Suleyman bay’s friend and a wealthy
merchant rather than a cloth peddler, he is happy to agree to his
daughter’s marriage to Asgar. The film laughs at the warm relations
between the upper strata of society. Suleyman bay goes to Soltan
bay’s house as matchmaker for the marriage, where he meets
Soltan bay’s beautiful niece Asiya. Suleyman bay confuses her with
Gulchohra, and envies Asgar his choice of bride. This leads to more
closeness among the lead characters. Soltan bay is enraged and
also grieved that Gulchohra wants to marry the cloth peddler, not
the merchant. He goes to Suleyman bay’s house, but Suleyman is
not at home. He does not allow himself to enter the house when
its owner is not at home. But the contrast between the merriment
in Suleyman bay’s house and Soltan bay’s grief creates a successful
counterpoint. Finally he meets Suleyman bay and gives his consent
to the merchant kidnapping his daughter rather than to her
marriage to the cloth peddler, not realising they are one and the
same.
Gulchohra is alone in Asgar’s house, her little figure and
sorrowful aria a contrast to the size of Asgar’s hall. When she sees
the portrait of an old man on the wall, she thinks that he is to be
her husband, so she wants to hang herself from the chandelier.
But at this moment Asgar comes in slowly, singing a song. She
throws herself into Asgar’s arms, as the dramatic knot is untied.
The wedding party begins with large cooking pots full of pilaf,
trays piled high with fruit, hookahs to smoke and Telli singing a
song full of grief. Vali is sitting close to the hearth to dry his wet
250 clothes. Soltan bay is enraged because his daughter has run away
with the cloth peddler. Soltan bay’s marriage to Aunt Guljahan

Section II
and Suleyman’s marriage to Asiya create a catharsis, resolving the
tensions among the characters. Mashadi Ibad enters the hall with
gifts for the couples, raining money over their heads. The music,
dancing and production of the film won hearts around the world.
When release of the film was discussed at the USSR
Cinematography Committee, the chairman of the art council
Nikolay Okhlopkov and Mikhail Romm criticized the film. They were
silenced in turn by Sergey Eisenstein for their sociological criticism
of the film. In this way he praised the film’s multicultural values and
its release was approved.

Chapter 4
On 18 September 1945, the film Arshin Mal Alan appeared in
cinemas. It was a hit because of Uzeyir Hajibayov’s music and sense
of drama, the direction of Rza Tahmasib and Nikolay Leshshenko
and their faithfulness to the original. Many factors contributed to
the film’s success: the skill of the cameramen Alisattar Atakishiyev
and Mukhtar Dadashov; the costumes showing national traditions
designed by set designers Alisattar Atakishiyev and Yuri Shvets;
the wonderful voice of Rashid Behbudov, who played the part of
Merchant Asgar; the movement of Gulchohra played by Leyla
Javanshirova (Badirbayli), who had originally been a dancer;
Soltan bay; Aunt Guljahan; Vali played by Lutfali Abdullayev, who
had been a conjuror before he was an actor; producer and actor
Ismail Afandiyev, who played the part of the aristocratic Suleyman
bay; singer Fatma Mehraliyeva; naïve Telli; and humble yet sharp
Asiya. The main factor in the film’s success was multiculturalism.
The showing of Arshin Mal Alan abroad, first in China, brought a
good income to the state budget, and encouraged the production
of musicals. Nevertheless, the hardship of the post-war years led to
insufficient funding for the film studios. In parallel, the showing of
‘trophy films’, brought back from Germany, including some gems
251
of world cinema, made visible universal values in the context of the
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

West.
After making the films Fatali Khan (1947) and The Lights of Baku
(1950) Baku film studio remained idle for ten years. The ‘trophy
films’ made it difficult for the studios to get funding.
The festival of Indian films held in 1954 found a good market.
Unfortunately, the musical aesthetics and melodrama in the cheap
commercial films influenced Azerbaijani cinema. Moreover, India
had been freed from the colonial regime only seven years before.
This prevented our cinema from establishing its own traditions. The
film Bakhtiyar (1955) (scriptwriters B. S. Laskin and N. V. Rozhkov,
director Latif Safarov and composer Tofiq Quliyev) was made
in the hope of repeating Rashid Behbudov’s success in Arshin
Mal Alan but Bakhtiyar fell under the influence of the Indian film
aesthetic. In the film Bakhtiyar sings the song Great and Powerful
Russia for hospital patients, accompanied by Sasha on the piano,
who had ignored the reproaches of his aunt and father, all within
the context of colonial psychology. When Bakhtiyar has grown up
and made new friends at the oil field where he works, he performs
the song of Friendship with three characters, moving the music to
the forefront. The oil worker friends go to the hall where they see
Yusif (F. Mustafayev) and Sasha (T. Chernova). Dancing a love waltz
with Bakhtiyar, Sasha advises him to go to composer Rajabov at
the Conservatory to get a musical education, raising the issue of
who has the right to give advice. The wealth of songs performed
by Sasha who whistles just like a child holds up the plot, turning
the film into a concert. The song of the sailors is performed against
the background of the Oily Rocks offshore platforms, continuing
the labour motif, which does not conform to the structure of the
genre. Sitting on iron pipes in a lorry, which moves against the
background of the Oily Rocks industrial scenery at sea, Bakhtiyar
252 greets his friends on a boat by waving his cap. In this way the
scenes match the music. The leader of the amateur Aghabala (A.

Section II
Geraybayov) scolds the members of the group, who are his friends
and relatives, when he hears that a commission is to visit.
The film concert continues when guests with bouquets of
flowers and tickets sent by Bakhtiyar arrive at Sasha’s 19th birthday
party. The song Zibeyda, which Bakhtiyar sings in different cities,
shows he does not need special education. To fill his own pockets
Aghabala forces Bakhtiyar to give five concerts in a day. Bakhtiyar,
however, has to leave the stage during the concert because of
problems with his voice. Then the owner of the hall demands that
Aghabala return his money. Uncle Rza, who has already become

Chapter 4
a member of parliament, comes backstage and shows Aghabala
a caricature of the singer as a milch cow in the magazine Kirpi
(Hedgehog). This device brings Rza back into the story. On the
advice of Uncle Rza, Bakhtiyar goes to the conservatory and passes
his examination by singing Uzeyir Hajibayli’s song Sevgili canan (My
Beloved). This shows the director and film composer’s profound
respect for Hajibayli.
Yusif brings a basket of champagne to mark Sasha’s 23rd
birthday. This shows the merchant’s generosity and puts moral
questions on the backburner. The melodramatic triangle provides
comedy when Bakhtiyar and his oilmen friends take bouquets of
flowers to the railway station to meet Sasha, but to punish Yusif
they exchange Sasha for an old woman at Bilajari station.
Bakhtiyar’s oilmen friends take Sasha to the conservatory, where
they listen to Bakhtiyar singing a classical song for them, Dear
Friend. Sasha whistles in accompaniment, in a sign of admiration
and showing Bakhtiyar’s victory. The explosion of the champagne
bottles and the tyres of Yusif’s car symbolize the bankruptcy of evil.
At the end the song Dear Friend is heard a second time to mark the
happy ending.
253
The film Under the Hot Sun, directed by Latif Safarov on the
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

basis of the story The Village Doctor by Hasan Sayidbayli (1957),

centres on the contrast between the characters and nature.
When a tiger chases a mountain goat in the Caucasus
mountains, a rock fall blocks the riverbed. This marks a major
dramatic event. Rain washes down the tracks. The fields need
water, but it will take time to dig channels. Eldar (A. Mammadov),
a former shepherd who is now head of the farm and future
chairman of the collective farm, looks for the reasons why the
water has disappeared. His search in the inaccessible mountains
becomes a manifestation of heroism. The song that Eldar sings to
his beloved Narmina when he visits his favourite farm emphasizes
the importance of music in the film’s structure. Eldar suddenly falls
asleep and loses his speech. Although the contrast between Aydin
(A. Farzaliyev), a doctor, who is sent from the city to treat Eldar, and
Mursal (J. Aliyev), the local paramedic who has no special education
and illegally takes money from his patients, remains outside the
main story, the music tries to bring it together. Gulpari, a member
of the Young Communist League, tells everybody in the village
that the patient will speak again. Her relationship with Aydin is
conveyed in song, easing the tension. The songs of the girls who
pick tea in the plantations, both solo and together, expand the
multicultural values by introducing elements of Talysh folklore.
Aydin advises Narmina to tell Eldar that she does not love him in
order to shake him. This advice is heard by Jalal, an engineer, who is
watching them secretly. Now the plot moves to the foreground and
multicultural values are forgotten.
From the 1970s Soviet film moved away from propaganda
towards social issues, at the same time giving an impetus to
multicultural values in the information context. On the initiative
of the National Leader of the Azerbaijani People Heydar Aliyev, in
254 1975-79 a group of Azerbaijani students of different ethnicities
were sent to study in Yevgeny Matveyev’s acting studio at the

Section II
Soviet State Cinematography Institute, creating multicultural
diversity in film characters in subsequent years. The freshly
graduated actors boosted demographic diversity and multicultural
values, showing different aspects of behavioural culture. Over the
next decade students were sent to Aleksey Batalov’s studio at
the Institute, enabling the continuation of multiculturalism in the
cinema of independent Azerbaijan.
During the independence years, film, which in essence cannot
be national, became an irreplaceable tool in conveying national
thought. Traditional artefacts, such as carpets and other household

Chapter 4
items, were shown in the background, giving films a traditional
external look. The national way of thinking was conveyed on screen
through drama. In this regard, let us take a look at an episode
in the film The Execution is Delayed, made in 2000 by Alakbar
Muradov, who wrote the script with Isi Malikzada. Khan, a leader in
the criminal world who has become a champion of justice, is finally
released from prison and returns home. His words ‘My sister has
also grown up’ mean that he wants to take responsibility for his
sister’s future, but the teenager finds refuge in her mother, rather
than him. This gives a well balanced display of multicultural values.
The teenager Lalazar, who is seeing her mythologized brother for
the first time, does not dare to approach him; this revives local
ideas about decency. The artistic solution of the problem lies
in an alternative administration in the country, when the legal
government is unable to rule and the criminal world does it in its
own way.
The decree of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan Ilham
Aliyev announcing that 2016 would be the Year of Multiculturalism
was an integral part of state policy. It created the right conditions
for finding multicultural topics to show on screen. 255
4.8.8. Cuisine
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Unlike painting, literature and other art forms, cuisine has not
often been researched as an independent sphere of culture in
terms of national identity.
This study of Azerbaijani cuisine considers historical dishes that
have been forgotten for various reasons (nomadism, migration,
war), dishes from the cuisine of other peoples that have been
adopted (for example, pizza and borsh in Azerbaijan and the post-
Soviet space, potatoes and tea in the Middle Ages) or dishes that
have become alienated (for example, gakhaj, which is smoked meat
or sürhüllü, small dough balls, which are now foreign to Azerbaijan,
but traditional to the Turks of Central Asia and the Mongols).
There are lucky foods and dishes that are spread throughout
the world but have retained their historical, national affiliation; tea,
coffee, potatoes and tomatoes are examples of these foods that
have become part of many different cuisines. For example, there
are various tea ceremonies in Japan and Azerbaijan, though the
motherland of tea is China. The motherland of coffee is Ethiopia, but
Turkey, the USA and Italy have all developed their own version of
coffee.
Beer and wine are drinks that many nations consider their own.
But wine is thought to have emerged in the Caucasus 7,000 years
ago. The epic Book of Dada Qorqud, which was written down in the
16th century, notes that the wine drunk by the Oghuz led by Salur
Qazan was the produce of their own land. Dali Domrul tells Azrael:

We have many mountains

covered in vineyards
where black grapes grow.
256 Squeeze the grapes
and you will have wine.

Section II
Sup the wine
and you will be drunk.

Spices are popular in the cuisines of Azerbaijan and many

oriental peoples. They are known all over the world not only as
additions to dishes, but as biologically active substances. Do spices
have a national identity, or to which culture do they belong? There
are regions where butter, flour and rice are the basic ingredients of
dishes; in these regions where people live long and healthy lives
this is the result of good food, fresh air and the spices that help

Chapter 4
to dissolve the fats in food. In recent years plant oils have become
more common in national dishes, as part of a healthy lifestyle.
Recently, the nutritional branch of modern medicine has
investigated the spices, or biologically active substances, used
widely by oriental people in their food. Quymaq is an Azerbaijani
dish made of flour and butter (in Kazakhstan quymaq is called
blinchik). Quymaq is a dish that is gradually disappearing in
Azerbaijan. It is made like halva, but cinnamon and coriander seeds
are added to quymaq while turmeric is added to halva. Biologically
active supplements (herbal supplements) made of these two spices
are sold in the American and European markets and recommended
in the treatment of cancer and Alzheimer’s disease. Unlike other
spices, turmeric is officially recommended because it has no
harmful side effects, even in high doses.
In the Indian epic Ramayana Vashishta (sage, elder and spiritual
father) gives names to new-borns, as Dada Qorqud does in the
Turkic epic. When Vashishta names Bharat, he lays on him the
obligation of feeding all mankind, appreciating that he has the
force of harvest and the reincarnation of power. The word bharat is
retained as baharat (spice) and bahar (spring) in Modern Turkish. It 257
is worth noting that India’s second official name is Bharata, which is
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

also connected with the name of the emperor Bharata.

The most commonly used spice in Azerbaijani soups, pilaffs and
desserts is turmeric (sarikok). Turmeric is also known internationally
as haldi and curcuma, while one type of the spice is known as
zedoara or zerdechal in some countries. It would be wrong to say
that this spice comes from a specific region or belongs to the food
culture of a specific nation. It grows naturally in two regions and
is known as curcuma, croc+us in two language groups – in Proto-
Indo-European in the Indian subcontinent (cumcuman in Sanskrit)
and in Proto Semitic in the Middle East (carcom in Hebrew and
curcum in Arabic) and also as saffron (zafaran) and yellow root
(sarikok). These spices are widely used in the region today in Indian,
Azerbaijani and Arab dishes.
Many dishes in Azerbaijan are begun by frying onion in clarified
butter (ghee). In Russian cuisine this is known as sauce (соус),
dressing (заправка) or seasoning (приправа). The dish known as
bozbash in Azerbaijan, which gained its name not from its taste,
but from its popularity in the countryside (it is not served as a
celebration dish or to guests) starts with this basic technique.
Clarified butter is also used in non-traditional Azerbaijani dishes
such as borsh (beetroot soup). A similar method is also used in
Spain and Latin America. Ukrainians consider borsh to be their own
dish, and find that Azerbaijani borsh has a different taste from the
Ukrainian variety. While the Spanish enjoy Azerbaijani bozbash, they
do not associate it with their own dishes, although both of them
are based on fried onions.
Now let us find the component in the words, existing in
different nations.

258
sofreir (Spanish) – to fry gently, to fry

Section II
sofrito-sofreir – fried onion (to add to a dish)
sofregar (Spanish) – to rub
frigo (Latin) – to fry, to freeze

It is apparent that this important component of Azerbaijani

cooking is known as sofrige (to fry slightly) and sofritto (fried onion)
in Spain and is also popular in Portugal and Latin America. It is
natural that the details should vary from region to region.
A classic Azerbaijani dish is qutab, which combines the food
of nomads or herders (meat) with the food of sedentary farmers

Chapter 4
(wheat and flour), as do many dishes. Qutab also bring together
such produce as flour and herbs (known as afar in some regions),
flour and curd cheese (shor in some regions, cottage cheese in the
USA and UK, ricotta in Italy), flour and pumpkin.
Another remarkable similarity between traditional Italian and
Azerbaijani food is in their cheese. For instance, ricotta is the
Italian equivalent of Azerbaijani shor (magash in some variants),
which is considered a local, regional food. Moreover, Italian pizza
and Azerbaijani qutab, half-moon shaped khingal and Georgian
khachapuri, which all use shor, can be considered related dishes.
Dishes ignore political borders.
Another interesting example of multicultural roots is ash (pilaff,
plov or rice), one of the most important dishes in traditional
Azerbaijani cuisine. One of the customs connected with ash is
its flamboyant presentation at weddings to the bride and groom,
and then the other guests, all to the accompaniment of music and
dance. This ceremony emphasizes the high status accorded to
the dish in Azerbaijani cuisine. In modern Azerbaijan rice cooked
for guests has the status of an elite dish and has two names – aş
and plov. Though both refer to the same dish, that is, rice boiled
in water and strained (aş+ırmaq in Azerbaijani), the popular name 259
pilaff of Proto-Indian origin which is used in the Persian language
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

could not squeeze ash out of use.

Tea is an important attribute at mourning ceremonies and is
served with with halva, in place of cake or other sweets. It is not hot
food but tea and halva that are the essential attributes of mourning
ceremonies in Azerbaijan. Halva made of flour is a type of bloodless
sacrifice or oblation in the Middle East. In some cases shor goghal,
a kind of salty pastry, is served. This moment in Latin is expressed
in the quotation ‘mola tantum salsa litant, qui non habent tura,’
(whoever has no incense to sacrifice may sacrifice mola – flour
and salt instead). If we take into consideration that the Jewish
Bible, translated into Greek and then Latin, forms the basis of the
Christian Bible, we can say that this rule originated not among
Christians, but probably in Phoenicia. It is acceptable to take halva
to mosques and places of pilgrimage.
Tea is now established as the libation or ritual drink in modern
mourning ceremonies in Azerbaijan. It is not mentioned in
medieval sources. Neither tea nor coffee were popular in the Arab
world in the Middle Ages, though coffee did have a place in the
cuisine of a sect known as the Qahveyi-Manevi. During this period
wine was in daily use and even became a major symbol in classical
Islamic poetry. We can also see it in the Book of Dada Qorqud and
the Rindi-zahid (The Carouser and the Hermit), a classic example
of poetry written by Mahammad Fuzuli. In Sufi poetry man forgets
himself and becomes a symbol of unity with the love of God.

Questions

1. W
hat civilization was connected with the religious system
of the Kuti and Lullube tribes, one of the political sources of
Azerbaijani multiculturalism?
260
2. W
hat was the influence of ancient culture on the political and

Section II
legal sources of Azerbaijani multiculturalism?
3. W
hat traces did the culture of Achaemenid civilization leave
on Azerbaijan’s socio-political life?
4. M
ay the spread of Christianity in Azerbaijan be viewed as a
new stratum in the political and legal sources of Azerbaijani
multiculturalism? Why?
5. O
n the subject of the Albanian Apostolic Church facing
treachery from the Armenian Gregorian Church, why did
Grabar (Old Armenian) gain the status of church language in

Chapter 4
Caucasian Albania from the early 8th century?
6. In what regions of Azerbaijan can Christian architectural
monuments be found?
7. W
hat do you know about the examples of architecture of the
Albanian Apostolic Church?
8. W
hen were the first mosques built in Azerbaijan?
9. W
hat determines the existence of multiculturalism in
Azerbaijani architecture?
10. W
hat can you say about the multicultural environment in
Azerbaijan in the 9th-12th centuries?
11. W
hat were the political and legal sources of Azerbaijani
multiculturalism in the state of the Shirvanshahs?
12. W
hat were the political and legal sources of Azerbaijani
multiculturalism in the Azerbaijani Safavid state?
13. W
hat were the political and legal sources of Azerbaijani
multiculturalism in the 20th century?
14. W
hat culture shaped the art of miniature painting in
Azerbaijan in the Middle Ages?

261
15. W
hat ideas reflect multicultural values in the work of Nizami
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Ganjavi?
16. In what way is Nasraddin Tusi’s multicultural outlook
reflected in his work?
17. What shows Imadaddin Nasimi’s multicultural values?
18. W
hat is the relationship between the principles of
multiculturalism and humanism in the work of Imadaddin
Nasimi?
ow can the poem Matla ul-Itiqadi (The Origin of Faith) by
19. H
Mahammad Fuzuli be interpreted from the perspective of
multiculturalism?
20. W
hat can you say about the multicultural ideas of
Imadaddin Nasimi and Mahammad Fuzuli?
21. W
hat can you say about the multicultural views of Sirajaddin
of Urmia?
22. G
ive several examples of multiculturalism in the classical
literature of Azerbaijan.
23. W
hat are the main ideals of the philosophy of Abbasqulu
Agha Bakikhanov?
24. W
hat are the main indicators of tolerance and multicultural
ideas in the work of Hasan bay Zardabi?
25. B
eginning with Mirza Fatali Akhundzada, what role did the
literature of education and enlightenment play in shaping a
multicultural environment in Azerbaijan?
26. W
hat are the multicultural aspects of the thought of Mirza
Fatali Akhundzada and Huseyn Javid?
27. W
hat is the significance of the article by Firudin bay Kocharli
on the death of Chekhov?
262
28. E
xplain the issue of the secular sciences and the religious

Section II
sciences. What did Azerbaijani writers and religious scholars
mean by this?
29. H
ow was the idea of Islamic unity reflected in the articles of
secular and religious scholars in the pre-revolutionary period?
30. H
ow did the writers of Azerbaijan view the unity of Turkic,
Islamic and Western cultures in the pre-revolutionary
period?
31. H
ow was the idea of freedom of religion defended in the
magazine and newspaper articles of the pre-revolutionary

Chapter 4
period?
32. W
hat women’s problems were the primary focus of the
women’s media in the pre-revolutionary period?
33. A
synthesis of the methods of European fine art and the
cultural values typical of the Azerbaijani mentality can be
seen most clearly in the work of which painters?
34. W
hat do you know about the work of the association of
artists set up by the painter Aida Mahmudova?
35. W
hich Azerbaijani artists have painted series of work on Italy?
36. O
utline the manifestations of multiculturalism in the work of
Uzeyir Hajibayli?
ummarize the plot of Uzeyir Hajibayli’s opera Asli and
37. S
Karam?
38. W
hat is your view of the ideas of multiculturalism in the
opera Koroghlu?
39. H
ow is the importance of multiculturalism manifest in the
work of Qara Qarayev?
ow are multicultural ideas manifest in the ballet The
40. H
Arabian Nights by Fikrat Amirov? 263
41. H
ow are multiculturalism and tolerance manifest in the work
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

of contemporary Azerbaijani composers?

42. W
hat can you say about the manifestations of
multiculturalism and tolerance in the work Firangiz Alizada?
43. How is multiculturalism manifest in theatre?
44. What forms the basis of folk music?
45. Can music be multicultural?
46. W
hat is the importance of the folk music of minorities and
different ethnic groups to Azerbaijani music in general?
47. W
hat can you say about multiculturalism and the Novruz
(Spring) holiday?
48. W
hat is at the heart of seasonal holidays and what are their
typical features?
49. W
hat ethnic minority ceremonies resemble Qodu-Qodu and
Chomchakhatun?
50. W
hat examples can you give to show the multiculturalism at
the heart of modern-day wedding traditions in Azerbaijan?
51. H
ow were multicultural values reflected on screen during the
silent film era in Azerbaijani cinema?
52. H
ow were multicultural characteristics reflected in the
Azerbaijani cinema of the Soviet period?
53. H
ow are multicultural values seen in documentary films?
54. W
hat was the role of Heydar Aliyev, National Leader of the
Azerbaijani People, in shaping multicultural values in the
cinema of Azerbaijan?
55. In what way has Azerbaijani cinema brought multicultural
values to film drama during the independence period?
56. W
ho created the statues of Heydar Aliyev, National Leader of
264 the Azerbaijani People, in Kiev, Tbilisi and Astrakhan?
57. W
hat principles define the new type of culture in

Section II
multiculturalism?
58. H
ow can you explain the notions of ‘main culture’ and
‘donor culture’ in the context of multiculturalism?
59. W
hat do you understand by the expression ‘multicultural
elements’ in choreography?
60. G
ive examples showing the relationship between cuisine and
multiculturalism.
hat kind of drink is described in the epic Book of Dada
61. W
Qorqud and Mahammad Fuzuli’s Rindi-zahid (The Carouser

Chapter 4
and the Hermit)?

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274
Chapter 5

Section II
MULTICULTURALISM POLICY IN AZERBAIJAN

5.1. Multiculturalism as an Integral Part of the

Domestic Policy of the Republic of Azerbaijan

Chapter 5
The heads of state of some Western countries have described
the policy of multiculturalism as ineffective in managing
ethnocultural diversity and have concluded that it has failed. (We
mentioned this in the first half of Chapter 3, when considering the
objective and subjective reasons for Azerbaijani multiculturalism.)
Multiculturalism is fully supported by both the state and the
people in Azerbaijan, whereas it is in deep crisis in those Western
countries. The Republic of Azerbaijan is one of the rare states to
view multiculturalism as state policy. Firstly, multiculturalism is
part of the domestic policy of the Republic of Azerbaijan. In this
subchapter we shall consider the role of multiculturalism as an
important component of domestic policy and reveal its role in
maintaining ethnic, racial, religious and cultural diversities and the
ethnocultural values that form their basis.
A significant feature of multiculturalism as an integral part of
the domestic policy of the Republic of Azerbaijan is the very high
level of relations between state and religious bodies. The Republic
of Azerbaijan is a democratic, law-governed and secular state and
religion is separate from the state.
Four main points show the high level of relations between state
and religion in Azerbaijan: 275
1. The state ensures religious freedom.
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

2. All religions and religious sects are equal before the law.
3. T
he activities of religious communities are fully supported by
the state.
4. Interreligious relations are established on the basis of mutual
respect and cooperation.

1.
Ensuring the religious freedom of Azerbaijani citizens is
one of the priorities in the domestic policy of the Republic
of Azerbaijan, which has chosen the democratic path of
development and has a distinctive atmosphere of tolerance
and multiculturalism. The Republic of Azerbaijan values the
freedom of religious belief of its citizens as part of their rights
and freedoms. Religious freedom is based on the Constitution
of the Republic of Azerbaijan, on the law ‘On freedom of
religious belief’ and on other normative and legal acts of the
Republic of Azerbaijan.

Religious freedom is ensured in the Republic of Azerbaijan.

The third paragraph of Article 25 (‘The right to equality’) of the
Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan, says:

‘The state guarantees the protection of the rights and liberties

of all the population irrespective of their race, ethnicity, religion,
sex, origin, property, social status, credo, membership of political
parties, trade union organizations and other social affiliations.
Restriction of rights and liberties on the grounds of race, ethnicity,
religion, language, sex, origin, credo and socio-political affiliation is
prohibited.’
Paragraphs One and Two of Article 48 of the Constitution of the
Republic of Azerbaijan (Freedom of conscience) say:
276
‘Everyone enjoys freedom of conscience’ and ‘Everyone has

Section II
the right to determine independently his/her attitude to religion,
to practise any religion individually or together with others, or to
practise no religion, to express and spread one’s beliefs concerning
religion.’

In December 2014, at the opening ceremony of the Heydar

Mosque in Baku President Ilham Aliyev said the following on
ensuring freedom of religion in the Republic of Azerbaijan: ‘All
religious freedoms are fully ensured in Azerbaijan. It seems to me
that this area is very important for our comprehensive development.

Chapter 5
Freedom of religion is completely guaranteed in Azerbaijan.’

2. On the second point indicating the high level of relations

between state and religion in the Republic of Azerbaijan,
i.e. all religions and religious sects are equal before the
law, it should be said first of all that this applies only to the
religious organizations that have been registered by the State
Committee for Work with Religious Organizations.

The State Committee for Work with Religious Organizations

registered 861 religious organizations and communities between
2009 and 2018, of which 21 were non-Islamic and 830 Islamic
religious organizations. Of the 31 non-Islamic organizations 20
were Christian organizations, 8 were Jewish, two were Baha’i
and one Krishna. Although 96 per cent of the population of the
Republic of Azerbaijan is Muslim, the state does not allow any
discrimination among the religions. Article 18 (Para. 1) of the
Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan says: ‘All religions
are equal before the law.’ Article 5 of the law of the Republic of
Azerbaijan ‘On freedom of religion’ says: ‘All religions and religious
organizations are equal before the law. Establishing any superiority

277
or limitations for one religion (religious movement) and religious
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

association in comparison to another shall not be allowed.’

The division of Muslims into Shia and Sunni sects was a major
cause of the socio-economic, political, military and cultural
backwardness of the Muslim world. Moreover, the division has
caused bloody clashes in the Muslim world. Unfortunately, the
Shia and Sunni confrontation manifests itself in different ways in
the majority of Muslim countries today too. This confrontation can
be seen both within and between states. Azerbaijan is one of the
rare Muslim countries where there is no Shia-Sunni confrontation,
as the majority of the population ignores this division. One clear
illustration of this is that Shia and Sunni Muslims go to the same
mosques and pray together. In an interview in 2016 to the Islamic
Republic of Iran Broadcasting company on the absence of a Shia-
Sunni confrontation, Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev said: ‘At a
time when conflicts rage between Sunni and Shia in a number of
countries, Shia and Sunni prayed together at the Heydar Mosque in
Baku in January this year.’ The President continued, ‘All Muslims live
like one family in Azerbaijan. There has never been any conflict on
the grounds of sectarianism. There has not been, must not be and
will never be even the slightest misunderstanding.’
3. The state renders financial and all necessary assistance to all
the religious communities. According to the official figures,
since 2003 about 250 mosques have been built or restored
by the state. The Heydar, Ajdarbay, Taza Pir and Bibi-Heybat
mosques and the Imamzada religious, historical and cultural
centre are all examples.

At the same time, the state gave financial support to the

building and renovation of the Russian Orthodox, Catholic
and Albanian churches and Jewish synagogues. The Russian
Orthodox Cathedral of the Holy Myrrh Bearers, which was closed
278
in 1920 under Soviet rule, was reopened after the restoration of

Section II
Azerbaijan’s independence. The state returned the building to the
Russian Orthodox Church and the late Azerbaijani businessman
Aydin Qurbanov financed major renovation work, returning the
church to its previous appearance. In May 2001, Patriarch of
Moscow and All Russia Alexy II attended the reopening of the
church and granted it the status of a cathedral church.
In recent years Russian Orthodox, Georgian Orthodox, Albanian-
Udi and German Lutheran churches in Baku and various districts
of the country have been put at the disposal of believers after
substantial repairs and renovation. In 2008 a Roman Catholic

Chapter 5
Church was built in Baku. With the financial assistance of the state
new synagogues were built for the European Jews in 2002 and the
Mountain Jews in 2012.
The Azerbaijani government also gives moral support to
religious organizations in Azerbaijan. The International Day for
Tolerance was celebrated for the first time in the south Caucasus
on 16 November in Azerbaijan. On that day in 1999 the National
Leader of the Azerbaijani People, Heydar Aliyev, held a meeting
with the leaders of the religious confessions on his own initiative.
The President of the Republic of Azerbaijan continues this tradition
by addressing the Muslim, Christian and Jewish communities on
religious holidays and other important dates. He regularly meets
them and constantly monitors the environment of tolerance at
the national level. Every year the Azerbaijani President attends
an iftar, a fast-breaking dinner during Ramadan organized by
Allahshukur Pashazada, Sheikh ul-Islam of Muslims of the Caucasus.
Representatives of other confessions, as well as Muslims, attend the
dinner.

4.
Interreligious relations based on the principles of mutual
respect and cooperation, religious freedom and the equality of 279
all religions before the law and state assistance to all religious
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

groups has led to inter-religious relations in Azerbaijan based

on mutual respect and cooperation. It should be noted that
the financial and moral support rendered to various religious
groups and contributions to the building and renovation
of prayer houses is a progressive tradition arising from the
historical past. For example, at the end of the 19th century the
Muslim population of Baku made most of the donations to
the construction of the Alexander Nevsky Church (known as
the Golden Church) in the city. Foreign Jewish organizations,
the Board of Muslims of the Caucasus and the Baku and
Azerbaijani Eparchy of the Russian Orthodox Church closely
contributed to the erection of new synagogues for the European
and Mountain Jews. Moreover, representatives of the religious
communities in Azerbaijan take part in various events held
by different religions. Interreligious relations have been built
on the basis of mutual respect and cooperation in Azerbaijan,
which helps to prevent the religious separatism observed
elsewhere and to strengthen integration in society. Pointing out
that religious relations are at a very high level, President Ilham
Aliyev said:

‘All peoples, confessions and religions live and will continue to live
as one family in Azerbaijan. There has never been and will never be
any conflict on religious grounds in the country. There is not even
any misunderstanding, nor will there ever be. This is the road we
have taken and we are showing this road to the world.’

Another significant feature of multiculturalism as an integral

part of the domestic policy of the Republic of Azerbaijan is the
protection of the ethnocultural values of the various ethnic groups
and peoples residing in the country.
280
Historically, Azerbaijan has been a multicultural state. National

Section II
minorities residing in its territory were not persecuted or
discriminated against because of their ethnocultural values, religion
and race. At present over 60 national minorities live in the Republic
of Azerbaijan.
The Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan and other
normative-legal acts protect the rights and liberties of the national
minorities living in the Republic of Azerbaijan: for example, Article
21, Para. 2 of the Constitution (On the official language); Article
25, Para. 3 (On the right to equality); Article 44, Paras. 1 and 2 (On
the right to national identity; Article 45, Paras. 1 and 2 (On the

Chapter 5
right to use one’s mother tongue); Article 47, Paras. 1,2 and 3 (On
freedom of thought and expression); Article 48, Paras. 1 and 2 (On
freedom of conscience); Article 127, Para. 10 (On the independence
of judges, fundamental principles and prerequisites for the
administration of justice). Besides, the Republic of Azerbaijan has
joined a number of international conventions on the protection
of national minorities; for example, the framework Convention for
the Protection of National Minorities was signed by the Azerbaijani
government on 1 February 1995, and ratified by the law dated
16 June 2000. The Republic of Azerbaijan joined the UNESCO
Convention for the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of
Cultural Expressions under a law dated 26 November 2009, which
came into force on 15 May 2010.
Under a number of instructions signed by the President of the
Republic of Azerbaijan, substantial socio-­
economic, educational,
cultural, health care, ecological and other projects are being carried
out in the regions with substantial national minority populations.
At present some 50 non-governmental organizations (NGOs),
national cultural centres, social and public associations and
societies tackle various issues in the country, including the
protection of the ethnocultural values of ethnic minorities. These 281
entities and other NGOs in the country are able to apply for
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

financial support for their projects to the Council for State Support
attached to the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan. In addition,
financial support is given to publications in the languages of the
minorities by the State Fund to Support Mass Media attached to
the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan.
At present over 15 newspapers and magazines are published
in the languages of the ethnic minorities living in Azerbaijan.
Azerbaijani radio regularly broadcasts programmes in Kurdish,
Lezghi, Talysh, Georgian, Russian and Armenian funded from the
state budget. Five local television channels broadcast in the ethnic
minority areas, while the following newspapers and magazines
are published in the ethnic minority languages: Samur and Qusar
newspapers in Azerbaijani and Lezghi, Chiraq and Alam magazines
in Lezghi; Tolyshi sado and Tolyshon sado in Talysh and the
magazine Soz in Azerbaijani and Talysh; the newspaper Khinaliq
in the language of Khinaliq in Quba District; a page in Georgian
in Shalala newspaper, published in Qakh; and the newspaper
Birlik and magazine Qudyal of the Jews living in Qirmizi Qasaba
(Krasnaya Sloboda) in Quba District. The various cultural centres
and communities have their own publications: the Ronayi Kurdish
Centre publishes Dange kurd; the Russian community in Azerbaijan
publishes Vestnik and Oko and the Sodruzhestvo society publishes
Sodruzhestvo; the Azerbaijani-Bulgarian friendship association
publishes Akkord; while the Ukrainian community in Azerbaijan
publishes Visnik.
There are over 300 secondary schools where the medium
of teaching is Russian. The public and private universities have
departments where teaching is in Russian. In addition, there are
108 secondary schools (first to ninth grades) where education is
in Lezghi and 225 primary schools (first to fourth grades) where
282 education is in Talysh.
Foreign visitors to the country emphasize Azerbaijan’s

Section II
achievements in the sphere of multiculturalism. They have
written about their impressions of Azerbaijan for various foreign
publications, highlighting the country’s favourable environment
for multiculturalism and tolerance. For example, Rabbi David
Wolpe led a 50- member delegation from Sinai Temple in
California, USA to Azerbaijan as part of a project called ‘Journey to
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism’ organized by the Baku International
Multiculturalism Centre. He wrote about the environment of
multiculturalism and tolerance in Azerbaijan in an article entitled
‘Azerbaijan is an Oasis of Tolerance in the Middle East’, which was

Chapter 5
published in Time magazine (30 October to 4 November 2016):

‘At a meeting the week before in Jerusalem, an Israeli diplomat

said to our group: “I would hesitate to walk down the street in
Sweden with a kippah, but not in Azerbaijan. In Azerbaijan no
one will give you a hard time.” I can attest to the accuracy of that
statement. For nearly a week I wandered the streets with a kippah
and was met with nothing but courtesy and kindness. This is an
extraordinary accomplishment and too little known in the world.
Azerbaijan is a country with a long and proud history of acceptance
of other religious traditions.’

Another visitor, Yael Lerman Mazar, wrote an article entitled

‘How Azerbaijan Restored my Hope in Israel’ published in The
Jerusalem Post:
‘We arrived in Azerbaijan knowing nothing about this ancient
people and new nation-state. We left a week later in love with this
proud country, its generous government, and its beautiful people.
We left filled with a renewed hope that coexistence between Muslims
and Jews can be genuine, deep-rooted and all-encompassing.
Upon arrival, we learned some basic facts about Azerbaijan that
seemingly do not exist in this combination anywhere else. First, it is 283
a Muslim, democratic nation. Second, there has never been a pogrom
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

in Azerbaijan. There is simply no anti-Semitism. This is not just a

function of no incitement to violence by clerics. The people are proud
of their pluralism and ethnic communities.’

Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev has taken a number of

important measures to strengthen the multicultural environment in
country. He signed an instruction on 28 February 2014 to set up a
state advisory service on international, multicultural and religious
affairs, an instruction on 7 May 2014 to set up the Knowledge
Foundation attached to the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan
and another instruction on 15 May 2014 to set up the Baku
International Multiculturalism Centre. A presidential instruction
of 11 January 2016 made 2016 the Year of Multiculturalism in
Azerbaijan, while an instruction on 11 March 2016 confirmed the
Action Plan for the Year of Multiculturalism. Chapter II, Section
4 considers in more detail how each of these institutions and
decrees has helped the success of the policy of multiculturalism in
Azerbaijan.
As an integral part of domestic policy multiculturalism creates
the right conditions for the management of ethnic, racial, religious
and cultural diversity within the country and the protection of
the values that form the basis of this diversity. This conforms to
the norms and principles of democratic society. The protection of
ethnocultural values is, therefore, an integral part of human rights.
Some Western countries do not wish to acknowledge Azerbaijan’s
achievements in the sphere of multiculturalism and apply double
standards to it. As Academician Ramiz Mehdiyev wrote in his article
‘On the sources of the degradation of European structures or the
policy of double standards towards Azerbaijan’: ‘It would be no
bad thing if they adopted Azerbaijan’s experience of tolerance and
284 multiculturalism, which has taken shape down the centuries.’
To sum up, the very high level of relations between state

Section II
and religion, the protection of the ethnocultural values of the
different peoples and ethnic groups living in Azerbaijan and their
integration into society as a result show that multiculturalism is an
integral part of the domestic policy of the Republic of Azerbaijan
and exerts considerable influence upon it. As an integral part of
domestic policy, multiculturalism manages ethnocultural diversity
and deepens the integration process in society. The deepening
integration process also prevents conflicts that might occur on
ethnic and religious grounds.

Chapter 5
5.2. Religious Diversity in Azerbaijan

As one of the first places in the world inhabited by man,

Azerbaijan is also a place where religious beliefs emerged,
including belief in the afterlife. Since ancient times religious ideas
and beliefs have been widespread there. The country’s favourable
geographical location, mild climate and rich natural resources
have been a focus of attention in all periods of history. At different
times these factors have played a particular role in attracting
numerous ethnic and religious groups to settle in Azerbaijan. A
major attraction for people of different nations and religions to
Azerbaijan was the culture of the people populating the region,
their friendly attitude towards other religions and the tolerance
that was their way of life.
In ancient times religious rituals and ceremonies played an
important role in the lives of the people living in the territory of
Azerbaijan. They worshipped fire, water, trees, mountains, the
spirits of their ancestors, stars and different natural phenomena.
The pictures carved on the rocks of Qobustan are confirmation of
the importance of these religious rituals and ceremonies. Although
285
millennia have passed, some elements of these beliefs remain in
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

peoples’ memories and can be seen in their way of life.

These examples prove once more that the ideas of paganism
among the population of Azerbaijan go back to ancient times
and that they followed different beliefs. Moreover, archaeological
excavations have revealed big stone idols in Khinisli, Daghkolani
and Chiraghli, anthropomorphic figures in Ismayilli and clay statues
in Mingachevir.
One of the religions to emerge in the 6th century BCE in the
historical Azerbaijani territories and spread widely there and also in
Iran, India and Central Asia is Zoroastrianism.
Zoroastrianism maintained its status as the state religion for
a long time, but began to weaken in the 7th century when Islam
began to spread in the region. Zoroastrianism covered a wide
area and still has worshippers in India and Iran today. It is one of
the contributions made by the Azerbaijani people to the cultural
values of the world. Even when Islam was at its most widespread,
the fire-worshippers’ temple in Surakhani near Baku continued to
function, right up until the 20th century. Today this temple is one of
Azerbaijan’s main cultural monuments.
The number of Zoroastrians is not so large today. At present
there are approximately 130,000 followers of the religion across
the world, mainly in the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat in India.
Small groups of Zoroastrians live and worship in such cities as
London, New York, Chicago, Boston and Los Angeles.
A monotheistic religion widespread in Azerbaijan, which has
benefited from the cultural richness of the Azerbaijani people,
is Judaism. This religion appeared in the 8th century BCE and
its main difference from Islam and Christianity is its national
character, i.e. only Jews follow it. The history of the arrival of the
Jews in Azerbaijan is very old; they often suffered persecution in
286 the countries in which they settled, so they decided to come to
Azerbaijan. Judaism is the first religion to have come to Azerbaijan

Section II
from outside and the first religion with a belief in the afterlife to
spread in this country.
The Jews living in many countries around the world are not
treated equally. But at all times in history in Azerbaijan they have
felt themselves to be equal members of a large family, surrounded
with the attention and care of the local population, and have lived
freely and independently. This attitude has led to the survival to
this day of Krasnaya Sloboda (Qirmizi Qasaba or Red Settlement)
in the district of Quba as the only place inhabited almost solely by
Mountain Jews to this day.

Chapter 5
One of the hypotheses concerning the origin of the Mountain
Jews and their settlements in Azerbaijani territory is that they
are descended from the ten Jewish tribes that merged with one
another after their capture by Assyrian King Sargon II in 721 BCE.
Other hypotheses are that they were formed from the Karaims,
Khazars and Tats. According to some researchers, the Mountain
Jewish community emerged as a result of several waves of
immigration to the Caucasus region of Iranian Jews.
The most densely populated settlement of Mountain Jews in the
18 century was in the Quba khanate. For a long time this was the
th

largest Mountain Jewish community. It had three synagogues and

was known as ‘the Jerusalem of the Caucasus’.
Oghuz District in northern Azerbaijan is another area densely
populated by the Mountain Jews. Since the 17th century Jews
from the province of Gilan in Southern Azerbaijan have lived there
and have integrated with the population of neighbouring Jewish
villages.
In the second half of the 19th century the development of the
oil industry in Absheron turned Baku into the biggest industrial
centre in the south of the Russian Empire. At that time Mountain
Jews from various regions of Northern Azerbaijan streamed to 287
Baku, enriching its ethnic diversity. From the end of the 18th century
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Mountain Jews lived in the northern districts of Baku and created

their own Jewish neighbourhoods there.
In the years of Soviet power the Mountain Jews preserved
their religious customs and traditions with great difficulty. After
the restoration of the independence of the Republic of Azerbaijan
a new era began in the life of the ethnic minorities living in the
country, including the Mountain Jews. The state protected the
rights and freedoms of national and religious minorities and
supported the development of their cultures and languages.
The religious communities underwent state registration, new
synagogues were built and national and religious ceremonies and
holidays were freely celebrated.
At present six synagogues function in Baku, Quba and Oghuz,
while prayer houses of the Jewish religious communities function
in Ganja and Sumqayit. A 200-year-old Mountain Jewish synagogue
in Krasnaya Sloboda reopened in October 2010 after major
renovation. On 27 October that year, on the initiative and with the
support of Ilham Aliyev, President of the Republic of Azerbaijan, the
construction of a synagogue began in Baku, funded from the state
budget. The synagogue was ceremonially opened on 5 April 2011.
The oldest community to come to Northern Azerbaijan after the
Mountain Jews was the Georgian Jews. They are members of the
Jewish community who lived in Georgian territory and speak the
Georgian language. According to some sources the Jews inhabited
Kartli and Iberia back in the 7th century BCE; in other words, after
the destruction of the First Temple and the capture of many Jews
and their exile in Babylon.
In 1899 the Russian Imperial Ministry of Internal Affairs
permitted the Jews to build a synagogue in Baku on condition that
they pay 25 roubles as a community tax. The Jews living in Derbent,
288 Quba, Shamakhi, Shaki and Ganja helped to raise funds for the
Jewish community in Baku for the construction of the synagogue.

Section II
Azerbaijani oil barons and philanthropists played a special role in
the collection of funds as well.
After the restoration of the independence of the Republic of
Azerbaijan a new stage began in the life of the Georgian Jews,
as it did in the life of other Jewish communities. There was a
considerable fall in the number of the Jews wanting to emigrate.
The Jews began freely to celebrate their national religious holidays
and their children studied in the Republic of Azerbaijan as citizens
with equal rights with the dominant ethnos of the country. Since
1995, the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan has congratulated

Chapter 5
the Jews every year on the occasion of Rosh Hashanah, the Jewish
New Year holiday.
Another Jewish community living in Azerbaijan is the European
Jews, in other words, the Ashkenazi. Ashkenaz is the name of a
Jewish kingdom, which was used later in reference to Jews who
moved to Germany in the Middle Ages. According to Jewish
tradition, the grandson of Japheth (son of the Prophet Noah) of the
legendary Ashkenazi line, lived in Germany and gave this name to
that country. Over time this became the name of the Jews living in
Germany and also of those living elsewhere in Europe.
Many scholars have studied the historical formation of the
European Jews and their specific features. Based on linguistic,
genetic, anthropological and historical research, the scholars
concluded that the Ashkenazi settled in the territory of Poland, or
to be more exact, along the upper banks of the Vistula roughly 700
to 800 years ago, as part of the migration flows of various peoples
of Jewish origin.
The settlement of the European Jews in Northern Azerbaijan
dates back to the 19th century. The Second Russo-Iranian war in
1826-28 ended with the signature of the Treaty of Turkmenchay.
As a result, tsarist Russia strengthened its position in the Caucasus, 289
which increased the migration and settlement of Ashkenazi in
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Azerbaijan from the second half of the 19th century.

In 1897 approximately 2,500 Jews lived in Baku and the majority
of them were European Jews. By 1913 the number had grown to
some 10,000. In 1910 a synagogue was built in Baku, as in other
areas with Jewish communities, and the synagogue became not
only a prayer house, but also an educational centre.
At the beginning of the 20th century the European Jews took
an active part in political life in the country, creating their own
political parties. For example, the Ashkenazi who came to Northern
Azerbaijan from the western provinces of the Russian Empire,
where the Jews suffered pogroms, formed their own political party
Poaley Sion (the Workers of Zion). The party brought together
craftsmen, workers, some groups of the intelligentsia and the petty
bourgeoisie.
During the years of Soviet power the religious community and
the synagogue of the European Jews functioned in Baku, but with a
limited number of members. In 2002 a magnificent synagogue was
built for the Ashkenazi in Baku. At the time this synagogue was one
of the largest in Eastern Europe.
The Azerbaijani people have taken care of the Jews living
among them down the centuries, always treating them kindly and
with respect even when anti-Semitism began to rage in the world.
Today the Jews in Azerbaijan are far from anti-Semitism and live
in an atmosphere of tolerance. The Jews who came to work in
Azerbaijan many years ago have already become worthy citizens of
the country, and in its turn the Republic of Azerbaijan has turned
the country into an eternal motherland for them.
Some 16,000 Jews live in Azerbaijan today. They take an active
part in the political, economic, social and cultural life of the
Republic of Azerbaijan. The Jewish communities are considered
290 the most active religious organizations in the Republic of
Azerbaijan and many of their organizations have received state

Section II
registration and function freely in the country. The Azerbaijani-
Israeli Friendship Centre, the Jewish Agency Sochnut and the Joynt
and Vaad L-Hatzolah committees operate to protect and preserve
Jewish traditions. There are also religious schools, Jewish cultural
centres such as the Yeva (Eve) Women’s Society and other non-
governmental organizations. The Hebrew language is taught in the
Faculty of Oriental Studies at Baku State University.
It should be noted that the Ohr Avner Chabad Education Centre
for Jewish children in Baku was established by the Heydar Aliyev
Foundation and Ohr Avner International Foundation as part of the

Chapter 5
project Azerbaijan – Address of Tolerance. On 4 October 2010, the
Education Centre was ceremonially opened with the participation
of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan Ilham Aliyev and the
first vice-president of the Republic of Azerbaijan Mehriban Aliyeva.
Christianity is another religion widespread in Azerbaijan. The
three main branches of Christianity – Orthodoxy, Catholicism and
Protestantism – are all present in Azerbaijan. When considering
Christianity, it is impossible not to mention the Caucasian
Albanian Church and its history. The Albanian Church is one of
the ancient apostolic churches not only of the Caucasus, but the
entire Christian world. Some of the first Christian communities
are thought to have formed on the territory of Caucasian Albania.
The 8th century Albanian historian Moisey Kalankatuklu noted in
his History of Agvan that Caucasian Albania was the first country
to adopt and spread Christianity; its first capital was Qabala, then
Partav (present-day Barda), where the first Christian communities
were formed. In the 2nd century the first Christian communities
emerged there and in the first quarter of the 4th century (313), the
Albanian tsar Urnair of the Arshakid dynasty declared Christianity
the official religion of the country. Researchers think that the
291
Albanian Church, which emerged in Azerbaijan, is one of the first
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

apostolic churches in the entire Christian world.

The Albanian state collapsed in 705 and Arab emirs began to
rule the country. The Albanians were subject to ethnic, cultural,
ideological and ethno-linguistic assimilation. Those who adopted
Islam integrated into the Turkic tribes. Nevertheless, the local
Christian churches, which functioned in the 8th to the 13th centuries,
attempted to preserve the religion in the country. Albanian church
complexes such as Qum (in Qakh District), Khotavang (in Kalbajar
District), Ganjasar (Aghdara District) and others functioned in the
remote parts of the Lesser Caucasus and the foothills of the Greater
Caucasus.
After the occupation of the southern Caucasus by the
Russian Empire the scope for the Albanian Church to maintain
its confessional independence was greatly restricted. The tsarist
government made several concessions to the Armenian Catholicos,
one of whose demands was the abolition of the autocephalous
Albanian Church and its patriarchate and their subordination to
the Armenian Church. As a result, in 1836, a special decree of the
Russian Holy Synod and rescript (legal decree) of Tsar Nicholas I,
the Albanian Christian Church which had its own separate charter
and specific rituals, was abolished and all its property, including its
archives, was given to the Armenian-Gregorian Church.
The Albanian population was gradually exposed to religious
and ethnic assimilation. The population of the plains embraced
Islam and became Muslim, while the Albanians living in the south-
west of the Lesser Caucasus became Armenian under the pressure
of the monophysite Armenian Gregorian religion, and those
living in the north-west of the Lesser Caucasus became Georgian
under the active influence of the dyophysite Georgian Orthodox
Church. Nevertheless, not all the Albanians were assimilated.
292 Some Albanians living in Karabakh and Zangazur settled on the
left bank of the river Kur. This is an area long inhabited by the Udi,

Section II
who are considered the descendants of the Albanians and still live
in the Oghuz and Qabala districts of Azerbaijan. The Albanian-Udi
religious community and churches belonging to them still function
today.
In the early 19th century, Orthodoxy was spread in Azerbaijan
as a result of tsarist Russia’s ‘settlement policy’ in the region. In
1815, the first Orthodox Church was built in Baku. This decision was
legally approved by decree of the commander-in-chief of Russian
troops in the Caucasus, Gen. Rtishсhev, and funds were collected
for the construction of the new church. Since the construction work

Chapter 5
required a lot of time, the believers needed a temporary place of
prayer. An old mosque building near the Maiden Tower, which was
being used as a food store at the time, was turned into the Saint
Nicholas Orthodox Church and a priest, David Ivanov, was invited
from Tbilisi to perform religious rituals there. In 1850-58, the
church was replaced with a new Saint Nicholas Church, which was
built near the Double Gates to the Icheri Shahar (Old City). The old
church was unfit for services and remained closed for some time. In
1892, it was renovated and turned into a small church. At that time,
churches also functioned at the Bayil naval base and the military
barracks in Baku.
From the second half of the 19th century the rapid development
of the oil industry in Azerbaijan attracted many specialists and
labourers from different parts of the Russian Empire. As a result,
the Russian Orthodox population increased in Northern Azerbaijan
and larger churches were needed. In 1888-98, the Alexander
Nevsky Church was built in Baku. This was the largest and grandest
Orthodox Church in the south Caucasus in the 19th century. Tsar
Alexander III and members of the royal family attended the
ceremony to lay the church’s foundation stone.
293
After the establishment of Soviet power in Azerbaijan, there was
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

a fall in the number of Russian Orthodox churches and of other

places of worship. Religious institutions lost their registration and
prayer houses and churches were closed. During the period of
militant atheism, particularly in the 1930s, many church buildings
were destroyed and thousands of priests and believers suffered
repression.
After independence Azerbaijan took important measures
to restore freedom of conscience and regulate the activities
of religious institutions, creating great opportunities for the
independent activity of different confessions. The Holy Synod
of the Russian Orthodox Church and Patriarch of Moscow and all
Russia Alexy II issued a decree on 28 December 1998, restoring
the Eparchy of Baku and the Caspian and appointing a respected
clergyman, Alexander Ishein, its bishop.
In May 2001 Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia Alexy II came
to Azerbaijan and blessed the Eparchy of Baku and the Caspian.
During his visit he was received by the National Leader of
Azerbaijan Heydar Aliyev. In September 2005 the Patriarch paid his
second visit to Azerbaijan, where President Ilham Aliyev presented
him with a state honour, the Shohrat order, for his services to
developing friendship between the Russian and Azerbaijani
peoples. The Patriarch also honoured Ilham Aliyev with the Saint
Sergey Radonezhsky award, one of the highest awards of the
Russian Orthodox Church. This all shows how the Russian Orthodox
Church is valued and supported by the administration of the
Republic of Azerbaijan.
Under a decree of the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox
Church, the name of the Eparchy of Baku and the Caspian was
changed to the Eparchy of Baku and Azerbaijan in 2001. The
eparchy now has five churches and a prayer house, while an
294 Orthodox cultural and religious centre, built on the instructions
of President Ilham Aliyev, has been functioning since its opening

Section II
ceremony on 15 November 2013.
Roman Catholicism, another branch of Christianity, began to
spread in Azerbaijan in the early 14th century. In 1320 French Friar
Jordanus Catalani, also known as Jordan of Severac, visited Baku
and other cities of Azerbaijan. Researchers believe that Franciscan
Friar Odoric of Pordenone was in Azerbaijan in the same period
too.
Nevertheless, Catholic communities did not spread in
Azerbaijan until the 17 th
century, when different Roman Catholic
orders, such as the Carmelites (established in the 12th century),

Chapter 5
the Dominicans (established in the 13th century), the Augustinians
(established in the 13th century), the Capuchins (established in
the 16th century) and the Jesuits (established in the 16th century)
founded churches and education centres in Baku, Shamakhi, Ganja,
Tabriz, Nakhchivan and other cities.
After the occupation of Northern Azerbaijan by the Russian
Empire, all the Catholic groups stopped their work. The late 19th
and early 20th centuries were an important period in the history of
Catholicism in Azerbaijan, because the number of foreigners who
were members of the Catholic Church and other western churches
increased rapidly in Azerbaijan. This was because of the oil boom in
Baku and the exile to the Caucasus of Polish insurgents and other
Catholics living in territories that were now part of the Russian
Empire. The first Catholic parish was founded in Baku in the 1850s,
following the exile of Catholic soldiers to the Caucasus.
In the 1880s there were over 1,000 Catholics in Baku. In this
period the Baku Parish gained independence. In 1895 the Church
of the Virgin Mary’s Immaculate Conception was built and its
work was officially confirmed by decree of the tsar in 1900. In
addition, the Church of the Holy Cross was built in 1900 in the
Baku cemetery. A grander Church of the Virgin Mary’s Immaculate 295
Conception was built in the Gothic style in 1912. This church
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

was demolished during the Soviet era in 1931 or 1934, and its
priest, Stephan Demiurov, was arrested and then shot for secretly
performing religious rites.
After Azerbaijan regained independence, the Catholic
community resumed its work in 1992. A group of Catholics wrote to
the Vatican, asking for a priest to be sent to perform mass. In 1996-
97 Timon Titus Khmeletski, secretary of the Vatican embassy in
Tbilisi, visited Baku several times and met the people interested in
restoring the community. On 2 April 1999, the Catholic community
was officially registered in the Republic of Azerbaijan.
On 23 May 2002, the head of the Catholic Church, Pope John
Paul II, paid a visit to Azerbaijan at the invitation of President
Heydar Aliyev. This visit had an important impact on the
development of relations between the Vatican and the Republic
of Azerbaijan. On the instructions of President Heydar Aliyev land
was allocated for the construction of a Catholic church. Cardinal
Tauran, head of the Vatican delegation that visited the Republic
of Azerbaijan in 2004, blessed the land according to the traditions
of the Catholic Church. Vatican official Crescenzio Sepe visited
Azerbaijan a year later and was received by President Ilham Aliyev.
He held meetings with the leaders of other religious communities
and blessed the church at a foundation-laying ceremony.
Construction of the Church of the Immaculate Conception of the
Virgin Mary was completed in February 2007. In April that year
Archbishop Claudio Gujerotti, Apostolic Nuncio of the Catholic
Church in the South Caucasus, dedicated the new church and
performed the first prayers there. The official opening ceremony
took place when Cardinal Tarcisio Bertone, Secretary of State of the
Vatican, visited the Republic of Azerbaijan in March 2008. President
Ilham Aliyev and the first vice-president Mehriban Aliyeva, who
296 is also president of the Heydar Aliyev Foundation and goodwill
ambassador for UNESCO and ISESCO, took part in the ceremony

Section II
along with the leaders of religious communities in Azerbaijan and
representatives of the state and diplomatic corps.
The Church has been working with the Heydar Aliyev
Foundation since 2009. A memorandum on mutual understanding
and cooperation between the two parties gave an impetus to
collaboration and the implementation of different joint projects.
Protestantism, the third biggest branch of Christianity, spread
in Azerbaijan in the first half of the 19th century. German Lutherans
began to settle in tsarist Russia, particularly in the south Caucasus,

Chapter 5
in that period and established the German colonies in Goygol
(Helenendorf) and Shamkir (Annenfeld). The Lutheran churches
built in these towns are still there today.
With the arrival of German industrialists in Azerbaijan new
Lutheran churches were built in Gadabay and Baku in the late 19th
and early 20th centuries. In 2010 President Ilham Aliyev instructed
the renovation of the Lutheran Church of the Saviour, built in
Baku in 1899. Members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of the
Saviour are able to hold services in the church.
Various Protestant communities function in Azerbaijan,
including the Evangelical Lutheran Community of the Saviour, the
New Life and Word of Life communities.
There are also Jehovah’s Witnesses in Azerbaijan.
From the 1830s, Russian-speaking communities from the
central regions of the Russian Empire began to settle in the south
Caucasus. One community was the Molokans, who lived in different
parts of Azerbaijan, par­
ticularly in Shamakhi, Ismailli, Gadabay,
Goygol, Quba, Jalilabad, Lankaran and Masalli. At present official
religious communities of Molokans exist in Baku and Sumqayit,
as well as in the village of Hilmilli in Qobustan Dis­trict and the
settlement of Ivanovka in Ismayilli District. 297
After the independence of Azerbaijan a Baha’i reli­gi­ous
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

community reformed and was officially registered. Moreover,

an Indian Krishna religious community formed and today the
members of both religious communities live and practise their faith
in Azerbaijan.
Another religion that made a deep mark in the history, culture,
spiritual and moral life of the Azerbaijanis is Islam. For 14 centuries
the history of Azerbaijan has been closely connected with Islam.
Despite great difficulties in the Soviet period the Azerbaijanis
preserved the values of Islam and protected them as their spiritual
heritage.
Christianity reached Azerbaijan before Islam, but covered only
some parts of its historical territories – namely, Caucasian Albania,
while the southern part of Azerbaijan, that is, Atropatena, remained
Zoroastrian. Islam, however, spread to all the historical territories
where the Azerbaijani Turks lived and has preserved its dominant
position for 14 centuries.
The spread of Islam among the Turkic peoples, including
among the Azerbaijani Turks, was an event of historical importance.
As consciousness of religious unity is much stronger than
consciousness of national unity Islam laid the foundation of the
new Muslim civilization. With the adoption of Islam the Turkic
peoples joined a broad and rich civilization, which Islam developed
and enriched further.
Islam spread to the Caucasus through Azerbaijan. As a logical
result, Azerbaijan plays the role of religious centre for all the
Muslims of the Caucasus, which is acknowledged by academic and
religious circles.
Islam began to spread in Azerbaijan from 639. Historians divide
the spread of Islam into several stages. The first stage covers
the years of conquest from the mid-7th to the early 8th centuries.
298 Isfandiyar ibn Farrukhzad, marzban of Azerbaijan, was defeated
in the battles and signed a peace treaty with the Arabs in 639.

Section II
During that period the Arabs occupied Ardabil, Tabriz, Nakhchivan,
Beylagan, Barda, Shirvan, Mugan and Arran, advanced along
the shore of the Caspian Sea and captured Derbent. According
to historical sources, the majority of the Azerbaijani population
adopted Islam in the reign of Ali ibn Abi Talib (656-661). The
Islamic forces took many territories peacefully and some by force.
The Arabs imposed taxes on the people in the occupied territories,
signed peace treaties with them and continued their conquest.
They did no harm to those who accepted their terms. They
imposed taxes on the representatives of other religions, while war

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was declared on those who did not adopt Islam and did not want
to pay taxes. At the end of that period Islam became the dominant
religion in Azerbaijan. In 705 the Albanian state collapsed and the
Albanian church lost its independence.
The second stage covers the period from the early 8th century
until the rule of the Buyids in Iraq and western Iran. During the
collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate, a number of independent feudal
states emerged in Azerbaijan and refused to obey the Caliphate. The
most powerful of them were the Shirvanshahs, Shaddadids, Sajids,
Sallarids and Ravvadids. In that period paganism and Zoroastrianism
lost their dominance, Judaism preserved its existence and the
Albanian church gained independence. But as its sphere of influence
weakened, religious rites were performed in the Armenian language.
The third stage (935-1055) covers the years of the reign of the
Buyids. At this time moderate Shiism spread in different parts of
Azerbaijan, including Derbent. The Sunni Hanafi and Shii Imami
became the dominant schools of thought. Sufism found many
followers and Sufi monuments were created in Azerbaijan.
The fourth stage covers the era of the Seljuk Empire (mid-11th
century to the mid-13th century). There were conflicts among the
Shirvanshah, Shaddadid and Ravvadid states in Azerbaijan in the 299
mid-11th century, which weakened their defences against external
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

attack. This was the situation in which the Seljuk Empire was
formed and absorbed several countries, including Azerbaijan. In
that period Sunnism became predominant, while the Shafi’i school
was the leading school of thought and Sufism spread over a large
area.
The fifth stage is the period of the Mongol conquest (from the
first half of the 13th century to the second half of the 15th century).
During this period some cities of Azerbaijan, particularly Ganja
and Shamkir, were razed to the ground. The Mongols took control
of Baku, Tovuz and other cities. After the occupation of Derbent
in 1239, all the territories of Azerbaijan were annexed to the
Mongol Empire. Sufism spread even further while Hurufism gained
predominance in Azerbaijan.
Abul Hasan Aliyyul-Ala and the poet Nasimi (died 1417) were
the most notable representatives of Hurufism. Seyyid Yahya
Shirvani Bakuvi Khalwati (died 1464), the second leader of the
Khalwati sect of Sufism, enjoyed considerable popularity. Various
Sufi orders, including the Naqshbandi, spread across Azerbaijan
and from there to the north Caucasus.
The sixth stage covers the reign of the Safavids (1501-1786)
and from the 16th century the Ottoman Empire (1281-1924). The
Safavids took control of Ardabil, Mugan and Karabakh in the mid-
15th century.
The high point of the Safavid dynasty coincided with the
Mongol conquests. Sufi orders were created in the 13th century
in the territories occupied by the Mongols and spread among
craftsmen and peasants. One of the orders was created in Ardabil
at that time and was connected with Sheikh Safiaddin Ishaq al-
Musavi al-Ardabili. The Safaviyya order spread for a short time in
Azerbaijan, Iran and other oriental countries.
300
That period witnessed severe clashes between the Safavid and

Section II
Ottoman empires over the occupation of Azerbaijani territories.
When Azerbaijan was occupied by Russia a new stage of
relations between state and religion began. During that period
religious leaders were repressed and were forbidden to perform
religious rites and ceremonies.
It is an undeniable fact that tolerance is a specific feature of
the Azerbaijani people. It should be noted that Islam played a very
important role in the formation of the environment of tolerance
and culture in Azerbaijan. In Islam, the traditional religion of the
Azerbaijanis, tolerance is highly appreciated as a moral and spiritual

Chapter 5
value and culture. History confirms that, buoyed by their own
beliefs, Muslims have not only shown tolerance towards people
of other religions, but have also helped them to build their prayer
houses and keep their faiths alive.
Azerbaijan mobilized all its resources to ensure that Islamic
culture flourished and soon took its place as an outstanding
member of this culture. It gave to Islamic culture such poets of
genius as Nizami and Fuzuli, the philosopher Bahmanyar, the Sufi
thinkers Suhrawardi, Naimi and Nasimi, and the architect Ajami.
After regaining independence Azerbaijan created the
right conditions for the development of other forms of social
consciousness, particularly for the spread of religion, science and
philosophy. Great opportunities were created for the work of
different religious institutions, new religious communities emerged,
mosques were built in the towns and districts of the republic and
several holy sites destroyed during the Soviet regime were restored.
The Bibi-Heybat Mosque, which was demolished in the 1920s,
was reconstructed thanks to the care of Heydar Aliyev, National
Leader of Azerbaijan. A building was constructed for the Islamic
University near Taza Pir Mosque. Opportunities were created
for hundreds of believers to perform pilgrimages to Mecca and 301
to other holy sites of Islam. The Koran, the holy book of Islam,
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

was translated into Azerbaijani, and new religious journals and

newspapers were published. The Baku Madrasa (higher Muslim
school) which functioned in 1989-90 was transformed into the
Baku Islamic Institution in 1991, and was renamed the Baku Islamic
University in 1994. New madrasas opened in different towns and
districts.
A Scientific-Religious Council was set up in 1997 with the
participation of renowned Islamic scholars and representatives of
the Board of Muslims of the Caucasus in order to preserve Islamic
values and prevent the dissemination of detrimental religious
doctrines. Research into Islam and Islamic civilization grew, while
international conferences and symposiums were held in many
different places.
After the return of National Leader Heydar Aliyev to the
political administration of Azerbaijan, special care was taken of
the clergy and Islamic values as part of broader moral and spiritual
values, and attention was paid to relations between Azerbaijan
and Muslim countries. The President of the Republic of Azerbaijan
Ilham Aliyev, a worthy successor to the National Leader of the
Azerbaijani People Heydar Aliyev, takes care of Islamic values
and mosques, and works to reconstruct historical monuments.
The Board of Muslims of the Caucasus, the religious centre of
Azerbaijani Muslims and its chairman Sheikh ul-Islam Allahshukur
Pashazada, play a special role in broadening interreligious
dialogue, strengthening tolerance and ensuring peace in the
Republic. The Board of Muslims of the Caucasus has close
relations with religious organizations in other countries. It holds
meetings and conferences at home and abroad in order to ensure
mutual understanding among the members of other religious
communities functioning in Azerbaijan.
302
The rich Islamic values are seriously protected in Azerbaijan,

Section II
religious holidays are celebrated at the state level and many forums
of international importance are held in Azerbaijan. Azerbaijan takes
an active part in the cultural and political life of the Muslim world.

5.3. Relations between State and Religion in Azerbaijan

Azerbaijan has rich traditions and experience of religious

tolerance and managing relations between state and religion.
These relations have passed through different stages, facing
grave historical challenges, to reach their current state. Despite

Chapter 5
persecution and repression in different periods of history, the
Azerbaijanis remained loyal to national and moral and spiritual
values and tolerant of other religions and cultures. The Azerbaijani
government and the Azerbaijani people keep alive these rich
traditions today and work diligently to pass them on to future
generations.
The events of the last three centuries made themselves felt
in the field of relations between state and religion. The early 19th
century constituted a grave period in the history of Azerbaijan
and is remembered as a new stage in history by the Azerbaijani
people. At that time, various khanates, including the khanates
of Baku, Quba and Derbent, were occupied and ruled by Russia.
Both Iran and the Ottoman Empire opposed this occupation. In
1804 Iran waged war against Russia, and the Ottoman Empire did
likewise in 1806; both were defeated by the Russians. After a hard,
long struggle, a peace treaty was signed in 1813, in the village
of Gulustan in Karabakh, under which the northern Azerbaijani
khanates were annexed to Russia.
In the early years of the occupation the Russian administration
was liberal towards the local khans; the Russians did not interfere in
the domestic affairs of these khanates and were wary of the Muslim 303
clergy whose authority was much stronger than that of the local
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

rulers. But in the 1820s this policy changed and a harsher stance
was taken towards religion. Tsarist Russia used different pretexts
to interfere in religious affairs, which changed the previously loyal
attitude of the local people towards Russia. In those years tsarist
Russia tried to convert the local people to Christianity and to
exaggerate the sectarian differences among Muslims, particularly
between Shia and Sunni.
The harsh, hostile policy towards the religion of Islam and local
Muslims cost tsarist Russia dear. Insurgencies at different times
showed that the clergy were still dominant and had not lost their
standing among the population despite the efforts of the Russian
Empire. The authoritarian policy did not strengthen local authority;
tyranny caused displeasure and hatred among the wealthy in
society and the public at large. Taking into account the potential
to aggravate the situation, tsarist Russia reviewed its policy towards
religion in the 1840s, sending a special commission to the south
Caucasus. As a result, official documents were drawn up to restore
some of the previous rights and privileges of the clergy, to give
more authority to the sharia courts, which made judgments
based on Islamic law, to present awards and honours to the clergy
who served the government loyally and to pay a salary from the
state’s coffers to the clergy who held positions. Tsarist Russia had
already been working with many clerics loyal to the government,
but the clergy still presented danger to the government because
of their faith, world outlook and work to enlighten and educate
communities. The administration did not put their trust in well-
educated clerics who remained committed to religious and national
values. The most important thing for the Russian government was
not the clerics’ knowledge of Islam, but their knowledge of the
Russian language and Russian laws.
304
The government tried to make the clergy loyal to them, to

Section II
separate them from the people and to spread ignorance and
illiteracy by giving high religious positions to uneducated clerics,
thereby undermining the people’s confidence in their religious
leaders.
Though a new stage in the treatment of religion had begun, for
a long time tsarist Russia could not resolve the socio-economic
problems and the political and legal status of the Muslim clergy.
Finally, on 5 April 1872, the ‘Regulation on the management of the
Muslim clergy of the trans-Caucasus’ was adopted by decree of
Alexander II, and remained in place until February 1917. According

Chapter 5
to this regulation, government bodies now supervised the Muslim
clergy and made all appointments. Furthermore, the government
took control of the work of the mosques and their employees;
separate boards were set up for Shia and Sunni Muslims and the
new positions of Sheikh ul-Islam of the Caucasus and Mufti of the
Caucasus were established. The spiritual boards began to work on
the ground through provincial councils, ghazis and the clergy of
mosques. Both boards were based in Tbilisi.
The policy of tsarist Russia towards religion was rather severe
and contained several prohibitions and restrictions. Yet, the
Azerbaijanis did not give up their faith and fought against that
policy, clinging tightly to their national and moral values.
The late 19th and early 20th centuries were a time of significant
change and upheaval, marked by war, rapid socio-economic
change and the establishment of new political parties and
organizations. In those days the economic situation worsened in
Russia, strikes broke out across the country, and the government
lost its previous power. Taking into account this dismal situation,
the government made significant decisions and attempted to
ensure the rights and freedoms of citizens. However, this was not
enough to establish stability and protect the government. 305
Tsar Nicholas II convened the State Duma on 11 December
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

1905. The Caucasian Muslims had the right to take part in

the Duma. Taking advantage of this historic opportunity, the
Azerbaijani intelligentsia began to take an active part in the
political process and to create new organizations with the aim of
liberating the people from oppression. To this end, articles urging
the people to awake and unite and seize the historic opportunities
were frequently published in the press. This all contributed to
Azerbaijan’s struggle for independence in the late 19th and early
20th centuries.
In those days tsarist Russia tried to cause clashes among
Muslims and to destroy their solidarity by exaggerating the
differences between the sects. This was a deliberate policy as
clerics with a strong sense of national identity and Taza Pir Mosque
as a beacon of morality played a significant role in establishing
democratic organization in Northern Azerbaijan, which had been
part of the Russian Empire for a long time.
Tsarist Russia took the danger seriously and tried to pre-empt
Muslim solidarity. The Russian Imperial Ministry of Internal Affairs
said in a letter to the tsar’s Council of Ministers in 1910:

‘It has been noticed that religious and nationalist propaganda

has been growing among the Tatar-Muslims living in Crimea,
the Caucasus, the Volga region and beyond the Urals under the
influence of domestic and foreign policies. The government cannot
remain indifferent to propaganda that not only promotes the
religious and cultural independence of the Muslim population of
Russia but also attempts to Islamicize and Tatarize the “aliens” of
various tribes and faiths living in the remote eastern areas of the
country.’

At that time most of the large religious buildings were places

306 of public debate and the clergy constituted a stratum of society
that supported national awakening. The Taza Pir Mosque and the

Section II
Ismayiliyya building were places of this kind. Both tsarist officials
and the Bolshevik-Dashnak gangs were aware of the role of the
Taza Pir Mosque and the clergy in the struggle for the unity of the
Azerbaijani people. When associations of Dashnaks and Bolsheviks
began genocide against the Muslim people on 31 March 1918,
they targeted the Ismayiliyya, a magnificent building that had
played a special role in the social and political life of Azerbaijan in
the early 20th century and in scientific and religious enlightenment
of the Muslims. They set fire to the Ismayiliyya and to the editorial
office and printing house of Kaspi newspaper, destroying 5,000

Chapter 5
recently printed copies of the Koran in the process.
The clergy of Taza Pir Mosque, united by a sense of national
identity, were among the leaders who took preventive action and
organized the funerals of tens of thousands of Muslims killed in
the genocide of March 1918. Alongside the clergy, the national
intelligentsia also came to Taza Pir Mosque, urging the people to
remain stoical and united.
At last, on 28 May 1918, the Azerbaijan National Council
proclaimed the independence of the Democratic Republic of
Azerbaijan, which was the first secular, democratic republic in
the Muslim world. The creation of the first national, democratic
republic coincided with a very complex period in history. Enemies
at home and abroad who did not accept the independence of
Azerbaijan provoked clashes and unrest, trying to prevent the
sound establishment of the state.
In spite of the difficulties, the government determined the
main principles of the state in all fields, including the relationship
between state and religion. The years of discrimination against
Islam came to an end; religious values became part of national
ideology; religious freedom was ensured for everyone and the
conditions ensured for the free observance of religious rites and 307
ceremonies. Protecting the national interests of the state, the
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

government considered it a priority to collaborate with both

Muslim and Christian countries.
The new administration of the Democratic Republic of
Azerbaijan was constituted on 17 June 1918. A Ministry of
Enlightenment and Religious Freedom was established in order to
restore the people’s national and religious traditions and ensure
religious freedom, and Nasib bay Yusifbayli was appointed minister.
The Ministry immediately began to cooperate with the clergy and
religious organizations. The national and religious composition of
Azerbaijan was taken into account in the formation of parliament;
80 places were given to Muslims and 35 places to Christians. The
Armenians were represented by 21 deputies in parliament.
The Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan managed to establish
a single religious administration of Caucasian Muslims. The
offices of the two former Muslim organizations had been in
Tbilisi before Azerbaijan proclaimed its independence. Taking into
account the complex events happening in the region, the leaders
of both offices, Muhammad Pishnamazzada and Mufti Mustafa
Afandizada, decided to move to Azerbaijan. Following the decree
issued by the Ministry of Enlightenment and Religious Freedom
on 10 August 1918, they moved to Ganja and voluntarily united
in a single administration. The Ministry of Enlightenment and
Religious Freedom affirmed this decision on 7 September, and
after the liberation of Baku on 15 September 1918, the clerical
administration moved to the capital.
The Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan conducted economic,
social, political and other reforms within a short time, doing its
best to strengthen the independence of the country. Freedom of
conscience was a priority for the government while it worked to
ensure the rights of citizens.
308
A new period began for Azerbaijan in 1920; on 28 April Soviet

Section II
power was established in Azerbaijan by force; all the institutions
of the Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan were repealed and all
political organizations with the exception of the Communist Party
had to cease their activities.
After the establishment of Soviet power in Azerbaijan, Islam
came under attack. A tough fight began against Islam, aimed at
making people give up their religious beliefs and wipe all traces
of religion from their lives. Older schoolchildren, students, and
people from the literary and art worlds were especially involved
in this work. The government gave up freedom of conscience and

Chapter 5
religious belief; religious privileges were repealed; and mosques
and churches were separated from the state. As the years passed,
the fight against religion grew stronger and a large number of
mosques were destroyed and their work stopped. In December
1928, the presidium of the Central Committee of the Azerbaijan
Communist Party reconsidered the issue of ‘mosques given to
the peasants for their cultural needs’ with some mosques being
transformed into institutions of culture and enlightenment.
Various organizations were commissioned to remove the pulpits
from mosques, to make people leave the madrasas, to shut the
madrasas down, and to persecute the clergy. The Koran was
banned as a dangerous book and mosques were destroyed or
transformed into storehouses, libraries or museums.
In the first years after the Soviet Union joined World War II
(1941-45) the people were in a state of hopelessness and many
found solace in religion again. Soviet leader Joseph Stalin took
steps to improve relations with the Western countries after 1943,
the year that marked a turning point in the war. He realized that the
war would soon end in victory and that it would be hard for Russia
to exist as a country in isolation from the world. The Soviet Union
was to earn a reputation not only as one of the most powerful 309
countries after World War II, but also as a country ruled by an ideal
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

political system. It was important to open a second front and to

carry out reforms in order to achieve the integration of Russia into
Western values after the war. One of the most significant reforms
was the establishment of religious institutions.
The Council for Religious Affairs attached to the government
of the Soviet Union fulfilled the tasks of the state administration in
the republics, autonomous republics and provinces. The Council’s
mission was instituted in Azerbaijan on 9 June 1944. The first
plenipotentiary representative of the Council for Religious Affairs
in Azerbaijan was Baybala Shahbazbayov. In order to improve
efficiency in this field and to carry out centralization, a Council for
Religious Affairs attached to the Cabinet of Ministers was instituted
according to decree of the USSR Council of Ministers on 8
December 1965. The Regulations of the Council for Religious Affairs
stated that the Council’s main objective was to pursue government
policy in the sphere of religion. The Council’s main duty was
to monitor the people’s obedience to the law and the USSR
Constitution which ensured ‘freedom of conscience’ for citizens, to
the decrees of the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet and the
decisions of the USSR Cabinet of Ministers.
In spite of all the measures taken by the Soviet government,
the Azerbaijani people did not forget their traditions, national and
spiritual values and religious faith and protected their historical
roots.
After Azerbaijan regained its independence, a new period began
in state-religion relations. The prohibitions on religious activity
were lifted after many years; freedom of conscience and religion
were ensured for citizens; religious organizations were allowed to
operate and perform religious rites; and legislation was adapted to
the norms of international law. The prohibitions on prayer houses
310 and religious communities, on the performance of religious rites
and on the publication and dissemination of religious literature

Section II
were all lifted. The Azerbaijani people were given the right to
celebrate their national and religious holidays, and work was done
systematically to bring up young people in a healthy spirit to be
committed to national and moral values.
However, some disturbing factors arose alongside the positive
changes. For example, some groups appeared who attempted to
misuse freedom of conscience and religion in order to realize their
malicious ambitions. They used all the opportunities to spread
harmful religious doctrines and radical religious movements and
sects, thereby straining the religious situation. The Azerbaijani

Chapter 5
government had to take the necessary steps in this situation.
The system of religious traditions, passed down from generation
to generation, had to be carefully studied and the reality of it
explained to the people. The traditions of endurance, which had
passed through the challenges of history, were to be preserved and
the dissemination of harmful religious doctrines and radical sects
prevented. The law ‘On freedom of religion’, which was adopted
in 1992, regulated the work of religious centres, offices and
organizations, and educational institutions. It introduced rules for
the registration and liquidation of religious institutions and clarified
their rights to property and economic activity, approaches to
international relations, the attitude towards religion in schools, and
the religious institutions’ charitable, cultural and educational work.
Clauses ensuring religious freedom and regulating the state-
religion relationship were added to the Constitution of the Republic
of Azerbaijan, adopted in 1995, thanks to the care and attention
of the National Leader of Azerbaijan, Heydar Aliyev. Clauses 18,
25, 47, 48 and 71 of the Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan
cover freedom of conscience and religion in detail. According
to those clauses, the state is secular, religion is separate from the
state and the state’s education system is also based on secular 311
principles. All religions are equal before the law. Those clauses are
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

also intended to prohibit the spread of religions that humiliate

human dignity and are counter to the principles of humanism. The
Constitution proclaims that everybody has freedom of conscience
and expression; the citizens of the country are independent in
their approach to religion; every citizen has the right to follow any
religion or none, alone or with other people; and people are free to
express their religious faith.
A new period in the state-religion relationship began after the
creation of the State Committee on Religious Associations of the
Republic of Azerbaijan, under a decree issued by Heydar Aliyev
on 21 June 2001. The State Committee was given the task of
carrying out the requirements of the law ‘On freedom of religion’:
registering religious communities and regulating the activity of
religious organizations and educational institutions.
Increased attention was paid to religious freedom, to the free
conduct of religious rites and ceremonies, to strengthening the
traditions of tolerance and promoting national and spiritual values.
The Azerbaijani government provided equal opportunities for the
members of all religions to perform religious rites and ceremonies
independently, prevented groundless interference in their activity
and stepped up control on the activity of radical groups.
As the economy of the country developed, the government
showed more care towards the members of different sects. Tackling
their problems became one of the priorities of the country’s
religious policy.
In the current international situation, with the acceleration of
globalization and increasing external influences, it is important to
educate people about religion in order to preserve the principles
of mutual understanding and respect, and to prevent the use
of religion for political purposes. The Azerbaijani government
312 constantly monitors the religious situation and has beefed up its
attempts to prevent radicalism and extremism in order to maintain

Section II
stability and carry out religious enlightenment. Taking into account
that religious propaganda under the influence of fanaticism and
religious intolerance may violate the religious stability of the
country, this work is done in line with the national state concept.
In December 2015, the law ‘On combating religious extremism’
was adopted. The law helps to prevent incitement of national,
social or religious hatred, the humiliation of national dignity
and activity that limits the rights of citizens, irrespective of their
national, racial, social and religious affiliation.
Articles tackling the fight against extremism and the prevention

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of radical tendencies can be found in the laws of the Republic of
Azerbaijan. The following articles are especially important in the
struggle against extremism: Articles 12.1 and 279.1 of the Criminal
Code of the Republic of Azerbaijan (on creating or participating in
armed groups or associations not allowed by the legislation of the
Republic of Azerbaijan, or supplying them with arms, ammunition,
explosives or military equipment); and Articles 28, 283 -1.3 and
283 -1.3 (on involving citizens of the Republic of Azerbaijan and
permanent residents of Azerbaijan who are not citizens in armed
clashes beyond the borders of the Republic of Azerbaijan on the
grounds of religious antagonism or under the guise of spreading
religious sects and performing religious rites; or carrying out
military training for said purposes; or establishing a permanent
group to carry out said purposes; or leading such a group; or
participating in the exercises and armed conflicts of those groups;
or preparing in any other way for such grave crimes).
The National Leader of Azerbaijan Heydar Aliyev played an
essential role in ensuring freedom of religion, streng­thening the
traditions of religious tolerance, regulating state-religion relations
and taking great care of the religious communities in Azerbaijan.
After he returned to rule the country again, important changes 313
occurred in the regulation of the state-religion relationship: the
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

government took more care to restore and preserve historical and

religious monuments and a range of measures were taken to tackle
problems in the field of religion.
During the years of the rule of the National Leader, the
government paid great attention to preserving at the state level the
rich traditions of tolerance of the Azerbaijani people; strengthening
this tradition became one of the priorities of the government’s
religious policy. Heydar Aliyev held frequent meetings with the
clergy of different religions, visited prayer houses, made speeches
to believers and congratulated them on religious holidays and
ceremonies.
Today the state-religion policy founded by Heydar Aliyev is
successfully continued by his worthy successor President Ilham
Aliyev. The government pays special attention to the members
of different religions and sects who live in Azerbaijan. Thanks to
this attention and care, hundreds of mosques and synagogues
have been built or restored; holy sites of pilgrimage have
been reconstructed and religious education centres have been
modernized. Some of the greatest events in the recent history
of the Azerbaijani people have been the restoration of the Taza
Pir, Ajdarbay, Shamakhi and Juma mosques and the Bibi-Heybat
and Imamzada shrines, the foundation and construction of the
Heydar Mosque, which bears the name of the National Leader of
the Azerbaijani People and is one of the biggest mosques in the
Caucasus, and the allocation of money from the state budget
to religious organizations, all under the directives and decrees of
President Ilham Aliyev.
Azerbaijan was a very active participant in interreligious and
intercultural dialogue during the first ten years of its independence.
It is now an organizer and driving force in this process. Today the
314 world public recognizes Azerbaijan as a tolerant and multicultural
country and also acknowledges its success in spreading these

Section II
values around the world.
Important decisions have been taken to set up various bodies
in the field of state-religion relations and coordinate their work.
From this point of view, the institution of the Service of the State
Counsellor on Multiculturalism, Interethnic and Religious Issues,
and the foundation of the Baku International Multiculturalism
Centre should be noted in particular. These organizations,
together with the Ministry of Tourism and Culture and the State
Committee for Work with Religious Organizations, accelerate the
progress of the Azerbaijani government in the field of tolerance,

Chapter 5
multiculturalism, and intercultural and interreligious dialogue. Of
course, a major decision related to this field was the Azerbaijani
President’s declaration of 2016 as the Year of Multiculturalism and
his approval of the associated Action Plan. This is considered to
be the beginning of a new stage in state-religion relations and in
multiculturalism.
At the same time, 2017 was declared the Year of Islamic
Solidarity in Azerbaijan. This was also a sign that Azerbaijan
supports Islamic solidarity and pays special attention to it. Events
were held in Azerbaijan and abroad to mark the year.
The religion policy established by Heydar Aliyev is maintained
in a fashion worthy of the National Leader by the Heydar Aliyev
Foundation. The objectives of this policy are the restoration of
historical and religious monuments–mosques, churches and
synagogues; the promotion of national and religious values and
traditions of tolerance; and raising awareness of Azerbaijan’s rich
cultural heritage around the world. The Heydar Aliyev Foundation,
headed by Mehriban Aliyeva, First Vice-President of the Republic
of Azerbaijan, President of the Heydar Aliyev Foundation and
Goodwill Ambassador of UNESCO and ISESCO, has succeeded 315
in a short time in building and restoring mosques, shrines and
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Christian and Jewish places of worship, and in raising international

awareness of Azerbaijan, including its traditions of religious and
ethnic tolerance.
Heydar Aliyev’s successful religious policy preserved the
traditions of tolerance and restored historical and religious
buildings and monuments. Together with the rich literature and
art of the Azerbaijani people these are Azerbaijan’s greatest
contributions to world culture and its legacy to future generations.
Heydar Aliyev has a place in history as the creator of this legacy,
the Azerbaijani people as heirs to the legacy and the Heydar Aliyev
Foundation as its guardian and promoter.
The Board of Muslims of the Caucasus also contributes to
managing relations between state and religion and to preserving
stability in the country. The Board plays a special role influencing
the government’s religious policy. Relations between the Board
and other organizations in Azerbaijan are based on mutual
understanding and reliance. The Board takes an active part in
preserving and strengthening the independence of the country.
Azerbaijan sets an example to many countries in terms of the
high level of these relations.

5.4. The Influence of the Policy of Multiculturalism on the

Country’s Socio-economic Development

The socio-economic development of a country is one of the

main factors influencing its moral and cultural development. On
the other hand, historical experience shows that the spiritual and
cultural development of a country paves the way for its socio-
economic development. By playing a major role in social change,
316 economic development can improve the welfare of the people. A
combination of spiritual and material values determines the course

Section II
of economic development in the modern world. Over time it has
been confirmed that a society’s economic situation depends on the
level of its spirituality.
The idea of a contradiction between ‘economy’ and ‘spirituality’ is
widespread in society. While the former makes assessments based on
concrete values, the latter covers human needs that have no material
value. It should be acknowledged that the spiritual values that exist
around us are the requirement of the times. It would, therefore,
be expedient to regard the economy as a reflection of spirituality.
The development of material civilization does not guarantee the

Chapter 5
future of human life by itself. Therefore, ensuring the harmony of
spiritual and economic development in the modern world may be
considered a precondition for the success of civilization. It should
be noted that there are many things to be done globally, which has
also been proved by the research of foreign experts.
It is an accepted truth that economic strength and political
influence have historically constituted the power of a state. But it
is impossible to become a powerful state without the national
unity and solidarity of the citizens in tackling problems. Political
and spiritual stability is one of the most important components
and engines of economic power. Tackling humanitarian issues
efficiently and in a timely fashion forms its foundation. Ensuring
religious freedoms and the rights of people of different religious
and national values and characteristics and protecting the national
and cultural values of ethnic minorities are the main factors that
guarantee solidarity in a country. Achieving multiculturalism and
making it a way of life lie at the basis of these factors.
In the narrow sense multiculturalism is understood as a
synonym of polyculturalism, which reflects the concrete policy
pursued by a state in regard to the ethnic, racial, religious and
cultural diversity existing in society. Multiculturalism as a way
317
of life is acquiring vital international importance in the world
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

today. More countries, peoples, international organizations

and religious institutions understand that cooperation and
mutual understanding are the only way to survive and develop
and ensure social welfare in conditions of a constant increase
in weapons of mass destruction and periodic economic and
financial crises. Therefore, it is impossible to ensure economic and
political stability and socio-economic development in countries
where multiculturalism policy is unsuccessful. The policy of
multiculturalism means the protection and development of the
different cultures within a country’s borders and the conduct of a
humanist and democratic state policy aimed at their development
and promotion.
The Republic of Azerbaijan is one of the rare countries to pursue
multiculturalism as a state policy. The policy of multiculturalism
in the country was established by National Leader Heydar Aliyev.
His return to the political administration of the country created
real conditions for the protection and development of the
historical traditions of tolerance. Today the successful policy of
multiculturalism of the Republic of Azerbaijan is connected with
the name of President Ilham Aliyev, worthy successor to National
Leader Heydar Aliyev.
The spread of multiculturalism in Azerbaijan since ancient
times, its transformation into the way of life of the people and into
a priority in state policy have ensured the country’s multicultural
security. As a result of political and social cataclysms and disasters
caused by ecological change, people face great tragedies and
suffering. National and religious misunderstandings also play
an important role in generating upheaval. At the same time,
Azerbaijan is one of the most stable countries of the world, which
keeps alive multiculturalism. The policy of multiculturalism, which
has a strong historical background in the country, is developing
318
more and more and is enriched as a result of the well-thought-out

Section II
policies of government. Today interracial and intercultural relations
have a strong foundation in Azerbaijan and go hand in hand with
the good results in the political, economic and social life of the
country, which has already been recognized at international level.
It should be noted that socio-economic development is the main
precondition and material basis of the impro­vement in multicultural
values in Azerbaijan, because the correct management of the
factors of socio-economic development is a priority in terms of
the benefits of multiculturalism. Strengthening the humanitarian
aspects of economic development, expanding the material basis

Chapter 5
of multicultural values and tackling in a holistic fashion problems
in the economy, society, demographics, morality, humanitarianism,
coexistence and solidarity are the main characteristics of the
successful policy of multiculturalism.
It should be noted that over the past 10 years Azerbaijan had
one of the fastest growing economies in the world and entered
a qualitatively new stage. The economic policy of the country
pursued during this term has allowed for a substantial increase
in economic growth, improved the social welfare of the people
and modernized socio-economic infrastructure. In 2004-15 real
economic growth was 10.6 per cent on average, and nominal GDP
increased by as much as 760 per cent. The amount of GDP per
capita increased by as much as 650 per cent and raised Azerbaijan
from 134th to 79th in the country rankings. The social welfare of the
people improved substantially, with the poverty rate declining from
49 per cent to 4 per cent.
The economic reforms conducted in Azerbaijan were
accompanied by an increase in the country’s global rating. Not
surprisingly, Azerbaijan was considered ‘a leading reformist
country’ according to the World Bank’s 2009 Doing Business report.
According to the World Economic Forum’s Global Competitiveness 319
Report 2016-2017, Azerbaijan was 37th out of 138 countries, an
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

increase of 27 places in comparison with 2006. National income

per capita increased by 800 per cent since 2004 to 7,600 US dollars.
Within a short time Azerbaijan was transformed from a low-income
country to an upper-middle-income country. The economic growth
was accompanied by an increase in employment; more than
1.3 million new jobs were created, 77.1 per cent of which were
permanent and 62 per cent of which were situated in the regions.
The fulfilment of state programmes on the socio-economic
development of the regions plays a very important role in the
overall balanced development of the regions of Azerbaijan, in
increasing economic activity and competitive skills, in creating jobs
and new institutions and in ensuring the stable, fast and overall
development of the republic. The policy for the socio-economic
development of the regions is a major factor in economic
prosperity and a progressive way for the government to regulate
systematic and sustainable development. A great chance has
been created to mobilize the work force and natural resources of
the regions, to revive entrepreneurship, develop free trade and
create a competitive production sector. The programmes for the
development of the regions as part of the economic policy of the
Republic of Azerbaijan may be considered a road map for enduring
development and the national unity of the ethnic groups living in
the country.
The government plans for 2004-08, 2009-13 and 2014-18
included plans for the next stage of development in the regions
inhabited by ethnic minorities. Furthermore, the Azerbaijani
President signed decrees ‘On the action plan to accelerate
socio-economic development of the regions of the Republic
of Azerbaijan, including the districts of Lankaran, Astara, Lerik,
Masalli and Yardimli’ (14 September 2005); ‘On further action
320 to accelerate the socio-economic development of the regions
of the Republic of Azerbaijan including the districts of Shaki,

Section II
Balakan, Qakh and Zaqatala’ (1 June 2006); ‘On the approval of
the action plan to accelerate the socio-economic development of
the regions of the Republic of Azerbaijan, including the districts
of Quba, Qusar, Khachmaz, Siyazan and Davachi’ (3 August 2005).
According to these instructions, major socio-economic projects
in education, culture, ecology and other areas were carried out in
the southern, north-western and northern regions that have areas
with substantial ethnic minority populations. According to these
instructions, hundreds of new schools, hospitals and diagnostic
centres, sports complexes, tourism and leisure facilities and

Chapter 5
industrial enterprises were opened and multiple renovation and
restoration projects were carried out.
One of the main objectives of these programmes is to widen
the geography of balanced development in the regions, to increase
production and the number of enterprises in the regions, to
increase the number of financially viable local producers, to make
the most of the economic resources of the regions, to make raw
materials the main part of the production process and to reduce
the difference among the regions to a minimum.
This process is continuing. The work set out in these plans is
under way to ensure balanced development in all the regions of
the country without any discrimination. This is a manifestation
of the successful domestic policy aimed at improving the social
welfare of the people living in the regions. The national policy of
the government under the leadership of President Ilham Aliyev
does not serve only a specific ethnic group or people, it serves all
the citizens of the country in all areas of life, irrespective of their
national identity.
Multiculturalism policy has played a very important role
in achieving these goals. It is impossible to achieve successful
economic development and to realize big projects and 321
programmes without internal stability. This stability is achieved
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

by preserving the cultural diversity in society, eliminating social

injustice among the communities and giving rights and equal
opportunities to every citizen. These socio-economic parameters
are the main indicators of the successful multiculturalism policy
carried out by the Republic of Azerbaijan at the state level.

5.5. The Constitutional and Legal Basis of Multiculturalism

The Azerbaijani model of multiculturalism became state policy

after the country’s independence, as has been outlined in the
preceding chapters. This model was sha­ped by historic development
and gained political meaning and became government policy as a
result of the national strategy developed and implemented by the
National Leader of the Azerbaijani People Heydar Aliyev. This policy
is continued today by President Ilham Aliyev.
The existence of ethnocultural and religious diversity and the
establishment of equal relations among the different groups, as
well as the preservation of cultural diversity make constitutional
and legal regulation in this field essential.
The philosophy of liberalism considered to be the foundation
of multiculturalism is aimed at the protection of the rights of
individuals, but multiculturalism as a policy is aimed at the
protection of all the groups in society. Azerbaijan has joined a
number of international legal conventions and been an active
participant in the process of intercultural dialogue, but now it is
the organizer, even the driving force, in this process. This principle
has been given special importance in the majority of normative and
legal acts adopted in conformity with the international conventions.
Though the Constitution as the supreme law and other
legislation do not contain any provision defining the legal status
322 of multiculturalism, there are sufficient norms on a multicultural
society in the legislation of Azerbaijan. Five articles of the

Section II
Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan – Article 18 (Religion and
state), Article 21 (Official language), Article 25 (Right to equality),
Article 45 (Right to use one’s mother tongue), Article 48 (Freedom
of conscience) – are the highest signs of the ethnocultural,
linguistic and religious diversity existing in society. The state
guarantees the protection of the rights and liberties of everyone
(Article 26) and this is reflected in the Constitution as the legal
basis ensuring multicultural security in the country.
Article 18 of the Constitution determines the attitude of the
state towards religion. Religion is separate from the state and there

Chapter 5
is no official state religion. All religious faiths are equal before the
law in Azerbaijan. According to this norm, the state treats equally
all religious faiths or denominations.
Article 18 of the Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan
creates legal grounds for many faiths to exist, which is a significant
component of multiculturalism; it also determines the legal
framework of the relations between the state and religion. The
spread and promotion of religions that insult human dignity or
contradict the principles of humanity are banned. The educational
system is secular.
The law of the Republic of Azerbaijan ‘On freedom of feligion’
dated 20 August 1992, regulates the attitude of the state to
different religious communities and the relationship between those
communities. While the Constitution sets out the guiding legal
principles, the law ‘On freedom of religion’ determines the status,
rights and responsibilities of the religious institutions and regulates
the legal setting for their activity.
Article 5 of the law ‘On freedom of religion’ declares that
religion and religious organizations are separate from the state
and determines the principle of the equality of all religious
organizations before the law. No preference or restriction can
323
be applied to any religion (religious movement) and religious
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

organization. The law sets out the legal right of everyone living
in Azerbaijan to profess any religion individually or together and
to express and spread their religious beliefs. These provisions
of the law of the Republic of Azerbaijan ‘On freedom of religion’
are reflected in Article 48 of the Constitution of the Republic of
Azerbaijan as the main principles:

1. Everyone has freedom of conscience.

2. Everyone has the right to define independently their attitude
towards religion, to profess any religion individually or together
with others or to profess no religion, to express and spread
their religious beliefs.
3. E veryone is free to perform religious rituals, provided that they
do not violate public order or contradict public morals.
4. R
eligious convictions do not excuse infringements of the law.
5. No one can be forced to express a religious belief or conviction,
to execute religious rituals or participate in religious
ceremonies.

This article of the Constitution creates a broad legal basis

for the protection and freedom of religious diversity, and also
permits everyone freely to profess any religion, to preserve a
neutral position towards religion or to profess no religion. In
some countries a change in the dominant religion is prohibited
by the Constitution. For instance, according to Article 13 of the
Constitution of Greece (11 June 1975), proselytism or religious
conversion is banned in Greece.
In Azerbaijan all religious organizations can function as legal
entities when they have official registration. The right of everyone
to freedom of conscience is reflected in the laws concerning specific
324 categories of people as well. According to Article 13 of the Code
of the Republic of Azerbaijan on the Execution of Punishments and

Section II
Article 7 of the law of the Republic of Azerbaijan ‘On the status of
servicemen’, dated 25 December 1991, the relevant authorities are
obliged to ensure freedom of conscience for prisoners and military
servicemen respectively.
It is, therefore, an important element of a multicultural society
for there to be sufficient legal norms to ensure that everyone is free
to follow any religion and perform religious rituals. Should these
rights be violated, that is, if anyone is illegally prevented from
exercising these rights, for example, if anyone is illegally prevented
from performing religious rites or is forced to follow a religion

Chapter 5
(religious movement) and perform religious rituals and ceremonies
or to participate in religious rituals and ceremonies or get religious
education, or forced to be a member of a religious organization,
or prevented from leaving one, the violator will be charged with
violating the rights of citizens, and also under Articles 167-168 of
the Criminal Code of the Republic of Azerbaijan.
On 25 December 2015, the law of the Republic of Azerbaijan
‘On combating religious extremism’ was adopted in order to
strengthen the fight against groups that under the guise of religion
and protected by the religious diversity and stability in Azerbaijan
create armed groups to oppose the constitutional structure of
the state. This law was adopted in order to prevent the abuse of
the constitutional guarantees of religious diversity and of the
protection of the existing multicultural environment.
By defining exactly the notions of religious extremism, religious
fanaticism and religious radicalism the law determines precisely
the difference between these notions and religious freedom,
establishes the legal and organizational basis to combat religious
extremism in the Republic of Azerbaijan and enshrines the
rights and responsibilities of citizens and state organizations in
combating religious extremism.
325
The right to equality occupies one of the most important
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

places in the legal basis of multiculturalism in Azerbaijan. The

right to equality is of vital importance in maintaining ethnocultural
diversity, which is a significant component of a multicultural society.
Equality under the law is of vital importance from the point of view
of the existence of all peoples with equal rights within the borders
of the same country. With this in mind, the National Leader of the
Azerbaijani People Heydar Aliyev said: ‘Azerbaijan is a multi-ethnic
state. All its citizens have equal rights, irrespective their nationality,
religious conviction and political beliefs.’
From this point of view, Article 25 of the Constitution of the
Republic of Azerbaijan, designed by Heydar Aliyev, ‘guarantees the
protection of the rights and liberties of all people, irrespective of their
race, ethnicity, religion, language, sex, origin, property and social
status, beliefs and membership of political parties, trade unions
and other public organizations’. The Article prohibits the restriction
of rights and liberties on the grounds of race, ethnicity, religion,
language, sex, origin, belief and sociopolitical affiliation.
Legislation makes clear that racial, ethnic or religious affiliation
does not rule out the equality of rights before the law and the
courts. On the contrary, the right to equality is one of the basic
principles in the Civil Code, Criminal Code, Criminal-Procedure
Code, Labour Code, law ‘On education’ and other legislative acts of
the Republic of Azerbaijan.
The Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan enshri­nes equal
rights for the members of all minorities and ethnicities and the
titular nation. Article 44 of the Constitution enshrines ‘the right of
everyone to preserve their national identity’. According to the same
article, nobody ‘can be forced to change their national identity’. It
means that everyone is free to choose their national identity and
state bodies can in no way restrict this freedom.
A nation is a socio-political and public entity that has its own
326 language, traditions, customs and culture. At the same time, it is
a person’s understanding of their own national identity and their

Section II
adaptation to that nation.
Along with the free determination of one’s national identity, the
State guarantees everyone’s right to cultural identity as well. Article
8 of the law of the Republic of Azerbaijan ‘On culture’ reflects
clearly that ‘everyone has the right to preserve their national cultural
identity and freely choose their spiritual, aesthetic and other values’.
Before the adoption of the first Constitution of independent
Azerbaijan, the President signed a decree on 16 September 1992
‘On the protection of rights and freedoms and state support
for the development of the language and culture of the national

Chapter 5
minorities, small nations and ethnic groups residing in the
Azerbaijan Republic’. This developed interethnic relations and
protected cultural diversity and ensured the free development of
national minorities and ethnicities in the country until the adoption
of the first Constitution of the independent Republic of Azerbaijan.
Though in the same decree the state undertook the commitment
to preserve and develop the religion, language and cultural identity
of national minorities and ethnicities, to create conditions for the
development of folk arts and crafts and for the free performance
of religious rituals, there was still a need for their constitutional
guarantee. Therefore, the Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan
included provisions to meet this need.
Infringement of the principles of Article 25 (Right to equality)
and Article 44 (Right to national identity) bears criminal liability
under Article 154 of the Criminal Code of the Republic of
Azerbaijan:

Irrespective of race, ethnicity, religion, language, sex, origin,

property and social status, beliefs, membership of political parties,
trade unions or other public organizations, the infringement of the
right to equality of citizens by inflicting damages on their legal and 327
legitimate interests is punished by the Criminal Code of the Republic
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

of Azerbaijan.

Article 109 (persecution), Article 11 (racial discrimination,

apartheid), Article 283 (prevention of national, racial, social or
religious hatred and hostility) of the Criminal Code of the Republic
of Azerbaijan also give a legal basis to opposing discrimination and
ensuring tolerant coexistence in Azerbaijan.
President Ilham Aliyev signed a decree ‘On additional measures
to strengthen the promotion of religious culture, tolerance,
interreligious and intercultural dialogue’ on 18 January 2014. This
decree was intended to keep the issues at the top of the agenda.
Stirring up national, racial, social or religious discord,
humiliating national dignity, restricting the rights of citizens, or
giving them preferential treatment, on grounds of national, racial
or religious affiliation pose a serious threat to multicultural society
and to the security of the state. In this context, the section of
Article 283 of the Criminal Code devoted to ‘Crimes against state
power’ is a manifestation of the state’s attention to this problem. It
should also be noted that between 2009 and 2013 only one person
was charged with spreading national, racial, social and religious
hatred and hostility, which is the real statistical indicator of the
state’s efforts to oppose such hatred.
One of the important indicators of multiculturalism in
Azerbaijan is the existence of linguistic diversity and the state’s
consistent policy aimed at protecting this diversity. The right
of minorities and ethnic groups to use their own language is
clearly expressed in Article 45 of the Constitution of the Republic
of Azerbaijan, which says that ‘everybody has the right to use
their mother tongue; everybody has the right to an education and
upbringing and to creative work in their language of choice. Nobody
328 can be deprived of the right to use their mother tongue.’
The state creates opportunities for the minorities and ethnic

Section II
groups to organize groups and individual classes in their own
languages in preschool educational institutions, in schools of
general education and primary schools. Azerbaijan’s law ‘On
education’ enshrines ‘the right to choose the language of education’.
Moreover, Azerbaijan’s law ‘On culture’ enshrines ‘the right of all
to perform any activity in conformity with their interests and abilities
and their freedom to choose any language for their creative work’.
The state ensures legal guarantees to protect language diversity
in trials in court. According to Article 26 of the Criminal Procedure
Code of the Republic of Azerbaijan, trials are conducted in the

Chapter 5
official language of the Republic of Azerbaijan or in the language
of the majority residing in the relevant area. The expression of
these constitutional provisions in the Criminal Procedure Code
has created great opportunities for the minorities and ethnic
groups to ensure linguistic diversity in their areas of residence. The
phenomenon of multiculturalism, which has developed historically
to become an everyday part of the life of the people, is a political
manifestation with important legal foundations. As social relations
develop, legal norms are renewed in conformity with them. It can
be said with confidence that the existing legal base in Azerbaijan
creates real conditions for the further improvement of the
Azerbaijani model of multiculturalism and the consistent measures
undertaken by the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan have
turned multiculturalism into the way of life of the Azerbaijani
people and into the state policy of Azerbaijan.

329
5.6. Multiculturalism in the Language Policy of the Republic
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

of Azerbaijan

Linguistic and cultural diversity in Azerbaijan:

a general view
Azerbaijan is one of the rare countries where different cultures
and languages coexist in conditions of mutual recognition and
acknowledgment. There are six languages in Azerbaijan from the
Indo-European language group (Kurdish, the language of the
Mountain Jews, Tat, Talysh, Khalaj and Armenian), eight languages
from the North Caucasian language group (Avar, Buduq, Khinaliq,
Qriz, Lezghi, Rutul, Sakhur, Udi) and one language from the
Kartvelian group (Ingiloy) besides Azerbaijani, which is the official
language of the country. We should also take into consideration
the languages of different peoples that migrated to Azerbaijan
too (Russians, Ukrainians, Tatars, Georgians, Meskhetian Turks,
European Jews or Ashkenazi).

Taking into consideration the languages of all the minorities,

languages from the Indo-European, Semitic-­
Hamitic, Turkic and
Caucasian language groups are used in Azerbaijan. According
to the 2009 census, 8.4 per cent of the people of the Republic
of Azerbaijan are from minorities. The complex nature of the
language map is connected with the minorities living in border
zones. According to sociolinguistic research, these areas are
potentially sensitive to separatism which is why a very cautious
policy is pursued towards national minorities in post-imperial
states (for example, restrictions on the use of minority languages).
Stephen May writes that national conflicts are often concealed
330 in the early stages beneath demands for language rights. Today
such ‘a cautious’ policy is conducted in some countries, where

Section II
such problems exist. But there is another political attitude which is
manifest in the struggle of minorities to develop their languages,
to pass them down to future generations, to use their languages in
everyday life, to take pride in their national identity, to express their
thoughts in their own languages freely and to create the necessary
conditions and opportunities for this. The first political attitude
sees language and cultural diversity as a problem, while the second
appreciates this diversity as a national and social good. Azerbaijan
chose the second political attitude towards national minorities
as much as possible in the Soviet period and particularly in the

Chapter 5
period after independence. From the first day of its independence
Azerbaijan’s language policy was aimed at ensuring the use and
development of minority languages in all possible spheres on
condition that this does not threaten the sovereignty and territorial
integrity of the country. Therefore, despite the existence of this
complicated language picture, different languages have been able
to preserve their existence for a long time and are being used in
Azerbaijan today.
The declaration of multiculturalism as a priority in state policy
and the way of life of society are evidence that national, linguistic
and cultural diversity is appreciated as a resource in Azerbaijan. The
Baku International Multiculturalism Centre, set up on an instruction
of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan of 15 May 2014, is
designed to protect language and cultural diversity and to develop
it as a national resource. The Centre’s work includes the thorough
study of the languages existing in Azerbaijan and the drafting of
strategy to protect and preserve these languages and to determine
their future development. In fact, the strategy of multiculturalism
has been built on the traditions of language policy in independent
Azerbaijan. Local and foreign researchers have been able to study
the languages in the territory of Azerbaijan, record these languages 331
and create alphabets for them, develop textbooks for their study,
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

etc. For example, the Summer Institute of Linguistics in the USA

initiated the investigation of the languages of Azerbaijan and
published the results of their research in 2002 in two volumes
edited by John Clifton. For several years foreign scholars supported
by the Volkswagen Foundation of Germany and the National
Science Foundation of the USA have been studying the Khinaliq
language. The language is to be documented as part of these
international projects. The President of the Republic of Azerbaijan
issued an instruction on 19 December 2007 that the village of
Khinaliq be given the status of a national park and be protected for
its national and cultural value.

Use of Minority Languages in the Language, Culture and

Education Policy of the Republic of Azerbaijan:
Strategy and Application
One of the interesting facts about ethnic groups in Azerbaijan
discovered by researchers is the long-standing existence of
bilingualism.
The majority of non-titular languages occurring infrequently in
the former Soviet Union were included in the list of endangered
languages after the collapse of the country. One of the main
reasons was the use of the Russian language as a tool in the
policy of ‘sovietization’. Although the use of local languages was
supported in the first years of the Soviet Union, the later spread
of Soviet ideology by means of the Russian language and the
initiative to create a homo sovieticus with a single culture and
language diminished the use of minority languages. In reality
this policy endangered not only the languages of minorities, but
also those of the titular nations of the sovereign republics. But of
332 course, in comparison with the languages of minorities the use of
the titular languages of sovereign states was much broader and

Section II
these languages faced fewer threats. Therefore, the majority of
these languages were included in the group of less endangered
languages and in UNESCO’s Red Book after the collapse of the
Soviet Union. But as has been mentioned before, in comparison
with other post-Soviet and in general post-imperialist states,
the languages of minorities in Azerbaijan have been much better
preserved and are much healthier than their classification.
There are several potential reasons for the better protection
and preservation of languages in Azerbaijan. First of all, even in the
Soviet period the policy of Russification was given less scope than

Chapter 5
in other Soviet Republics. In the Soviet period the Soviet Socialist
Republic of Azerbaijan was one of three sovereign states, alongside
Georgia and Armenia, to enshrine the language issue in legislation.
Although the Constitutions of 1921 and 1937 passed over the
problem of language, the Constitution of 1956 embraced the
Azerbaijani language as an official language of the Soviet Socialist
Republic of Azerbaijan. The Constitutions of 1978 and 1995 also
contain provisions on the official language and its protection and
development. These Constitutions also ensure the protection, use
and progress of the Azerbaijani language and its defence from the
pressure of the Russian language. In comparison with other Soviet
states, particularly the republics of Central Asia, the Azerbaijani
language was used actively on all official occasions, in formal
education and the mass media, and in all non-formal spheres
with some exceptions. The Russian language did not spread to all
areas in central Azerbaijan and especially not to the outlying parts
of the country, which protected the other languages in Azerbaijan
from the pressure of the Russian language as well. Even if the local
languages were not used (or used minimally) in official spheres
and education, the non-formal use of these languages was not 333
restricted. In reality, in the Soviet period there were enough people
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

from the older generation who spoke their native tongue and used
local languages within the family.
The second reason is connected with the language policy
pursued by the state after the independence of the Republic
of Azerbaijan. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the trend
towards ‘nationalization’ became stronger and strengthening the
status of the titular languages became a priority in state policy in
most of the post-Soviet republics, particularly in the Baltic states
and Georgia. Azerbaijan also began to pursue a firm policy to
strengthen and expand the status of the official language as part
of nation-state building. But that policy in Azerbaijan was not as
radical as in other republics; on the contrary, it displayed a tolerant
attitude towards other languages and cultures. For instance,
though restrictions were placed on the use of the Russian language
and the Russian-speaking population was compelled to learn the
local languages in unrealistic conditions in the Baltic republics, the
process of transition from Russian to Azerbaijani for the Russian-
speaking population in Azerbaijan was gradual and smooth. While
some Azerbaijani groups were created in several Russian-language
schools in the Soviet period, none of those schools has been closed
and they are still functioning today.
Local languages began to be taught, writing systems and
alphabets were developed for some languages, and textbooks
were published in the languages of minorities. At present local
languages are taught regularly in the areas inhabited by the
minorities. An important aspect of this is to attract people from the
local communities to this work.
There are several centres in Azerbaijan for the languages and
the cultures of minorities such as the Ronai Kurdish Cultural Centre,
the Russian community, the Slavic Culture Centre, the Samur
334 National Cultural Centre, the Turkan-Tel and Yashliq Tatar cultural
centres, the Vatan Cultural Centre of the Meskhetian (Ahiska) Turks,

Section II
the Orain Udi Cultural Centre, the Talysh Avesta Association, the
Buduq Cultural Centre, the Ingiloy community and so on. There are
Georgian and Lezghi state theatres in Qakh and Qusar respectively.
Newspapers and journals are published and daily radio and
television programmes are broadcast in the minority languages. All
this is done with the financial support of the state.
The third reason is connected with the Republic of Azerbaijan’s
close cooperation with international organizations on ensuring the
rights of minorities and improving ethnic languages and cultures.
Azerbaijan signed and ratified the Council of Europe’s framework

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Convention for the Protection of National Minorities in 2000 and
signed the Council of Europe’s European Charter for Regional or
Minority Languages the following year. This constituted a positive
political step to expand and develop the use of ethnic minority
languages and to prevent any potential risk to the sovereignty
and territorial integrity of the country, taking into account the
country’s bitter experience after independence. Azerbaijan made
the corresponding political declarations after signing up to
these conventions. For example, after the National Assembly had
decided to join the framework Convention, it made the following
declaration:

‘Confirming its commitment to national values and expressing

its sympathy for the rights and freedoms of the people, the Republic
of Azerbaijan declares that the ratification of the framework
Convention on the Protection of National Minorities and the
implementation of its provisions exclude any movement threatening
its territorial integrity and its domestic and foreign security.’

Most of the languages of the minorities living in Azerbaijan

are included in UNESCO’s Red Book of Endangered Languages.
One reason for this is the small number of people who speak 335
the language as their mother tongue. Global reasons, such as
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

migration, international integration, the spread of social networks

and the extinction of languages have not passed Azerbaijan
by. However, it should be noted that international studies on
Azerbaijan show that these languages have been better protected
than in other regions and have been used very actively at the
family and community level. International research shows that
the switch from an ethnic language to the titular one is possible
over several generations in the right conditions, but nevertheless
people preserve and actively use these ethnic minority languages
for a long time. Clifton writes that the ethnic Buduq, Qriz and
Khinaliq people express their thoughts so fluently and flawlessly
in their own languages and in Azerbaijani that they find it hard to
say which of these languages they speak more freely. In his further
research Clifton shows that the ethnic groups use the Azerbaijani
language very fluently, almost at the level of the level of their
mother tongue, but nevertheless, transition from their native
languages to Azerbaijani is not very extensive, and the people
remained bilingual for a long time. The bilingualism observed
among the minorities in Azerbaijan is not subtractive, but additive
bilingualism. In additive bilingualism the second language is not
added at the expense of the first language, rather each language
fulfils different functions. The main precondition for this is the
intrusion of the titular language into spheres where non-titular
languages are used. According to Albert Bastardas-Boada, the
smaller languages should not compete with the larger languages.
The small languages should have their own functions and the
titular languages should not deprive them of those functions.
On the one hand, this ensures the protection and development
of the non-titular languages and, on the other hand, prevents
the unnecessary competition of these languages with the titular
336
language. David Crystal considers religious ceremonies, local

Section II
cultural events and other forms of intra-community communication
in non-titular languages as main conditions to ensure the
protection of those non-titular languages. Joshua Fishman notes
that the use of local languages in the family is very important. The
language policy pursued in Azerbaijan creates positive conditions
to preserve the functions of non-titular languages. Though the
Azerbaijani language is the only official language in the country,
it does not penetrate into the specific areas in which non-titular
languages are used, and does not interfere with the function
inherent to them.

Chapter 5
Thus, the use of languages within the family and community
is strengthening. The languages are transmitted orally from
generation to generation, and the young learn to understand
their language. This attitude towards languages creates a sense of
dignity, pride and responsibility in the speakers of the language,
and this is one of the most important aspects of the preservation
and protection of languages. The policy of multiculturalism
pursued in Azerbaijan is built on linguistic diversity and is a source
of pride not only for the speakers of a language, but for all citizens
too.

The protection, use and development of minority

languages in the legislation of the Republic of
Azerbaijan
The protection of minority languages is enshrined in the
legislation of the Republic of Azerbaijan. Both the law on language
and other legislative acts contain provisions on the use, protection
and development of the languages of the peoples living in the
country.
337
The Azerbaijani language is the official language of the
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

country and is used by central government in official and

formal communication throughout the country. At the same
time, legislation ensures the right of national minorities to
use their languages as well as the country’s official language
in corresponding official situations in the areas where they
predominantly live (in courts, law enforcement and other
administrative bodies), in secondary education and in the mass
media. The official language has no advantages over the non-
titular languages in the informal and unofficial spheres. Language
legislation guarantees the use and protection of the official
language, as well as the free use of non-titular languages.
Discrimination against the languages and cultures of minorities
within legislation (failure to protect the languages of minorities in
provisions of the law, etc.) restricts the use of these languages and
exposes them to various political, economic and social pressures.
This may lead to the dissatisfaction of minorities and conflict
between them and the titular population. The government of the
Republic of Azerbaijan has always kept an eye on this, so provisions
concerning the languages and cultures of minorities are an integral
part of the legislation of the Republic of Azerbaijan.
It should be noted that the language issue is not a new one in
the legislation of Azerbaijan. Even in the Soviet period changes in
the Azerbaijani Constitutions of 1937 and 1956 covered not only
the national language, but other languages as well:
Article 151says: ‘The official language of the Soviet Socialist
Republic of Azerbaijan is Azerbaijani. The ethnic minorities living on
the territory of the Republic of Azerbaijan have the right to use and
develop their languages in cultural and state institutions.’
The Constitution Public of 1978 also ensures the use and
338 development of non-titular languages: ‘The Soviet Socialist Republic
of Azerbaijan ensures the free use and development of the Russian

Section II
language, as well as of the languages of minorities.’
Even after independence, Azerbaijan ensured the pro­tection of
minority languages. Article 21 of the 1995 Constitution says: ‘The
Republic of Azerbaijan ensures the free use and development of all
languages spoken by the population.’
Other legislative acts adopted after independence also ensure
the protection of the languages of minorities.
It should be noted that Azerbaijan was the first of the post-
Soviet states to adopt an official document on the rights and
freedoms of national minorities. In 1992 the President of the

Chapter 5
Republic of Azerbaijan signed a decree ‘On the protection of the
rights and freedoms of national minorities and ethnic groups living
in Azerbaijan, and on state support of their languages and cultures.’
All Though the law on the state language adopted in 2002
proclaimed the Azerbaijani language to be the official language
of the country (in the 1992 Language Act, the state language was
called not Azerbaijani, but Turkic), it did not define Azerbaijani
as the common language for all peoples living in the country.
Nevertheless, the law on language ensured the right of minorities
to use their mother tongue freely in a number of official situations
(in court, notaries public and in certain administrative organs). For
example, Article 11.3 of the Language Act says:

‘In notaries public the clerical work in the Republic of Azerbaijan

is carried out in the official language of the country. If a person
applying for action from a notary public in accordance with the Law
of the Republic of Azerbaijan “On notaries public” does not know
the official language or asks for the notary public business to be
conducted in any other language, where possige the notary public
may write the texts of documents in the desired language or the text
may be translated by a translator.’ 339
The codes of Administrative Offences, Criminal Procedure and
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Civil Procedure of the Republic of Azerbaijan guarantee the right of

minorities to use their own languages. In all three codes violations
of the rights of people to use their languages are punished by the
relevant provisions of the code. Such a breach of law would entail
cancellation of the relevant court verdict by a higher instance.
The Administrative Offences Code ensures the right of
minorities to use their mother tongue:

‘363. The language in which the proceedings on administrative

offences are conducted.
‘363.1. Proceedings dealing with administrative offences in the
Republic of Azerbaijan are conducted in the Azerbaijani language or
in the language of the majority of the population living in a given
territory.
‘363.2. Persons participating in the case who do not know the
language of the administrative offence proceedings shall have the
right to use information, explanations, complaints or petitions in
their mother tongue or in any other language, as well as to use the
services of translators as prescribed by this Code.’

This right is reflected in the Civil Procedure Code of the Republic

of Azerbaijan:
‘Article 11. The Language of Court Proceedings
‘11.1. Court proceedings in civil cases and economic disputes are
conducted in the official language of the Republic of Azerbaijan –
Azerbaijani – or in the language of the majority of the population in
a given territory.
‘11.2. Persons who do not know the language of the proceedings
shall have the right to be acquainted with all the materials of the
case, give explanations, express their opinion, make statements in
340 court and make complaints in their mother tongue, and also freely to
use the service of an interpreter in accordance with this Code where

Section II
the right to use the aforementioned is explained and enshrined.
‘11.3. Court documents are given to participants in the
proceedings in the language in which the proceedings are conducted.’

A number of other laws clearly state that no one should suffer

discrimination on the grounds of language, ethnic affiliation,
religion and so on. For example, Article 11.2 of the Criminal
Procedure Code says:

‘The prosecuting authorities do not favour any individuals

Chapter 5
involved in the criminal process and confer no advantage on the
grounds of citizenship, sex, race, ethnicity political or religious
affiliation, language, origin, property status, place of residence,
or current location, and or on the basis of other considerations not
founded in law.’

There are also legislative provisions on the use of minority

languages in education. The law ‘On education’ allows for
education in the languages of minorities:

‘7.1. The language of instruction in educational institutions of

the Azerbaijan Republic is the state language – the Azerbaijani
language.
‘7.2. In exceptional cases (international treaties, or with the
agreement of the respective executive authority), at the request of
citizens and founders of educational institutions, instruction can be
delivered in other languages under the respective state standards
of education on condition that the Azerbaijani language, literature,
history, and geography will be taught as well.’

There are also provisions in the law ‘On the mass media’ to
prevent discrimination in the use of minority languages:
341
‘Article 6. The language of mass media
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

‘The mass media use the state language on the territory of the
Republic of Azerbaijan.
‘The citizens of the Republic of Azerbaijan have the right to use
and disseminate mass information in other languages spoken by
the population of the Republic of Azerbaijan, as well as in other
widespread languages of the world.’

The law ‘On culture’ of the Republic of Azerbaijan recognizes

the right of minorities to develop their own cultures and language
and to participate in the cultural life of the country using their own
languages.

‘Article 6. Ensuring rights and freedoms

‘6.1. The rights and freedoms of everyone in the sphere of culture
are ensured in the Republic of Azerbaijan in accordance with the
principles and norms of international law.
‘6.2. The state ensures the rights and freedoms of everyone in
the sphere of culture, irrespective of sex, race, language, religion
and political conviction, nationality, social status, social background,
health and membership of public associations.
‘6.3. The state ensures equality in the sphere of culture as follows:
‘6.3.1. equality in the rights and freedoms of the cultures of the
peoples and national minorities living in the state;
6.3.2. equality in protecting the cultures of the peoples and
national minorities living in the state, in defining their cultural
identity, in restoring, strengthening and developing their cultural
resources.’

Only some of the legislative acts concerning language have

been mentioned here. The protection and development of
minority languages is set out in other official documents, decrees,
342 instructions and laws.
5.7. Multiculturalism as a Manifestation of the

Section II
Coexistence of National Diaspora Groups in Azerbaijan

With its important geographical location Azerbaijan has been

a vivid example of multiculturalism and tolerance for centuries
and remains so to this day. In this regard, it would be beneficial to
look at the historical context in which the European communities
emerged and developed at the intersection of East and West.
After the signature of the Turkmenchay Treaty in 1828, in order
to establish its political power and create a social base for it the
Russian Empire began to pursue a policy of Christian settlement in

Chapter 5
Azerbaijani lands. To this end, Germans, Armenians and Russians
were settled in the territory of Azerbaijan; Poles, Greeks, Swedes
and other ethnic groups were added later to the country’s ethnic
and denominational mix.
In the second half of the 19th and beginning of the 20th
centuries the rapid development of the oil industry attracted
waves of migration to capitalist Baku which increased the
European population the country and led to the creation of new
communities. The largest of them were the Russian, Polish, Jewish,
Greek and German communities.

Russians
The first mention of Azerbaijan’s relations with the eastern Slavs
goes back to the early Middle Ages. According to the sources, a
settlement of Russian merchants in the town of Itil on the Lower
Volga (in the Khazar Khaganate) traded with the Caucasian
countries in the 5th century. According to the journals of the
medieval Arab travellers Ibn Fadlan, Ibn Khordadbeh and Al-
Masudi, in the 9th and 10th centuries Slav merchants sailed down
343
the Volga to the Caspian coastal states and crossed them to reach
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Baghdad and Constantinople.

Russian merchants and sailors started to travel to the Caspian
Sea in the 9th century. Russian travellers reached Azerbaijan later;
the first of them was Afanasy Nikitin, who made interesting notes
about the people of Azerbaijan and their traditions in his journals.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the Russian Empire’s
conquest of the Caucasus led to demographic changes in the
region. In order to consolidate its political power in Azerbaijan,
the Russian Empire pursued a policy of Russification and
Christianization, settling Russians from remote, barren areas to
Azerbaijan. In 1914 Russians settled not only in all the provinces
of Baku and Yelizavetpol, but also in the provinces bordering on
Irevan. The largest group of Russians were settled in the provinces
of Goychay, Shamakhi and Lankaran. The Russians settled together
in various parts of Northern Azerbaijan, preserving their customs
and cultural traditions.
During the Soviet era the number of Russians in Azerbaijan
increased steadily, because of the development of oil production
and the oil industry in the capital Baku and the surrounding
areas. Professionals from the Soviet republics, first of all, from
the Russian Federation, were involved in this industrial sector.
Besides, the famine raging in the territories along the Volga and
industrialization in the USSR also influenced migration, leading to
demographic change. The wave of Russian migration continued
during the Great Patriotic War (1941-45) when the inhabitants of
Ukraine, Belarus and other areas fled fascism to safer territories,
including Azerbaijan, where many of them settled permanently. The
last mass migration of Russians to Azerbaijan took place when the
industrial town of Sumqayit was founded. As a result, in the 1960s,

344
the number of Russians reached approximately one million in

Section II
Azerbaijan, or 12 per cent of the population of the republic.
From the 1970s the number of Russians in the Azerbaijan Soviet
Socialist Republic began to fall. According to the 1989 census,
there were 392,300 Russians in Azerbaijan or 6 per cent of the
population.
After independence, Azerbaijan paid attention to the
development of national diasporas. In the early 1990s, the first
organization to protect the interests of Russians was set up, the
Republican Volunteers; the Sodruzhestvo (Solidarity) Society
was set up for all the peoples living in Azerbaijan and in 1992 a

Chapter 5
Russian Community Centre was created. The same year the
Cultural Centre of Slavs Living in Azerbaijan opened. In 1993 the
Russian Community of the Republic of Azerbaijan was created. The
Community now has 28 branches in the Republic of Azerbaijan, ten
of which are in the districts of Baku. The Brotherhood of Cossacks
Living in Azerbaijan was created in 1994 and the Resource Centre
for National Minorities in 2000. There is also a network of Russian
bookshops in Baku – Dom Ruskkoy Knigi or the Russian Book
House.
Education is conducted in Russian in 18 higher educational
institutions and 38 specialized secondary schools. Some 90,000
pupils are currently studying in Russian in 340 general schools in
Azerbaijan. Baku Slavic University was founded in 2000 and has an
association of teachers in Russian. In 2008 a branch of Lomonosov
Moscow State University opened in Baku.
Publications in Russian are of great importance in the media
structure of the Republic of Azerbaijan. There are 50 publications
in Russian, including the newspapers Zerkalo, Ekho, Vyshka, Novoye
Vremya and the magazine Baku. In parallel, the Association of
Writers Creating in Russian and the Russian Drama Theatre are also
345
functioning. The first Congress of the Russian Community was held
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

in Baku in 1998, the second in 2004 and the third in November

2009. The Russian population of the republic is able to attend
the Russian Orthodox Church. There are five Russian Orthodox
churches in Azerbaijan, all part of the Baku and Caspian Eparchy;
three churches are in Baku, one in Ganja and one in Khachmaz.

Tatars*
From the end of the 19th century, Tatars moved from other parts
of the Russian Empire to Baku. The Tatars were involved in the oil
industry in Baku and were attracted by the moderate climate, the
well developed food industry, the similar language and religion and
the tolerance of Azerbaijani society.
A substantial stratum of Tatar intellectuals formed in Baku
before the revolution. Newspapers and books were published
in the Tatar language and public opinion took shape. In the 20th
century during the Soviet era, the number of Tatars in Azerbaijan
increased as they fled famine in the Volga region or came to
work in the oil industry. The oil and petrochemical complexes of
Azerbaijan and Tatarstan were interconnected during the Soviet era.
After the opening of the ‘Second Baku’ on the Volga, Azerbaijani
oilmen helped their Tatar colleagues explore for new oil fields
and supplied oil and gas equipment. Hundreds of young Tatar
oil workers trained in the Caspian oil fields. There was close
collaboration between Tatars and Azerbaijanis in the medical,
pharmaceutical, food and tobacco industries too. There were also
rich, traditional cultural ties.

*
In the mid-16th century, when Russian Tsar Ivan Grozny occupied the khanates of
Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556), these khanates’ native population of Turkic ori-
346 gin began to be called Tatars in Russian sources and literature.
Some 25,900 Tatars live in Azerbaijan today, of whom 15,000 are

Section II
from the Volga area. Most of the Tatars in Azerbaijan live in Baku.
The Permanent Representative Office of the Tatarstan Republic to
Azerbaijan organizes the Tukay Tatar Cultural Centre, the Tuqan Tel
republican Tatar society and the Tatar song contest.
The first organizational meeting of the Tatar community
took place in 1996. Branches of the community were opened in
Baku and in the regions of the republic. The main purpose of the
community is to consolidate all the Tatars living in Azerbaijan and
to strengthen the friendship between the Azerbaijani and Tatar
peoples. The Tatar diaspora in Azerbaijan is in touch with the World

Chapter 5
Tatar Congress Committee, and representatives of the diaspora
attend the congresses.

Ukrainians
Large-scale migration to the Caucasus, including Azerbaijan,
took place in the late 19th century in order to develop industry
and assimilate the new lands of the Russian Empire. Most of the
migrants were from Ukraine. For a hundred years the Ukrainians
have sought to preserve their language, customs and traditions
and to maintain and develop relations with their historic homeland.
At the beginning of the 20th century, a Ukrainian Society was
formed in Azerbaijan, helping to shape the Ukrainian diaspora. On
4 June 1907, the Taras Shevchenko Prosvita (Enlightenment) Society
was founded in Baku on the initiative of the Ukrainian intelligentsia
(Golovnya, Golubyansky, Remennikov, Melnikov, Mishon, Lizogub,
Seredin). At that time the Prosvita was one of the most important
societies in Baku. In 1920-30 civil war in Ukraine and Russia, forced
collectivization and the forcible resettlement of repressed people
from Ukraine led to the rapid migration of Ukrainians to other
347
countries, including Azerbaijan. Most of the Ukrainians came to
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Azerbaijan during the difficult war years.

While the Slavic peoples living in Azerbaijan during the Russian
imperial and Soviet periods called themselves Russian, it was
already noticeable in the 1989 census that the Ukrainians’ sense
of identity had grown. Against the background of an absolute
or relative decline in the number of Russians in the country, the
number of Ukrainians increased by 20 per cent. Those who used
to identify with Russian culture, despite their Ukrainian roots, had
already begun to identify as Ukrainian. This was of some political
significance.
According to the 1989 census, 32,300 Ukrainians lived in
Azerbaijan. According to official information as of 1 January 2002,
29,000 Ukrainians lived in Azerbaijan, making them the eighth
largest of the other peoples living in Azerbaijan. According to
official figures, 12,794 people left Azerbaijan for Ukraine in 1990,
while 4,355 came to Azerbaijan from Ukraine.
The Ukrainians began to get together in organizations in
Azerbaijan in the mid-1990s. In 1992 they were active in setting
up the Sodruzhestvo (Solidarity) society of peoples living in the
Republic of Azerbaijan, which brought together different national
organizations and societies (Russian, Tatar, Jewish, Lezghi etc.). In
1992, the Lesi Ukrainka Ukrainian Cultural Centre was established in
Sumqayit. A Ukrainian branch of the Sodruzhestvo society was set
up in 1994 and formed the basis of the Taras Shevchenko Ukrainian
Society, which was created on 1 November 1997 with the support
of activists from the Ukrainian diaspora and the Ukrainian Embassy.
As of 1 October 2002, the society had seven regional organizations.
From 1998, the Ukrainian language has been taught at Baku
Slavic University. On 17 October 2001 the opening ceremony of the
university’s Ukrainian Cultural and Educational Centre took place.
348
A Ukrainian Sunday school opened at the Centre on 2 March

Section II
2001 on the initiative of the Ministry of Education of the Republic
of Azerbaijan, the Ukrainian community, the Embassy of Ukraine
to the Republic of Azerbaijan and the administration of Baku
Slavic University. Pupils at the Sunday school learn the Ukrainian
language and literature and get acquainted with the history,
culture, customs and traditions of the Ukrainian people. Various
cultural events are held there. The Centre closely cooperates with
the Ukrainian Embassy, the Ukrainian diaspora and Ukrainian
higher educational institutions. The Ukrainians living in Azerbaijan
united under the idea of ‘My Homeland-I serve Azerbaijan’ and

Chapter 5
share the joys and sorrows of the modern history of Azerbaijan.
This concerns primarily the Nagorno-Karabakh problem. School
No. 245 in Baku’s Khatai District bears the name of the Ukrainian
Ruslan Chernegin, who died in a battle in Nagorno-Karabakh.
Military pilot V. Seregin was posthumously honoured with the
highest award, National Hero of Azerbaijan.
Members of the Ukrainian diaspora in Azerbaijan are mainly
Orthodox. The Eparchy of Baku and Azerbaijan has five Orthodox
churches, three of which are in Baku.

Poles
The roots of Azerbaijani-Polish relations go back to the distant
past and include commercial and diplomatic ties. Azerbaijan and
Poland were linked by old trade routes passing through the Black
Sea as far back as the 10th century.
From the second half of the 15th century a substantial number
of Polish Catholic missionaries worked in Azerbaijan. In the first
half of the 19th century Polish military and civil servants came to
Azerbaijan. As the oil industry developed, Poles with different
professions came to Azerbaijan. They included oil engineers 349
Pawel Potocki and Witold Zglenicki who were the first specialists
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

in the oil industry in Baku. They planned drilling work in the oil
fields at Bibi-Heybat Bay. Their research played an important role
in the development of oil production in Azerbaijan. The Poles
living in Baku worked in various industries, got involved in social
activities and contributed greatly to cultural life, construction and
oil production in the country. In those years Azerbaijan exported
petroleum, kerosene and agricultural products to Poland and
imported sugar, equipment, machinery, fabric and other goods
from Poland.
The Poles who came to Azerbaijan also included architects,
lawyers, physicians, teachers and others, who were active in society
in the city and had a positive impact on the flourishing of capitalist
Baku. The names of many Polish architects, particularly Skorewicz,
Ploszko and Skibinski, will remain forever in the memory of the
Azerbaijani people. For example, the building of the City Duma,
now the Baku mayor’s office, is a masterpiece of the period. The
building was designed by the city’s chief architect, Jozef Goslawski,
who worked for the city for 12 years until his death (1892-1904).
He also designed a school for Muslim girls. Another Pole, Konstanty
Borysoglebski, was Baku’s chief architect for four years (1909-13).
Polish architect Ignacy Krzysztalowicz designed the office of the
governor of Yelizavetpol (Ganja). Eugeniusz Skibinski designed the
railway station building, while Kazimierz Skorewicz designed the
Grocery Store (former Taghiyev Passage). Polish architects designed
some of the most beautiful and outstanding buildings in Baku.
Some 500 buildings in the city were designed by Polish architects.
In the early 20th century the plans of Pawel Zemski and Alexander
Kaminski were also used in the construction of the city.

350
Of the 2,193 Poles living in Northern Azerbaijan in 1897, 519

Section II
had been born in Azerbaijan. Polish children were second in
number to Russian children among the migrant populations.
In 1909 the Baku Polish House was registered; the society’s main
goal was to protect the cultural identity of the Polish people.
At the beginning of World War I the Baku Polish Committee
for the Organization of Aid to the War-Ravaged Population of the
Kingdom of Poland was established. The Enlightenment and Open
House society also started to operate at this time. All the Polish
societies came together in the Council of Polish Organizations in
Baku.

Chapter 5
As a result of World War I, which broke out in 1914, there was
an increase in the number of Polish refugees in Baku. According
to figures provided by the Baku Security Administration, as of 31
December 1916 there were 2,568 refugees living in Azerbaijan, of
whom 84 were Poles, while as of 15 December 1917, there were
1,949 refugees, of whom 155 were Poles.
The Polish intelligentsia, especially engineers and lawyers, were
closely involved in the establishment of a new democratic state
in Azerbaijan. Polish lawyer Wonsowicz was a member of the first
Azerbaijani Parliament established in 1918. Polish officers played a
great role in the formation of the Azerbaijani army.
Many Poles returned to Poland after the persecution following
the Bolshevik coup of April 1920. The societies and associations
operating in Baku and Ganja were banned.
According to the 1990 census, 900 Azerbaijanis of Polish origin
lived in Azerbaijan. In 2001 work began to set up the Polonia-
Azerbaijan Polish community organization, which was registered
on 7 June 2002. The Polonia Polish Cultural Centre has been
functioning since 2012.
351
Jews
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Unlike other incoming peoples, Jewish settlement in Azerbaijan

has an ancient history going back some 2,500 years. After the
Babylonian invasion of Israel in 586 BCE the Jewish people spread
more widely in Central Asia. The migration of the Jews began when
Babylonian ruler Nebuchadnezzar II moved the Jews to Babylon.
Thousands of Jewish nobles and craftsmen were forcibly moved
from Jerusalem to Babylon between 597 and 586 BCE. After the
invasion of Babylon by the Achaemenid Empire in 539, the Jews
became subjects of the Achaemenids like other numerous peoples.
The Achaemenid Empire also took control of Azerbaijani territories.
Azerbaijan’s favourable geographical position on important trade
routes, as well as the tolerant attitude of local people towards
foreigners, created the right conditions for dozens of peoples,
including the Jews, to live in these lands.
At present there are three Jewish communities in Azerbaijan –
the Mountain Jews, European Jews (Ashkenazi) and Georgian Jews.
The total number of Jews in Azerbaijan is 16,000. They include
11,000 Mountain Jews, approximately 6,000 of whom live in Baku,
4,000 in Quba and 1,000 in other towns. There are 4,300 Ashkenazi
Jews, most of whom live in Baku and Sumqayit, and approximately
700 Georgian Jews.
The Jewish communities are amongst the most active religious
communities in the Republic of Azerbaijan. Thanks to the attention
of the government of Azerbaijan a new Ashkenazi synagogue
opened in Baku in March 2003. The synagogue has a larger
prayer hall for the Ashkenazi and a smaller one for the Georgian
Jews. It was built on the site of the old building that had served
as a synagogue and provides all the facilities necessary for the
European Jews to perform their religious rites. At present there are

352
two synagogues in Baku, three in Quba and two in Oghuz, all of

Section II
them open for worship.
In 1990 the Society for Azerbaijani-Israeli Cultural Ties was
established and started to publish a newspaper, the acronym of
which is AZ-IZ. The Azerbaijani-Israeli Friendship Centre and Jewish
agency Sochnut also operate in the republic.
In 1992 diplomatic relations were established between the
Republic of Azerbaijan and Israel and bilateral ties have been
developing ever since.

Greeks

Chapter 5
Greeks began to appear in the south Caucasus after the
Russian-Ottoman War of 1828-29. In Northern Azerbaijan the first
Greeks were settled in the village of Mehman (Karabakh). Greeks
made up a very small proportion of the population of the country.
According to the 1897 census, 278 Greeks lived in the Baku
governorate and 658 lived in Yelizavetpol (Ganja). The number of
Greeks increased during the demographic explosion in capitalist
Baku in the early 20th century, and in 1907 800 Greeks who had
migrated from Asia Minor were recorded in Baku.
On the eve of World War I Greeks living across the governorates
of Azerbaijan established a Philanthropic Association with the aim
of assisting Greeks on low incomes. Thanks to the efforts of the
Greek Philanthropic Association, a Greek Centre, a primary school
offering four years of study and the Embros football club opened in
Baku at that time. The school had 89 pupils.
Before the revolution of February 1917, 2,161 Greeks lived in
eight towns in Baku and Yelizavetpol governorates. According to
the Soviet census of 1923, there were 1,168 Greeks in the urban
population and they lived in Ganja, Sabirabad, Nakhchivan and
353
other towns. At that time 58 Greeks lived in the village of Mehman
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

in Karabakh.
The Greeks could not escape the repressions that raged across
the country in the 1930s: 35 of the 904 Greeks living in Baku were
arrested and the Pontia cultural centre was closed. During World
War II the Greeks were also forcibly deported within the USSR. In
1942-43 the Greeks living in Azerbaijan were exiled to Northern
Kazakhstan and Siberia together with Greeks living in other regions
of the USSR. The deportation of Greeks continued after World
War II as well. In May 1949 the Soviet government took a decision
to exile the Greeks from the Caucasus, including Azerbaijan, to
southern Kazakhstan in order to prevent the establishment of a
‘fifth column’ in the southern borders of the USSR. The Greeks were
destined to travel a long way in freight cars and live torturous years
in the Kazakh steppes. Due to the deportation thousands of Greeks
living in Baku lost their ‘small homeland’ and all their possessions.
The special settlement process continued until 1956 and only after
the rehabilitation and removal of restrictions from special settlers
were most of them able to return to Baku. Other Greeks were
deported to other towns of the USSR. During the political instability
and economic recession on the eve of the collapse of the Soviet
Union, most of the Greeks moved to Greece. Only after the return
of Heydar Aliyev to political power in Azerbaijan did the situation
stabilize. In the independent Republic of Azerbaijan diaspora
societies became active in the sphere of democracy, paving the way
for the creation of new societies too.
In 1993 the Embassy of Greece opened in Azerbaijan, and in July
the following year a Greek cultural centre opened in Baku on the
initiative of the Greek ambassador, Panayiotis Karakasis. After some
decades Azerbaijan was able to bring the Greeks together again.
354
The Greek association Argo was set up in 1997 and celebrates

Section II
the national and religious holidays of Greece together with the
employees of the embassy. This initiative was taken again after
an interval of 60 years. Every member of the community is proud
to belong to the Greek nation and at the same time considers
themselves a patriot of Azerbaijan. In contrast to the neighbouring
republics emigration has almost stopped in the past eight years,
when only three families have left Azerbaijan.
The benevolent international atmosphere in Azerbaijan helped
the Greeks to integrate. Their success is also the result of their
industriousness and eagerness to acquire new skills. Most of them

Chapter 5
have made worthy contributions to the well-being of Azerbaijan
and the centuries-old history of the diaspora there.

Germans
In the autumn of 1818, 486 German families were settled in the
southern Caucasus and founded the first eight German colonies
there.
The first wave of migration of Germans to Azerbaijan started
in 1819. Two colonies were founded in Northern Azerbaijan –
Helenendorf and Annenfeld. As the number of Germans increased,
offshoot colonies were created: Georgfeld, Alekseyevka, Grunfeld,
Aigenfeld, Traubenfeld and Yelizavetinka were recorded in the
districts of Goygol, Shamkir, Qazakh, Tovuz and Aghstafa of
Yelizavetpol Governorate in the early 20th century.
The Russian Empire’s administrative system in the Caucasus
rendered significant assistance to the German colonists and it
was decided to grant each German family up to 35 desyatins (one
desyatin is equivalent to roughly one hectare) of land. Even more
important, the Imperial Treasury provided loans of 3,000 roubles to
each family to build houses and buy cattle. Although the German 355
colonists were engaged in various fields of agriculture, many were
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

involved in viticulture and wine-making. In the early 20th century

the German Vohrer Brothers and Hummel Brothers had major wine
producing companies.
The Germans opened the first medical centre, pharmacy,
school and club in Yelizavetpol Governorate. In 1912 they installed
Azerbaijan’s first hydroelectric power generator on the River
Ganjachay in Helenendorf and they also built a power station near
the village of Zurnabad.
The Germans living in Azerbaijan were Lutherans and suffered
no restrictions in holding their religious services. Lutheran churches
were built in Helenendorf in 1857, in Gadabay in 1868, in Baku in
1899 and Annenfeld in 1911.
Despite the close cultural relations between the Germans and local
people they preserved their ethnic identities.
After the USSR joined World War II, in October 1941 the
German community was completely exiled from Azerbaijan to
Kazakhstan.
After regaining independence Azerbaijan increased its attention
to its German history. With the consideration and care of the
government German cultural monuments in the country have been
preserved and restored.
Azerbaijan’s historical atmosphere of tolerance has had a
positive impact on the development of German-­
Azerbaijani
relations in recent times. The steps taken to protect German
heritage, which is considered one of the assets of multicultural
Azerbaijan, are obvious examples of the government’s policy of
tolerance and multiculturalism.
This is further confirmed by the instruction of the President of
the Republic of Azerbaijan Ilham Aliyev of 30 August 2016 on the

356
200th anniversary of the establishment of German settlements in

Section II
the South Caucasus. The instruction says:
‘Guided by Paragraph 32 of Article 109 of the Constitution of
the Republic of Azerbaijan, to ensure a due celebration of the 200th
anniversary of the creation of German settlements in the South
Caucasus and in view of their significance in promoting Azerbaijan
as a centuries-­old centre of tolerance with multicultural traditions, I
hereby resolve that:

1. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism, the Ministry of Foreign

Affairs and the National Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan

Chapter 5
shall jointly develop and implement a special programme to
celebrate the 200th anniversary of the creation of the German
settlements in the south Caucasus.
2. The Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Azerbaijan shall
be entrusted with resolving all issues that arise from this
instruction.’

Several hundred Germans currently live in Baku. The

Wiedergeburt (Renaissance) cultural and historical association and
the Evangelical Lutheran community are active in the country.

Questions

1. What is the evidence for multiculturalism being part of the

domestic policy of the Republic of Azerbaijan?
2.
How does multiculturalism as a part of domestic policy
influence foreign policy?
3. Which religions were historically widespread in Azerbaijan?
4. When did Christianity begin to spread in Azerbaijan?
5. When did Islam begin to spread in Azerbaijan? 357
6. Which Protestant communities function in Azerbaijan?
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

7. When did the Catholic Church appear and begin to function

in Azerbaijan?
8. What can you say about the Russian Empire’s policy towards
religion in Azerbaijan?
9.
What can you say about the social composition of the
parliament of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic?
10.
What can you say about the policy towards religion in
Azerbaijan after the establishment of Soviet power?
11. Which legislative acts regulate state-religion relations in the
Republic of Azerbaijan?
12. What are the main goals and objectives of the policy on
religion in the Republic of Azerbaijan?
13. In what year was the law of the Republic of Azerbaijan ‘On
freedom of religion’ passed?
14. What changes took place in state-religion relations after the
return to power of the National Leader of Azerbaijan Heydar
Aliyev?
15. What are the distinguishing features of the socio-economic
development of Azerbaijan?
16. What is the government’s policy for the sustainable
development of the socio-economic potential of the country
at the regional level?
17. Explain the work done to make use of the labour skills of
different ethnic groups in the regions.
18. How does the country’s economic development influence its
spiritual and cultural development?

358
19.
How does the spiritual and cultural development of the

Section II
country influence its economic development? Give examples.
20. What is the role of spiritual and cultural factors in economic
development in Azerbaijan?
21. What is the link between the policy of multiculturalism and
the level of socio-economic development in Azerbaijan?
22.
How does the proper management of socio-economic
development influence the effectiveness of multiculturalism
policy?
23. What is the importance of the state programmes for the socio-­

Chapter 5
economic development of the regions of the Republic of
Azerbaijan in minimizing the differentiation among the local
regions?
24. How do you understand the saying of the National Leader
of Azerbaijan Heydar Aliyev that ‘Spiritual and cultural values
lift up every nation’?
25.
The preservation and development of rich spiritual and
cultural values and culture in general is a priority in the
domestic policy of Azerbaijan. What is your understanding
of this?
26. What are the legislative acts regulating the status, rights and
responsibilities of religious entities and what lies at their heart?
27. How is freedom of religion ensured for convicts and military
servicemen?
28. What is your understanding of the right of minorities to use
their mother tongue?
29.
What are the mechanisms regulating the language rights of
ethnic minorities in the legislation of the Republic of Azerbaijan?

359
30. Which legislative acts enshrine the constitutional and legal
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

guarantees of freedom of conscience? What lies at their heart?

31. List the factors that have a positive influence on the
sustainable preservation of bilingualism in regions where
ethnic minorities form the majority population.
32. Language diversity is a national and cultural resource and
this is the approach taken by Azerbaijan’s multiculturalism
policy. What are the features of language diversity that allow
it to be considered a resource?
33. Which Christian peoples settled in Azerbaijan in the early
19th century?
34. What were the main reasons for the ‘demographic explosion’
in Baku in the late 19th and early 20th centuries?
35.
What do you know about the Russian, Polish, Jewish,
German and Greek communities in Azerbaijan?
36. How many synagogues are there in Azerbaijan?
37. In what century did Judaism begin to spread in Azerbaijan?
38. What are the objectives of the instruction of the President of
the Republic of Azerbaijan Ilham Aliyev of 30 August 2016
‘On celebration of the 200th anniversary of the establishment
of German settlements in the south Caucasus’?

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366 olub/
SECTION

III

Section III
AZERBAIJANI MULTICULTURALISM IN
THE INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS SYSTEM

Chapter 6

Chapter 6
MULTICULTURALISM AND THE FOREIGN POLICY
OF THE REPUBLIC OF AZERBAIJAN

6.1. Multiculturalism as a Factor in the Successful

Foreign Policy of the Republic of Azerbaijan

In 5.1 we came to the conclusion that multiculturalism as an

integral part of the domestic policy of the Republic of Azerbaijan
maintains the high level of state and religion relations in the
country and preserves the ethnocultural values of various peoples
and ethnic groups living there, enabling them to integrate into
society.
As an important part of the domestic policy of the Republic
of Azerbaijan, multiculturalism also has a positive impact on
the country’s foreign policy, or to be more exact, makes it more
effective. This is perfectly natural, as it derives from the relationship
between domestic and foreign policy. In this relationship domestic

367
policy plays a defining role in relation to foreign policy*. Stability
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

within the country lays the foundations for a peaceful foreign

policy in conformity with international law. The reverse is also
true – an unstable, critical situation in the country is one of the
main reasons for an aggressive foreign policy that disregards
international law.
Bearing in mind that domestic policy plays a defining role in
foreign policy, this helps to explain the success achieved in foreign
policy through the positive impact of multiculturalism. While the
policy of multiculturalism of the Republic of Azerbaijan serves
to protect ethnic, racial, religious and cultural diversity within the
country and the values that form their basis, the policy also creates
favourable conditions for the development of comprehensive
relations between Azerbaijan and all countries, irrespective of
their ethnic, religious, racial and cultural diversity. And this in its
turn creates favourable conditions for the promotion of dialogue
between cultures and civilizations.
The political scientist Samuel Huntington wrote in his work The
Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order that the
collapse of the world communist system put an end to the Cold
War, eliminating the political, military, economic and ideological
confrontation of two opposing socio-political systems. As a result,
in the new world order the most important distinction among the
peoples became not ideological, political or economic distinctions,
but cultural ones. He wrote that the dominant role of ethnocultural
values and culture in social development causes the clash of

*
Domestic policy plays a defining role in relation to foreign policy, but foreign policy
has a reverse impact on domestic policy. The country’s achievements in the foreign
policy sphere have a positive influence on its domestic policy, stabilize the domes-
tic situation and strengthen the position of the government. The corollary applies
and the country’s setbacks in the foreign policy sphere have a negative impact on
its domestic policy. First of all, they can lead to protests by the population against
the government. Thus, the relationship between domestic and foreign policies is
368 reciprocal in nature, though domestic policy plays the defining role.
civilizations. Azerbaijan’s actions in international relations and

Section III
its foreign policy based on multicultural ideas are evidence that
Huntington’s dangerous prediction, which creates a fatalistic and
pessimistic outlook, is incorrect. One of the main directions of
Azerbaijan’s foreign policy is the promotion of dialogue between
cultures and civilizations all over the world. It should be noted
that Azerbaijan has made great achievements in this regard. One
of them is the Baku Process, which recently entered the political
lexicon.
The Baku Process is an initiative of Ilham Aliyev, President of
the Republic of Azerbaijan, to promote intercultural dialogue, and

Chapter 6
is a manifestation of multiculturalism in the international relations
system. As part of the Baku Process, Azerbaijan has hosted
numerous reputable international forums promoting dialogue
among cultures and civilizations. (The Baku Process is considered in
more detail in the following subsection.)
As a result of its growing reputation, built on projects to
promote dialogue, Azerbaijan chalked up two significant diplomatic
achievements in 2011. Azerbaijan was elected a member of the
United Nations Security Council in a secret ballot held at the
plenary session of the UN General Assembly. Winning a two-thirds
majority of votes, i.e. with the support of 155 countries, Azerbaijan
represented the Eastern European region at the UN Security
Council in 2012-13. President Ilham Aliyev stated in this regard:
‘Azerbaijan’s victory, with the support of 155 countries, in
the elections for membership of the UN Security Council clearly
demonstrates that the absolute majority of the international
community supports Azerbaijan, regards Azerbaijan as a reliable
partner and is ready to express their position in such a significant
vote.’

369
A significant practical achievement in promoting multi­culturalism
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

in the new era was the President’s creation of the Baku International
Multiculturalism Centre (BIMC), as mentioned in the last chapter. It
showed that President Aliyev considers the promotion of dialogue
among cultures and civilizations a priority in his foreign policy. The
Centre carries out a number of projects to encourage this dialogue,
of which the following can be mentioned in particular:

1. Teaching Azerbaijani Multiculturalism as a discipline at

foreign universities
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism has been included in the curricula
of 19 higher education institutions: La Sapienza University of
Rome (Italy); Sofia University St. Kliment Ohridski (Bulgaria); Ural
Federal University named after the First President of Russia Boris
Yeltsin (Russia); Charles University in Prague (Czech Republic); the
Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences; Fribourg University
(Switzerland); Malmö University, (Sweden) ; Hokkaido University
(Japan);
Poltava University of Economics and Trade (Ukraine); Erciyes
University (Turkey); Lusofona University of Humanities and
Technologies (Portugal); Augsburg University (Germany); Julius
Maximilian University Würrzburg, Germany; Tbilisi State University
(Georgia); Belarus State University; Gadjah Mada University
(Indonesia); Sri Sri University (India) ; Alexandru Ioan Cuza
University of Iashi (Romania); The University of Wroclaw (Poland)
and 38 higher educational institutions of Azerbaijan.

370
2. International summer and winter schools in Azer­bai­jan:

Section III
‘Multiculturalism as a way of life in Azerbaijan: learn, explore
and share’
On the recommendation of President Aliyev, the Baku
International Multiculturalism Centre together with the Knowledge
Foundation under the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan
holds summer and winter schools twice a year under the motto
‘Multiculturalism as a way of life in Azerbaijan: learn, explore,
share’. The schools are held for students from Azerbaijan and
foreign countries who are interested in the courses ‘Introduction to

Chapter 6
Multiculturalism’ and ‘Azerbaijani Multiculturalism’.

3. Club of Young Friends of Azerbaijan

The Association of the Club of Young Friends of Azerbaijan was
set up during the Third International School of Multiculturalism
entitled ‘Multiculturalism as a way of life in Azerbaijan: national and
religious values’. Held in summer 2016, the school was attended
by more than 50 students from 16 countries. The club was the
initiative of Salomeja Lukaite, a research fellow at the Lithuanian
University of Educational Sciences, and Dimitrios Asproulis, a
student at the University of Athens. The Association includes
foreign students who have attended international multiculturalism
schools in Azerbaijan, students from 20 foreign universities where
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism is taught and other young people
whom they have interested in Azerbaijan.

4. Azerbaijani Multiculturalism events abroad

One-off lectures, round tables and conferences have been held
for the intelligentsia and civil servants in Great Britain, Germany,
Sweden and Switzerland.
371
5. Virtual round tables
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

The Baku International Multiculturalism Centre held five

virtual round tables involving local and foreign experts in order
to share with other countries Azerbaijan’s great experience of
multiculturalism. The material of the round tables has been
published in book form in Azerbaijani, Russian and English.
The aforementioned projects of Baku International
Multiculturalism Centre help to make Azerbaijan’s international
relations more effective.
As an important direction in the domestic policy of the
Republic of Azerbaijan multiculturalism has a positive impact
on the country’s foreign policy too. This can be seen first of all
in the country’s increasing influence in the international arena.
Azerbaijan’s achievements in multiculturalism are acknowledged by
many countries. As President Aliyev said:

‘Today Azerbaijan is recognized as a centre of multiculturalism

in the world. The rare role of Azerbaijan in the world is highly
appreciated. Azerbaijan is a bridge between civilizations. Azerbaijan
is a rare country from the geographical, political and other points of
view. Our experience is studied.’
Foreign politicians have commented that the growing interest in
Azerbaijan’s experience of multiculturalism has earned it the image
of an exporter of tolerance as well as oil and gas.

6.2. The Baku Process: its Nature, History, Goals and

Participants

Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev put forward the Baku

Process as an initiative to develop intercultural dialogue at a
conference of ministers of culture from Europe and neighbouring
regions held in Baku from 2 to 3 December 2008. Focusing on
372
the topic ‘Intercultural dialogue as the basis for sustainable peace

Section III
and development in Europe and its neighbouring regions’, the
conference was the first in a new format involving the ministers
of culture of ten Muslim countries. It was attended by senior
officials from 48 countries, representatives of eight international
organizations and a number of international non-governmental
organizations. The Baku Declaration on the Promotion of
Intercultural Dialogue was adopted on the initiative of Azerbaijan.
The Artists for Dialogue was launched on the initiative of
Azerbaijan as a continuation of the Baku Process.
President Aliyev made a speech on the history and importance

Chapter 6
of the Baku Process at the opening of the III World Forum on
Intercultural Dialogue held in Baku on 5 May 2015:

‘In 2008 Azerbaijan initiated the Baku Process, which is now

highly appreciated by the world community. It was also our initiative
to invite the ministers of the countries of the Organization of
Islamic Cooperation to the forum of ministers of member states of
the Council of Europe. That was the first event of its kind, because
Azerbaijan is one of the few countries to be a member of both
organizations. In 2009 the Organization of Islamic Cooperation
invited the ministers of culture of the countries of the Council of
Europe to a meeting of ministers. All this was our initiative and
this format came to be known as the Baku Process. Today the Baku
Process includes dialogue among cultures and civilizations and
issues in multiculturalism.’

The main actors in the Baku Process are the government of

Azerbaijan, UNESCO, the UN Alliance of Civilizations, the Council
of Europe, the Council of Europe’s North-South Centre, ISESCO and
the UN World Tourism Organization.
The Baku Process has the following goals:
373
1.
To develop understanding, dialogue and tolerance among
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

cultures;
2. To develop cooperation between Muslim and Western societies;
3. To support forces of peace and reconciliation in order to ease
religious and cultural tension among peoples, thereby building
respect and understanding among cultures;
4. To define the opportunities for culture, cultural heritage and
the arts and to make more effective use of them in intercultural
dialogue and cooperation;
5. To support cultural and artistic endeavour and recognize the
role of artists and cultural figures in stimulating intercultural
dialogue and mutual understanding;
6. To attract member-states and civil society to develop dialogue
among the relevant international and regional organizations.

The Baku Process was created as a regional initiative, but in

2010 it was transformed into a global movement. President Ilham
Aliyev was very much involved in this qualitatively new stage in
the Baku Process. Addressing the 65th session of the UN General
Assembly, President Aliyev declared that the next World Forum on
Intercultural Dialogue would be held in Baku:

‘Azerbaijan has always been a place of coexistence and tolerance

among different faiths, ethnic groups and philosophies. As an active
member of the Group of Friends of the Alliance of Civilizations,
Azerbaijan contributes to the development of inter-religious and
intercultural dialogue based on mutual respect and understanding.
Azerbaijan hosted the World Summit of religious leaders of 32 states
in the spring of this year and on its initiative is to host the World
Forum for Intercultural Dialogue in April 2011.’
374
After this speech, President Aliyev signed an instruction that

Section III
the World Forum on Intercultural Dialogue should be held in
Azerbaijan on 27 May 2011 and from then on should be held every
two years in the Republic of Azerbaijan. To date, four World Forums
on Intercultural Dialogue have been held in Baku since 2011.
Other important forums have also been held as part of the Baku
Process: the World Summit of Religious Leaders on 26 to 27 April
2010; the Baku International Humanitarian Forums held in 2011,
2012, 2013, 2014 and 2016; the seventh Global Forum of the United
Nations Alliance of Civilizations held on 25 to 27 April 2016.
Two significant sporting events held in Azerbaijan – the first

Chapter 6
European Games in June 2015 and the IV Islamic Solidarity Games
in May 2017 – can also be associated with the Baku Process as a
means of developing intercultural dialogue. One of the main goals
of both sporting events was the development of dialogue among
different cultures.
The 10th anniversary the Baku Process fell in 2018. President
Aliyev noted in his speech at the opening of the 4th World Forum
on Intercultural Dialogue:

‘The government of Azerbaijan and the United Nations Alliance

of Civilizations have launched an initiative to create the Baku
Process award for leadership in intercultural dialogue in order to
honour those who play an active role in promoting dialogue among
cultures and civilizations.’

The Baku Process to encourage dialogue among cultures and

civilizations shows that multiculturalism has an important influence
on the foreign policy of the Republic of Azerbaijan. The Process
has become a global movement and is developing dynamically.
Every year the Republic of Azerbaijan hosts international events as
part of the Baku Process, which increase the role of Azerbaijan in
promoting dialogue among cultures and civilizations. 375
In her speech at the opening of the IV World Forum on
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Intercultural Dialogue on 5 May 2017, Gabriella Battaini-Dragoni,

deputy secretary-general of the Council of Europe, had this to say
about the Baku Process:

‘Yes, while if it was a dream in 2008, the Baku Process has now
become reality. Thanks to the perfect opportunity provided by the
Baku Process and the forums on intercultural dialogue we have been
able to gather and discuss the issues facing our world today… Mr
President, I ask you and the first vice-president Mrs Mehriban Aliyeva
never to let the flame of the Baku Process be extinguished, because
there is a great need for peace, harmony and coexistence in the
world.’

6.3. The Role of the Heydar Aliyev Foundation in

Implementing the Policy of Multiculturalism

The Heydar Aliyev Foundation, which bears the name of the

political founder of Azerbaijani multiculturalism, National Leader of
the Azerbaijani People Heydar Aliyev, works to promote the values
of tolerance and is highly appreciated by the world community.
The Foundation’s effective work has been positively received not
only in the Republic, but in different countries too. The history,
goals and objectives of the Foundation will be considered in order
to get a better understanding of its role in realizing the policy of
multiculturalism.

6.3.1. The Heydar Aliyev Foundation and its Goals

The creation of the Heydar Aliyev Foundation reflects the

people’s desire to show their esteem for the memory of Heydar
376 Aliyev, who entered the nation’s history as the builder of the
independent state. The Foundation builds on his rich spiritual

Section III
heritage by underlining the importance for the country of the
philosophy of Azerbaijanism and by cultivating ideas of national
statehood in the younger generation.
President Ilham Aliyev signed a decree on 10 March 2004 on
setting up the Foundation. It supports the study, promotion and
implementation of Heydar Aliyev’s policies for the socio-economic
and cultural development of the country, its integration into the
world community and the improvement of the material well-being
of the people.
The official opening ceremony of the Heydar Aliyev Foundation,

Chapter 6
a non-governmental and non-commercial organization, was
held on 10 May 2004, on the initiative of Mehriban Aliyeva, First
Vice-President of the Republic of Azerbaijan, President of the
Heydar Aliyev Foundation and Goodwill Ambassador of UNESCO
and ISESCO. Since 2004, the Foundation has contributed to the
social and economic development of the country through various
projects in education, public health, culture, sports, science and
technology, the environment and other spheres.
The Heydar Aliyev Foundation pursues the following goals in its
work:

• to support the study, promotion and implementation of the

policies developed by the eminent politician Heydar Aliyev for
the social, economic and cultural development of the country,
its integration into the civilized world and the improvement of
the material welfare of the people;
• to support the implementation of major projects and
programmes to promote the prosperity and welfare of the
nation, benefiting from the rich heritage of National Leader
Heydar Aliyev in working to meet these needs;
377
• to develop and implement various programmes and projects
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

in science, culture, public health, sports, the environment and

other areas;
• to cooperate and carry out joint projects with local and foreign
foundations, NGOs and voluntary organizations;
• to provide assistance in tackling social problems in various
parts of the country, as well as to help vulnerable groups of
the population;
• to help people discover their creative potential, skills and
knowledge and to help talented individuals display and
develop their skills;
• to assist in promoting the cultural heritage of Azerbaijan,
including the promotion of Azerbaijani mugham, and in
preserving the country’s healthy spiritual values;
• to help children and young people become well-informed
citizens;
• to help activities aimed at raising the international influence of
the Republic of Azerbaijan;
• to assist the dissemination of accurate information about
Azerbaijan to the international public;
• to cooperate with national and international educational
institutions;
• to assist scientific research;
• to arrange exchanges of scholars with leading research
centres and to assist the creative and scientific potential of the
country;
• to develop the infrastructure of child care institutions;
• to develop medical and healthcare institutions;

378
• to support important environmental studies and pro­
mote a

Section III
healthy life style;
• to arrange workshops and conferences on topical issues in
Azerbaijan and abroad;
• to organize exhibitions of the work of talented children, young
people and established artists.

The expansion of cultural relations with other countries and

the holding of days of culture and art exhibitions in reputable art
galleries around the world and concerts of Azerbaijani musicians

Chapter 6
all illustrate the Foundation’s work to integrate Azerbaijani culture
into the world. The Foundation’s President, Mehriban Aliyeva,
has played an important role in the popularization of Azerbaijani
culture around the world.
Strengthening intercultural relations is an aspect of
multiculturalism and occupies a special place in the Foun­dation’s
carefully considered work. Various projects, inclu­ding ‘Expanding the
Role of Women in Cross-cultural Dialo­gues’, ‘The Role of Cultures
in Globalization’, ‘Peaceful Coexistence in a Multicultural World’
and ‘Azerbaijan – Land of Tolerance’ have been implemented on
the initiative of Mehriban Aliyeva. The world community is very
appreciative of the events to develop cross-cultural dialogue
organized by the Heydar Aliyev Foundation.
In implementing the policy of multiculturalism, the Heydar
Aliyev Foundation supports Azerbaijan’s integration into the world
community, religious tolerance, the development of civil society
and the preservation of national-spiritual values. It benefits from
the rich heritage of the National Leader Heydar Aliyev as it carries
out various programmes and projects in this regard.

379
6.3.2. Azerbaijan – Address of Tolerance
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Mehriban Aliyeva, President of the Heydar Aliyev Foun­dation, has

always stressed the importance of friendly re­lations, mutual respect
and cultural exchange among nations. Noting the rich traditions of
tolerance in Azerbaijan, Mehriban Aliyeva said:

‘Azerbaijani society, with its traditional relations of friendship,

brotherhood and tolerance, is our historic achievement, and this
factor has become the leading norm of our public and political life.
A democratic environment has been ensured for the different nations
living in our country to preserve their national and spiritual values,
religious beliefs and traditions, and to develop their language and
culture. Irrespective of language, religion and ethnic identity, all the
citizens of Azerbaijan enjoy basic human rights and freedoms. It is a
source of pride that Azerbaijan is considered an example of tolerance
for world countries and that a good number of states seek to benefit
from this experience.’

Through its work the Heydar Aliyev Foundation contributes

to the human values of unity and tolerance among different
ethnic and religious groups. The Foundation’s work has produced
a considerable response both at home and abroad. One of its
progressive projects is entitled Azerbaijan – Address of Tolerance.
As part of this project repair and restoration works have been
carried out in a number of mosques, churches and synagogues.
The grave and mausoleum of the Brave Butcher, who earned
the respect of the people for his charitable work in Ganja in the 7th
century, were repaired and restored in 2005.
The 16th century Pir Hasan shrine in Mardakan, near Baku,
underwent major repairs and restoration work in 2005. The shrine
is the site of the graves of the historic figures Pir Hasan and Khadija
380 Khanum, daughter of the seventh Shia Imam Musa Kazim. The
mausoleum was reconstructed and the complex was decorated

Section III
with national designs. Other improvements were made and a park
was laid out in the area around the shrine, which is an architectural
monument and protected by the state.
The Mohsun Salim Mosque in Bina, near Baku, built in the early
20 century by a local oil field owner, was fully restored in 2006. A
th

new building with a hall for 100 people, ablution rooms, separate
rooms for men and women and a meeting room for clergy was
built in the yard and fully equipped. The mosque has been included
in the list of historical monuments protected by the state.
The Orthodox Church in Baku was repaired and restored in

Chapter 6
2007. The church’s suspended ceiling was replaced with decorative
glass and the building’s facade was changed.
In September 2008 the Heydar Aliyev Foundation and
the Roman Catholic Community signed a Memorandum of
Understanding. The Memorandum included development and
reconstruction projects in certain areas, support for social and
religious centres, and a series of activities to promote the cultural
development of the various ethnic groups residing in Azerbaijan. As
an initial step in this cooperation, the ceiling of the Roman Catholic
Church of the Immaculate Conception in Baku was decorated with
classic ecclesiastical murals and a ceramic panel was mounted on
the facade of the church.
The Juma (Friday) Mosque in Buzovna in Khazar District was
reconstructed. Construction of the Juma Mosque started in 1896,
but was left incomplete in 1900. During the Soviet period it was used
as a storehouse and a shop. In December 2006 on the initiative of
the President of the Heydar Aliyev Foundation, Mehriban Aliyeva,
a project costing 700,000 manats was developed to reconstruct
the mosque. Reconstruction work began in February 2007 and was
completed in 2009. On 19 December 2009, Azerbaijani President
Ilham Aliyev and his spouse Mehriban Aliyeva attended the 381
opening ceremony of the mosque, where 500 people can pray at
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

one time.
In 2010-13 a new mosque was built in the town of Qabala on
the order of the Heydar Aliyev Foundation. Verses from the Holy
Koran are written on the walls and pillars of the mosque, which are
also decorated with religious symbols. The mosque has a room for
the akhund, a teaching room, a library, meeting rooms, ablution
rooms for men and women and ancillary buildings. On 28 February
2013, President Aliyev attended the opening ceremony of the
mosque, where 600 people may pray at one time.
Reconstruction works at the Juma Mosque in Shamakhi started
in March 2010. The mosque’s 36.4-metre high minarets, entrance
and three domes were exquisitely restored. On 17 May 2013,
President Aliyev attended the opening of the renewed mosque,
where 1,500 people may pray at one time.
In 2012 on the initiative of the Heydar Aliyev Foundation
reconstruction of the Heydar Juma Mosque in Mardakan began.
On 31 December 2013, Heydar Aliyev Foundation Vice-President
Leyla Aliyeva attended the opening of the mosque after the major
reconstruction. It has room for 130 people to pray there at one
time.
As part of the Azerbaijan – Address of Tolerance project, the
Ohr Avner Chabad education centre for Jewish children was built
in Baku by the Heydar Aliyev Foundation and the Ohr Avner
Foundation. On 31 May 2007, Heydar Aliyev Foundation President
Mehriban Aliyeva attended a ceremony to lay the centre’s
foundation stone. On 4 October 2010, President Aliyev and First
Vice-President Aliyeva and the President of the Federation of
Jewish Communities of the CIS and the Ohr Avner International
Foundation, Lev Leviev, attended the opening ceremony of the
Education Centre. Located in Baku’s Khatai District, the three-
382 storey complex meets all the latest standards. The Centre has 30
classrooms provided with high-end equipment and teaching aids

Section III
and a 700 sq.m. outdoor stadium with an artificial pitch. Designed
for 450 pupils, the centre’s distinguishing feature from other
educational institutions is that it teaches the basics of Jewish
culture.
Also as part of the Azerbaijan – Address of Tolerance project,
the Heydar Aliyev Foundation has arranged significant events
abroad and the restoration of various foreign monuments. Among
them is the restoration of stained-glass windows in the 14th century
Strasbourg Cathedral. Scenes from the lives of the Virgin Mary
and Jesus Christ are depicted in the stained-glass windows, which

Chapter 6
were installed in 1320-40. The Heydar Aliyev Foundation provided
financial assistance for this work in June 2009.
The Heydar Aliyev Foundation also allocated funds for the
restoration of seven churches dating back to the 10th to 12th
centuries in the villages of La Fresnaye-au-Sauvage, Saint-Hilaire-
la-Gérard, Tanville, Courgeoût, Réveillon and Mâle in Orne
Department in France.

The Heydar Aliyev Foundation has also done other significant

work:

1. In 2007 the Foundation supported the restoration of old

masterpieces in Versailles. The works restored by the
Foundation include Jacques Buirrette’s Amazon statue (1685-
1693) and Claude Bertin’s Bowl with Handles Adorned with
Fauns’ Heads (1687-1705). Both statues are kept in the park
at Versailles and had been eroded over time. The statues were
included in the list of World Heritage in 1979. In 2008 the
Foundation was also involved in restoration work at the Louvre
Museum.
383
2. The Heydar Aliyev Foundation supported repair work to the
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Hall of the Philosophers Room in the Capitoline Museum in

Rome. An opening ceremony was held on 25 October 2013
after completion of the repairs.
3. In September 2012 on the initiative of the Heydar Aliyev
Foundation new halls dedicated to Islamic art were opened at
the Louvre Museum of Paris.
4. O
n 2 June 2014 the Heydar Aliyev Foundation and the Vatican
Apostolic Library signed an agreement ‘On the restoration
and digitization of manuscripts in 2015-16’. The agreement
included the restoration and digitization of old manuscripts
and the restoration of a number of monuments in the Vatican
museums.

In addition, the Trapezitsa Architectural Museum Reserve in

Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria, was restored with the support of the
Heydar Aliyev Foundation. Mehriban Aliyeva and Leyla Aliyeva
attended the reopening ceremony of the Reserve on 22 September
2016. The conservation and restoration work at Trapezitsa, one
of the historical tourist centres in Bulgaria and Eastern Europe,
lasted 10 months. The Heydar Aliyev Foundation financed the
conservation and restoration of a 158-metre long western wall, the
laying of an 880-metre long tourist walk, the creation of a cultural
heritage centre, and the repair and conservation of three medieval
churches in the complex.
Also as part of the Azerbaijan – Address of Tolerance project,
a monument to Prince Vladimir was erected outside the Saint
Vladimir Church in the Russian city of Astrakhan on the instructions
of President Aliyev and with the support of the Heydar Aliyev
Foundation. Leyla Aliyeva attended the foundation laying ceremony
384 on 12 September 2012. Leyla Aliyeva and Astrakhan Region
Governor Alexander Zhilkin attended the unveiling of the statue on

Section III
20 December 2013.
Natiq Aliyev, People’s Artist of Azerbaijan and an honoured
member of the Russian Academy of Arts, designed the complex
as a whole, while the statue is the work of Astrakhan sculptors
Alexander Fedorchenko and People’s Artist of Russia Andrey
Kovalchuk. The statue was erected to mark the 1,025th anniversary
of Christianity in Russia.
Also as part of the Azerbaijan – Address of Tolerance project,
the Heydar Aliyev Foundation and the Vatican signed a bilateral
agreement on 22 June 2012 on the restoration of the catacombs

Chapter 6
of Saints Marcellinus and Peter. On 23 February 2016 Mehriban
Aliyeva attended the reopening ceremony of the catacombs. Of 60
catacombs located around the city of Rome, those of Marcellinus
and Peter are very significant for the Christian world. This project,
the first of its kind, is considered as a contribution of the Muslim
world to the holy sites of Christianity.
Holding exhibitions in various countries is a major part of the
Azerbaijan – Address of Tolerance project. On 27 September 2013,
a photo exhibition Azerbaijan – Land of Tolerance opened at the
UN headquarters in New York. The exhibition was organized
by the Heydar Aliyev Foundation jointly with the UN Alliance of
Civilizations and the Azerbaijan State Committee for Work with
Religious Organizations. The exhibition featured the work of the
internationally renowned photographer Reza Degati on the theme
of religious tolerance in Azerbaijan, a country he has visited many
times. A similar exhibition opened in UNESCO headquarters in
Paris on 22 October 2013, and then moved to the Azerbaijan
Cultural Centre in Paris where it opened on 22 November 2013.
The ceremony was attended by Mehriban Aliyeva and Leyla Aliyeva,
French state and government officials, UNESCO Director General
Irina Bokova, ISESCO Director General Abdulaziz Othman Altwaijri, 385
Rashida Dati, mayor of the 7th Arrondissement of Paris, senators,
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

deputies, well-known figures from the world of art and French

society and diplomats. The exhibition was highly appreciated by
the public and received positive coverage in the press.

6.3.3. International Conferences and Forums as Platforms

for Cross-Cultural Dialogue and Multiculturalism

The Heydar Aliyev Foundation has held a number of conferences

and forums to promote multiculturalism and the values of tolerance
and the sustainable development of cross-cultural dialogue. The
various events are listed below in chronological order:
On 19-21 April 2006 the Heydar Aliyev Foundation jointly with
the Academy of Latin Culture held an international conference
on Cultural Diversity in Eurasia: Azerbaijan: the Dialogue of
Civilizations Past and Present. Scholars and artists from 30
Latin countries attended the conference. The conference heard
that religious freedom and tolerance are at the highest level in
Azerbaijan, where the best traditions of the cultures of East and
West have merged.
On 1-2 November 2007, an international conference on Youth
for the Alliance of Civilizations was held under the patronage of
Mehriban Aliyeva. The conference opened with the film Youth for
the Alliance of Civilizations: Dreams Come True, which tells of the
care and attention shown to culture in Azerbaijan and the main
goals of the initiative to create a dialogue of civilizations.
On 10-11 June, 2008, a two day international forum on
Expanding the Role of Women in Cross-cultural Dialogue was held.
This forum was organized on the initiative of the Heydar Aliyev
Foundation and with the support of ISESCO and UNESCO. It was
attended by over 300 representatives of different countries. The
386
forum was devoted to the contribution of women to strengthening

Section III
the dialogue of cultures and civilizations.
On 29-30 June 2010 Baku hosted a forum on the topic Dialogue
of Cultures in a Globalizing World, initiated by the head of the
Russian representative office of the Heydar Aliyev Foundation,
Leyla Aliyeva. The forum, dedicated to the memory of the National
Leader of Azerbaijan Heydar Aliyev, was attended by well-known
Azerbaijani and Russian scholars. Separate sessions at the forum
heard papers on ‘The Dialogue of civilizations in the dialogue
of cultures’, ‘Democracy, society and once again on the role of
personality in history’, ‘Individual parameters of democratic values

Chapter 6
in modern society’, ‘Humanitarian education in Russia in the era
of globalization’, ‘Dialogue as comprehension of the identity
of others’, ‘Intercultural dialogue as the basis of sustainable
development in the era of globalization’, ‘Philosophy and
contemporary science together’, ‘Interaction between philosophical
cultures in the era of globalization’ and other topics.
An international conference From Isolation to Integration was
a joint project of the Heydar Aliyev Foundation, the Azerbaijani
government and UNICEF. The conference on 20 September
2011 was attended by representatives of 20 countries, including
Germany, Russia, Georgia and Turkmenistan, as well as by state
and government officials, MPs and representatives of international
organizations. The inclusion of disabled children into society and
support for reform in this field were among the issues discussed at
the conference.
A conference on Religious Tolerance: the Culture of Coexistence
in Azerbaijan was held on 8 September 2015 as part of a project
entitled Azerbaijan in the Heart of Paris. It was organized with
the support of the Heydar Aliyev Foundation. The conference
highlighted interfaith relations in Azerbaijan and France and 387
Azerbaijan’s experience in the field of religious tolerance. Following
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

the conference an evening of classical music, Azerbaijani Music in

the Heart of Paris, was held with the support of the Heydar Aliyev
Foundation.

6.4. The Activity of the Baku International

Multiculturalism Centre

Baku International Multiculturalism Centre (BIMC) was set up by

a decree of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan Ilham Aliyev,
issued on 15 May 2014, as is mentioned in Chapter 2. The decree
says clearly that multiculturalism is the state policy and way of life
in Azerbaijan:
‘It is internationally acknowledged that being located at the
intersection of civilizations Azerbaijan possesses rich cultural and
spiritual values and traditions of tolerance. As a multi-ethnic and
multi-faith country the environment of national and cultural diversity
and ethnic-­
religious tolerance has turned it into an incomparable
space of multicultural dialogue. The state policy, being successfully
carried out today to protect that cultural, linguistic and ethnic diversity
in the Republic of Azerbaijan, demands that special care be taken of
this great historical experience of multiculturalism, accumulated down
the centuries, and that it be enriched. The policy also calls for the
international promotion of these unique achievements.’

The BIMC statute sets out its aims and objectives in line with
this Decree. In conformity with the ideology of Azerbaijanism the
Centre’s main goal is to protect tolerance and cultural, religious
and linguistic diversity, and to ensure the worldwide recognition
of Azerbaijan as a centre of multiculturalism. The Centre’s main

388 functions are as follows:

Section III
• to study the cultural, social, and political essence of
Azerbaijani reality, which has turned multiculturalism and
tolerance into a way of life and to develop a way to promote it;
• to determine how cultural and ethnographic diversity in
the Republic of Azerbaijan may serve the development of
Azerbaijanism and to ensure that it does;
• to conduct scientific analysis of the tolerant foundations of
cultural and religious diversity in the Azerbaijan Republic and
to determine ways to preserve them;

Chapter 6
• to study the cultural heritage of different regions, to ensure
their harmonious development and to support the protection
and preservation of historical, cultural and religious
monuments by making use of the potential of civil society;
• to study the degree of contact among the cultures of different
regions in multicultural life and to promote more contact;
• to search for traces of old cultures in different regions of the
Republic of Azerbaijan in cooperation with the respective
research institutions (to organize archaeological digs in
accordance with the law of the Republic of Azerbaijan ‘On
the protection of historical and cultural monuments’) and to
collect and protect cultural and ethnographic heritage;
• to introduce projects in education, culture, science and other
social spheres in order to tackle failings that impede the
harmonious, holistic spiritual development of the individual;
• to carry out measures to increase the professional religious
and secular knowledge of young clerics of different religions;
• to ensure that international experts study the multicultural
achievements of the Republic of Azerbaijan and to promote
those achievements abroad; 389
• to develop a mechanism to appreciate and promote local
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

and foreign citizens, who have made a major contribution to

individual purification and to building mutual respect and trust
among the nations and religions;
• to analyse and disseminate the personal experience of
international experts in multiculturalism and of current and
former politicians, public figures, academics and artists;
• to perform other functions in conformity with this Statute.

The Azerbaijani President signed an instruction on 11 March

2016 ‘On the Action Plan for 2016 as the Year of Multiculturalism
in the Republic of Azerbaijan’. Baku International Multiculturalism
Centre was made coordinator of the Action Plan. BIMC carries out
several projects in different areas, arising from the plan, and works
closely with the bodies mentioned in the Instruction.
One of the most significant issues in the Action Plan is the
creation of BIMC branches and representative offices abroad. Work
on this has been under way since January 2016 and BIMC now has
branches in Germany, Israel, Moldova, Italy, Portugal, Bulgaria and
Russia.
BIMC is building its work in two directions:

analysis and promotion of multiculturalism in Azerbaijan and the

rest of the world and to prepare publications on this;
development and implementation of projects designed to
maintain tolerance, cultural, religious and linguistic diversity in
accordance with the ideology of Azerbaijanism, and to introduce
Azerbaijan as a centre of multiculturalism in the world.
BIMC has carried out a number of important projects in this
regard.
390
The Book of Dada Qorqud: How Basat Killed Tapagoz

Section III
The story of ‘How Basat Killed Tapagoz’ (Cyclops) from the
epic The Book of Dada Qorqud (Kitabi Dada Qorqud), published in
Germany in 1815 by orientalist and diplomat Friedrich von Diez
with his foreword, was translated and published in 25 languages.
This project also followed an instruction of President Ilham Aliyev
on celebration of the 200th anniversary of the first translation into
German and publication of The Book of Dada Qorqud.
The translations were published in Turkish, German, English,
French, Russian, Chinese, Japanese, Indian, Arabic, Persian, Greek,

Chapter 6
Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian and Ukrainian, as well as in the languages
of minorities living in Azerbaijan – Khinaliq, Tat, Kurdish, Talysh, Udi,
Lezghi, Georgian and Armenian. The publication of these books is a
clear sign of both the richness of the spiritual world of the Azerbaijani
people and the spirit of multiculturalism in Azerbaijan. The book
consists of Friedrich von Diez’s foreword entitled ‘Comparison of
the Newly Discovered Oghuz Cyclops with that of Homer’ and the
story of ‘How Basat Killed Tapagoz’ (Cyclops) from The Book of Dada
Qorqud.

Literary Sources of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

BIMC is organizing many publications as part of the project on
the Sources of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism. Multiculturalism as a way
of life of the Azerbaijani people since ancient times has become a
topic of completely new research from the political, philosophical
and literary points of view. The first publication in the series,
Literary Sources of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism, is very important
from the academic point of view. The book reflects the views
of Azerbaijani writers who showed great respect for different
languages and religions and for scholars, writers and beautiful
people of different nationalities. The tolerant, multicultural values 391
inherent to our people are said to have lived in the soul and blood
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

of our ancestors down the centuries. This is visual evidence of the

words of President Ilham Aliyev that ‘Multiculturalism is a value
inherent to the Azerbaijani people.’
The book Literary Sources of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism has
been translated into English and Russian and is being distributed at
present.
The next book in the series Sources of Azerbaijani
Multiculturalism, which includes Scientific and Philoso­phi­cal Sources
of Azerbaijani Multiculturalism, Written Sources of Azerbaijani
Multiculturalism and The Political and Legal Principles of Azerbaijani
Multiculturalism, will soon be pub­
lished. These books show the
many branches and many directions of our multicultural sources.

Teaching Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

A major, ongoing project of the BIMC since its creation is the
teaching of the courses ‘An Introduction to Multiculturalism’ and
‘Azerbaijani Multiculturalism’ in local and foreign universities. The
teaching programme for the two subjects has been approved by
the Ministry of Education on the initiative and with the ideas of
the State Counsellor on Multiculturalism, Interethnic and Religious
Issues of the Republic of Azerbaijan. In parallel teaching staff have
been trained to teach these disciplines.
Though not long has passed, these disciplines are already being
taught in 19 foreign and some 40 local universities. The number
of universities cooperating with BIMC is increasing every year and
new chairs in multiculturalism are being set up, in conformity with
the Year of Multiculturalism Action Plan.

392
International summer and winter schools multiculturalism

Section III
International summer and winter schools of multiculturalism are
held for students and researchers who have already studied the
‘Azerbaijani Multiculturalism’ course and are keen to further their
knowledge. Summer and Winter Schools are of great importance
in sparking interest in new research topics and in making use of
the experience of Azerbaijan. The schools are a continuation of the
project for education in multiculturalism abroad, as recommended
by President Aliyev.
The main purpose of the summer and winter schools is to

Chapter 6
bring together students who have already studied Azerbaijani
multiculturalism. They listen to lectures on different aspects of
Azerbaijani multiculturalism and have the opportunity to observe
in practice what they have learned. It is interesting for the students
to attend these schools in scenic parts of Azerbaijan and to meet
members of minorities and religious communities, with their
diverse, rich traditions. This can be summed up in the three main
goals of the schools:
• to share and expand theoretical and practical know­
ledge
about Azerbaijani multiculturalism;
• to increase the effectiveness of the Azerbaijani
Multiculturalism course;
• to bring together scholars, researchers and students interested
in multiculturalism.

Schools were held in July 2015, February 2016, July 2016,

February 2017, July 2015, February 2018 and July 2018 were a great
success.

393
Club of Young Friends of Azerbaijan
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

The club was set up at the Third International Summer School

(17-18 July 2016) on the initiative of Salomeja Lukaite, a research
fellow at the Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences, and
Dimitrios Asproulis, a student at the University of Athens. At
present the international Club has over 200 members from over
20 countries. They are foreign students who have attended the
international schools of multiculturalism and Azerbaijani students
who have taken courses on Azerbaijani multiculturalism. The
International Club of Young Friends of Azerbaijan has a website
(www.youngfriends.az), and is attracting the attention of young
international readers. The creation of the club, which already has
a broad social base, is an important step. It can be regarded as the
‘spiritual child’ of BIMC’s regular summer and winter schools which
bring together dozens of friends, who love Azerbaijan.

Virtual Round Tables

BIMC regularly organizes virtual round tables on a variety
of pressing issues for local and foreign experts. BIMC has
published material from those round tables in the form of
booklets. The booklets include “The Harmony of Socio-economic
and Spiritual Development in Azerbaijan in the Modern Era;
Multicultural Harmony”; “Teaching Azerbaijani Multiculturalism as
a Discipline in Foreign Universities”: “Problems and Perspectives;
Interest in Azerbaijan turns into Love for Azerbaijan (Azerbaijani
multiculturalism through the eyes of foreign and local students)” ;
“Azerbaijani Multiculturalism through the Eyes of Foreign and Local
Students of the International Winter School” and “Albanian Apostolic
Church: Historical Outlook”. These booklets have been distributed
394 in Azerbaijani, Russian and English and are valuable aids in research
into, and promotion of, the Azerbaijani model of multiculturalism

Section III
at home and abroad. They may be used in secondary schools and
higher educational institutions, in various organizations and by
foreign visitors to Azerbaijan.

Azerbaijani Multiculturalism textbook

BIMC produced a textbook on Azerbaijani multiculturalism
for students in higher education and for a broad readership, in
conformity with Paragraph 9 of the Action Plan for 2016 – Year of
Multiculturalism.

Chapter 6
Multiculturalism journal
The Multiculturalism journal is published quarterly, under
Paragraph 40 of the Action Plan for 2016 – Year of Multiculturalism.
BIMC seeks to raise awareness of Azerbaijani multiculturalism, a
priority in state policy, in different ways around the world.

BIMC Events Abroad

Azerbaijani multiculturalism has been presented as a new model
for living in peace and friendship not only in foreign universities,
but also in colloquiums, seminars and round tables at a variety of
organizations. Events have been held from BBC headquarters in
London to Ahmad Dahlan University in Yogyakarta, Indonesia.

Vatican Conference
On 21 April 2015, BIMC and the think tank Il Nodo di Gordio
held an international conference on ‘Caucasian Albania and
the Udis’ at the Salesian Pontifical University in Rome, with the
organizational support of the Azerbaijani embassy in Italy. It
was one of BIMC’s larger projects and was important in terms of
395
recognition of the model of Azerbaijani multiculturalism, exploration
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

of multicultural security and focusing attention on the Udis as one

of the ethnic and religious communities of Azerbaijan.

Round Table at the BBC

A round table on Azerbaijani multiculturalism was held at the
BBC headquarters in London on 26 April 2015. The participants
in the round table received a comprehensive briefing on the
Azerbaijani model of multiculturalism, including its history and
socio-political aspects, and on the work of BIMC.

Symposium in Berlin
A symposium on ‘Multiculturalism and Interfaith Dialogue in
Azerbaijan: Historical Experience and a Model for the Future’ was
held on 27 May 2015 in Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences
and Humanities, with the organizational support of the Azerbaijani
embassy in Germany, BIMC, the Germany-Azerbaijan Forum and
the chair of the History of Azerbaijan at Berlin Humboldt University.
The symposium was of great importance in achieving recognition
of the Azerbaijani model of multiculturalism beyond the borders of
Azerbaijan.

Round Table in Yogyakarta

A round table on Azerbaijan as a Model Multicultural Country
was held on 28 September 2015 in the Indonesian city of
Yogyarkarta. The round table was organized by BIMC together with
the Muhammadiyah NGO.

Conference in Bern
An international conference on ‘Multiculturalism and Intercultural
396 Dialogue: the Swiss and Azerbaijani Models’ was held on 29
March 2017 in the House of Religions in Bern. The conference

Section III
was organized by the BIMC and the Azerbaijan State Committee
for Work with Religious Organizations, and with the support
of the Azerbaijani embassy in Switzerland. The conference was
followed by an exhibition on Aspects of State-Religion Relations in
Azerbaijan.

Conference in Augsburg
A two-day international conference on Heydar Ali­yev – Youth –
Multiculturalism to mark the anniversary of the birth of Azerbaijan’s
National Leader was held in the German city of Augsburg on

Chapter 6
10-11 May 2017. The initiative of the Club of Young Friends of
Azerbaijan, the conference was organized with the support of BIMC
and Augsburg University. Also on the Club’s initiative, a photo
exhibition Heydar Aliyev and Young People was held alongside
the conference at the Logenhaus. The conference’s main goal
was to honour Heydar Aliyev, who greatly appreciated Azerbaijani
multiculturalism in political terms and established its legal status
and at the same time was a close friend and reliable support for
young people. Another aim of the conference was to promote
multiculturalism and ideas of tolerance through Club members in
Europe, Asia and America, and to contribute to world peace.

Baku Humanitarian Forum

Initiated by the Presidents of the Republic of Azerbaijan and
Russian Federation in 2010, Baku International Humanitarian Forum
is an event gathering together famous representatives of political,
scientific and cultural elite of the world community including famous
statesmen, Nobel Prize’s winners in the various fields of science and
leaders of influential international organizations.
In order to respond the global challenges of our time,
the Government of Azerbaijan is going to host the VI Baku 397
International Humanitarian Forum on the theme of “Shaping a New
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

World and a New Humanity: Creativity and Human Development” on

25-26 October, 2018 in Baku.
BIMC held round tables on ‘Comparative research into
multiculturalism: from theory towards humanist ex­
peri­
ence’ and
‘Different models of multiculturalism: from theory towards
humanist experience’ at Baku Humanitarian Forums on 2 October
2014 and 30 September 2016 respectively.

World Forum on Intercultural Dialogue

BIMC held a group session ‘Let’s share culture for the sake
of common security’ on 8 May 2015 at the 3rd World Forum
on Intercultural Dialogue in Baku. The Centre held another
group session on ‘The Development of Intercultural Dialogue:
New opportunities for human security, peace and sustainable
development’ on 6 May 2017 at the 4th World Forum on Intercultural
Dialogue. These sessions provided opportunities for local and
foreign experts to discuss topical problems in multiculturalism.

UN Alliance of Civilizations Global Forum

BIMC held a group session on ‘The role of Azerbaijan in shaping
a multicultural society’ at the 7th Global Forum of the UN Alliance of
Civilizations, in accordance with Paragraph 30 of the 2016 – Year of
Multiculturalism Action Plan.

Terror against Multiculturalism

BIMC has put forward the initiative to hold a series of
conferences and round tables in different countries as part of
a project Terror against Multiculturalism. The events will draw
international attention once more to the grave consequences of
398 the terror committed by Armenians against Azerbaijanis and other
peoples and highlight the importance of the fight against terrorism

Section III
on the international level. ‘Armenian terrorism and Azerbaijani
multiculturalism’ is the topic of the first round table as part of the
project.

Albanian Apostolic Church: our past and present

BIMC held an international conference on the Albanian
Apostolic Church in the town of Qabala on 20 July 2016, under
Paragraph 28 of the 2016 – Year of Multiculturalism Action Plan.
In 1836 the Albanian Apostolic Church was liquidated and put

Chapter 6
under the jurisdiction of the Armenian Church. This was a great
injustice against the Albanians, including the Udis. Work is under
way to restore justice and the rights of the Udis. The Azerbaijani
government provides the support needed by the Albanian-Udi
community and creates the right conditions for it.
BIMC has coordinated and carried out provisions in the Action
Plan for 2016 – Year of Multiculturalism in Azerbaijan, by instruction
of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan.

6.5. The Multiculturalism Policy of the Republic of

Azerbaijan and International Organizations

Multiculturalism policy is a successful model followed by many

states as a new political model in the context of globalization.
Fully ensuring the rights of indigenous national minorities or new
national minorities, which emerged as a result of migration, and
eliminating discrimination play a vital role in the sovereignty of
states.
Azerbaijan was unable to follow an independent foreign policy
when it was part of the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union
respectively. Only during the first, brief period of independence was
399
it able to determine its own policy. After 1991 Azerbaijan pursued
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

an independent foreign policy, turning multiculturalism into a

significant factor in its foreign policy.
To ensure its multicultural security, Azerbaijan created the
legislative base for the religions and national minorities that are
important components of multicultural society. In this context
Azerbaijan cooperates with the United Nations, Council of Europe,
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, European
Union, Organization of Islamic Cooperation and other international
organizations. To date Azerbaijan has signed over 50 international
documents and made important achievements in executing its
international obligations.
Azerbaijan joined the UN in March 1992 (for more, see Chapter
4). Azerbaijan’s supreme legislative body then approved two
significant conventions on national minorities and multiculturalism
policy: the Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to
National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities and the
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination.
Article 1 of the Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging
to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities, adopted
on 18 December 1992, says that the state guarantees the
protection of persons belonging to minorities and the preservation
of their customs and traditions. The declaration ensures the rights
of persons belonging to minorities to use their mother tongue in
their daily life and freely to practise their religion and enjoy their
culture. They can make contact with members of their own group
or other national minorities without any discrimination, even if they
live abroad.
The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms
400 of Racial Discrimination was approved and came into force by Law
of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan (No. IC 95) on 31

Section III
May 1996. In the convention the term racial discrimination means
any differentiation, exception and restriction on grounds of race,
colour or ethnic origin in the recognition, expression or execution
of human rights and freedoms on an equal basis in political,
socio-economic, cultural and social life. The Convention rules out
all differentiation, exception, restriction or preferential treatment
of citizens or non-citizens of states that are signatories to the
Convention.
It should be noted that the ideas and principles set out in this
Convention are the main areas of policy carried out by the Republic

Chapter 6
of Azerbaijan. The National Action Plan, approved by Instruction
of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan on 27 December
2011, makes the protection of rights and freedoms in the Republic
of Azerbaijan more effective. It should also be mentioned that
Paragraphs 1.1 and 1.2 of the National Action Plan emphasize the
protection of the rights set out in the International Convention
on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. These
paragraphs reflect the normative-legal acts of the Republic of
Azerbaijan which meet the requirements of international legal
documents and meet obligations originating in the international
treaties on human rights and freedoms supported by the Republic
of Azerbaijan.
The right to equality based on the International Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination is reflected in
Article 25 of the Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan, in the
Criminal Code, the Criminal Procedure Code, the Civil Criminal
Procedure Code, the Family and Labour Codes and other legislative
acts.
A Committee has been established to eliminate racial
discrimination on the basis of this Convention. The Committee 401
consists of 18 experts chosen by the member states. It is noticeable
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

that the powers of this Committee coincide with those of the

Committee on Human Rights. The only difference is that the
interstate complaint procedure reflected in the 1963 Convention is
compulsory. It means that any member state can complain to the
Committee about another member state if that state has ignored
or allowed racial discrimination in its territory, without giving prior
warning.
At present Azerbaijan cooperates with the Council of Europe,
which is one of the most important international organizations.
On 13 June 2000, the Republic of Azerbaijan joined the Council of
Europe framework Convention for the Protection of the National
Minorities. On 25 January 2001, the Republic of Azerbaijan was
elected a full member of the Council of Europe. At that time,
the National Leader of the Azerbaijani People Heydar Aliyev
determined the main areas of relations between the Republic of
Azerbaijan and the Council of Europe in his historic speech to the
Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe in Strasbourg.
The framework Convention for the Protection of National
Minorities is the first international treaty designed to protect the
rights of national minorities, but it does not mean prohibition of
fundamental rights (freedom of thought, conscience, religion,
peaceful assembly etc.) or discrimination in order to protect
national minorities, their culture and identity. Such fundamental
rights are also regulated by the 1948 Universal Declaration
of Human Rights. At the same time, the fundamental rights
determined by the Convention (the right to speak in one’s mother
tongue, the right to communicate freely with people of the same
ethnocultural, linguistic and religious identity etc.) refer to only
national minorities Therefore, Article 1 of the Convention states
402 clearly that the protection of national minorities and of the rights
and freedoms of persons belonging to those minorities are an

Section III
integral part of the international protection of human rights and
are, therefore, considered a part of international cooperation.
The aim of the framework Convention for the Protection of
National Minorities is to create conditions for the protection and
development of national minorities, which ensure the full and
genuine equality of national minorities and allow them to express
their national identity with respect for national sovereignty,
territorial integrity and the rule of law. The states which have
joined the Convention must refrain from policies or practices
aimed at assimilation of persons belonging to national minorities

Chapter 6
against their will; this is one of the most important provisions
in the Convention. Article 3 of the Convention says that every
person belonging to a national minority shall have the right
freely to choose to be treated or not to be treated as such and no
disadvantage shall result from this choice or from the exercise of
the rights that are connected to that choice.
As there are complicated legal and political stumbling blocks in
this sensitive sphere, the framework Convention does not define
the concept of a national minority but suggests the following
criteria: minorities determined by religion, language, traditions and
cultural heritage.
Every state that has ratified the framework Convention,
including the Republic of Azerbaijan, must report back in detail to
the Secretary-General of the Council of Europe within one year on
the legislative acts or other measures adopted in order to meet the
principles and provisions of the framework Convention.
What do legislative acts mean? They mean the reflection of the
main principles of the Convention in domestic legislation. What’s
most important is that as far back as 1992, three years prior to the
signature of the Framework Convention, the Republic of Azerbaijan
403
guaranteed the protection of the fundamental rights and freedoms
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

of national minorities and ethnic groups living in the country by

Decree of the President ‘On protecting the rights and freedoms of
national minorities and state support for the development of the
languages and cultures of national minorities, small nations and
ethnic groups, residing in the Azerbaijan Republic’. Many provisions
of the framework Convention, such as eliminating discrimination,
ensuring the free practise of religion, preserving cultural, linguistic
and religious identity and the right to get information in one’s
native tongue, were already in the Presidential Decree of 1992.
But other important provisions, such as the right to testify in one’s
mother tongue and the right to education in one’s mother tongue,
were reflected in legislative acts such as the Criminal Procedure
Code and the law on education.
The framework Convention for the Protection of National
Minorities sets out the following principles:

• No discrimination;
• Support to ensure equality among the national minorities and
majority of the population;
• The creation of favourable conditions for the development and
preservation of the cultures, languages, religions, customs and
traditions of national minorities;
• Freedom of speech, thought, conscience and religion;
• The right to education;
• Cross-border relations and cooperation;
• Participation in social, cultural and economic life, etc.

Although the states undertake great responsibilities towards

national minorities under the Convention, this does not allow
404
violation of the principles of political independence, territorial

Section III
integrity and sovereignty of the state.
The Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe monitors
the implementation of the provisions of the framework Convention
by the member states. In conclusion, it should be noted that any
state signatory to the Convention may at any time denounce the
framework Convention by means of a notification addressed to the
Secretary General of the Council of Europe. The denunciation takes
effect on the first day of the month following the expiration of a
period of six months after the date of receipt of the notification by

Chapter 6
the Secretary General.
The Republic of Azerbaijan signed The European Char­
ter for
Regional or Minority Languages as part of its cooperation with the
Council of Europe.
The most significant developments within the OSCE concerning
national minorities were decisions to protect national minorities;
the decisions continued in stages from 1973 to 1975, ending in
the signature of the Helsinki Final Act by 35 member states. This
Act talks about protecting minorities, rather than eliminating
discrimination. Although the Helsinki Final Act is not legally
binding, it is a very high level political statement. At the same
time, three other recommendations and one set of guidelines –
The Hague Recommendations Regarding the Education Rights of
National Minorities (1996), The Oslo Recommendations regarding
the Linguistic Rights of National Minorities (1998), The Lund
Recommendations on Effective Participation of National Minorities
in Public Life (1999) and Guidelines On the Use of Minority
Languages in the Broadcast Media (2003) – were adopted in order
to achieve the consistent and proper application of the rights of
minorities in the OSCE zone.
405
The OSCE has a High Commissioner on National Minorities. The
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

position was created in 1992 in order to combat large-scale ethnic

violence. The Commissioner’s role is to ease tension caused by
ethnic differences and prevent conflicts in the early stages and to
ensure peace and security among the member states.
The Republic of Azerbaijan’s cooperation with UNESCO is
very important in fostering and preserving the multicultural
environment in Azerbaijan. As part of this cooperation Azerbaijan
ratified the UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion
of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions in 2010. Moreover, the
Declaration on the Principles of Tolerance and Declaration on
Cultural Diversity, which are international UNESCO documents, play
a significant role in fostering tolerance in multicultural societies.
UNESCO adopted the Convention on the Protection and
Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions on 20 October
2005 at its 33rd session. The Convention entered into force on 18
March 2007. The Republic of Azerbaijan joined the Convention on
26 November 2009.
Before looking at the details of the Convention, it would be helpful
to consider what cultural diversity means. These are the diverse
forms in which the culture of individual groups and society is
expressed. These forms of expression are transmitted among these
groups and societies.
Self-expression is the result of the creativity of each individual,
group and society.
The Convention was adopted in order to:

• protect and promote the diversity of cultural expressions;

• to create the conditions for cultures to flourish and to freely
interact;

406
• to encourage dialogue among cultures with a view to ensuring

Section III
wider and balanced cultural exchanges in the world in favour
of intercultural respect and a culture of peace;
• to strengthen international cooperation and solidarity in a
spirit of partnership with a view, in particular, to enhancing
the capacities of developing countries in order to protect and
promote the diversity of cultural expressions.

The following important principles are enshrined in Article 2 of

the Convention:

• the principle of respect for human rights and fundamental

Chapter 6
freedoms;
• the principle of sovereignty;
• the principle of equal dignity of, and respect for, all cultures;
• the principle of international solidarity and cooperation;
• the principle of the complementarity of economic and cultural
aspects of development;
• the principle of sustainable development;
• the principle of equitable access;
• the principle of openness and balance.

The Declaration of Principles on Tolerance, which was adopted

on 16 November 1995, declares the necessity to promote tolerance
in society, because tolerance is not only a cherished principle,
but also a necessity for peace and for the economic and social
advancement of all peoples. Article 1 of the Declaration gives the
following definition of tolerance: ‘Tolerance is respect, acceptance
and appreciation of the rich diversity of our world’s cultures, our
forms of expression and ways of being human… Tolerance is
harmony in difference. It is not only a moral duty, it is also a political
and legal requirement.’ 407
Tolerance at the state level requires just and impartial legislation,
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

law enforcement and judicial and administrative process.

Article 2 of the Declaration makes clear that intolerance may
take the form of marginalization of vulnerable groups and their
exclusion from social and political participation, as well as violence
and discrimination against them. It is essential for international
harmony that individuals, communities and nations accept and
respect the multicultural character of the human family. The
Declaration says that the most effective form of struggle against
intolerance is education and upbringing. For the expansion of
tolerance everyone should be taught their rights and liberties, and
at the same time to respect the rights and liberties of others, too.
The signatory states to the Declaration declared 16 November
the International Day for Tolerance in order to generate public
awareness of the dangers of intolerance.
UNESCO adopted the Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity
in 2001. It is an international and universal document, consisting of
20 articles where the basic notions of cultural diversity and mutual
dialogue are explained. Paragraph 3 of the introduction to the
Declaration says that protecting cultural diversity is obligatory from
the point of view of respecting the honour and dignity of the person.
The UN General Assembly adopted a resolution on the declaration
on 20 December 2002 (No 57/249) and declared 21 May the World
Day for Cultural Diversity for Dialogue and Development.
As a multi-faith country, Azerbaijan is a striking example of the
equal treatment of all religions and the importance attached to
multicultural values. Freedom of religion is enshrined at the highest
level, the Constitution. It is an integral part of the human rights
enjoyed by everyone in the Republic of Azerbaijan.
Article 48 of the Azerbaijani Constitution (Freedom of conscience),
408 Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights,
Article 9 of the European Convention on Human Rights and

Section III
Fundamental Freedoms and the UN Declaration on the Elimination
of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion
or Belief have essentially the same meaning. According to the
norms set out in these conventions and declarations, anyone living
in the Republic of Azerbaijan is free to determine their attitude
towards religion, to profess any religion or none, alone or together
with others, to express their religious belief and disseminate it.
According to the Constitution, religion is separate from the state
in Azerbaijan, unlike in some countries, and freedom of religious
belief is an integral part of freedom of conscience.

Chapter 6
At a time when the multicultural environment is under threat in
various societies, Azerbaijan attaches importance to the policy of
multiculturalism and treats multicultural security as an integral part
of national security.

6.6. Multiculturalism and the National Diaspora

Over history Azerbaijan has evolved as a multicultural, cultural

and intellectual area and as a region where different cultures,
religions and civilizations coexist. Relations among the nations
and ethnic groups living in this area were based on tolerance
and created the Azerbaijani model of multiculturalism. This model
is based on the ideology of Azerbaijanism, the ideological and
spiritual foundation of the traditions of coexistence in this country.
Multiculturalism, tolerance and the ideology of Azerbaijanism
are, therefore, closely interrelated. The Azerbaijani model of
multiculturalism, a priority of Azerbaijan’s state policy, is the way of
life of every Azerbaijani.
The Azerbaijani diaspora consists of Azerbaijanis who have
migrated from their motherland for socio-political, socio-economic
409
or other reasons and live close together in communities in foreign
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

countries, preserving and developing their national and cultural

identity and keeping in touch with their motherland. They always
consider themselves Azerbaijanis because of their loyalty to the
moral, spiritual and cultural values of their nation. The Azerbaijani
diaspora exists mainly in the USA, Canada, Russia, France, Germany,
Great Britain, Turkey, the countries of the Commonwealth of
Independent States, and the Scandinavian and Baltic countries.
If we analyse the history of the formation of the diaspora of the
Republic of Azerbaijan, we can see that it has five stages:

• The first stage: in the early centuries of the Common Era and
the Middle Ages this was marked by political and military
events.
• The second stage: the migration of Azerbaijanis intensified as
a result of the conquest of Northern Azerbaijan by the Russian
Empire.
• The third stage: the fall of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic
and the establishment of Soviet power on 28 April 1920 led
to the migration of the political and national elite of the
Azerbaijani nation;
• The fourth stage: Azerbaijani prisoners of war in 1941-45 were
forced to remain in various countries;
• The fifth stage: the collapse of the USSR, the deportation of
Azerbaijanis from Armenia in 1988 and, finally, the expulsion
of Azerbaijanis from their land as a result of the military
aggression of the Republic of Armenia against the Republic
of Azerbaijan in 1992-94 and the occupation of Nagorno-
Karabakh and seven adjoining districts.

410
Although the history of migration of Azerbaijanis dates back

Section III
many centuries, the process of establishing and developing
Azerbaijani diasporas in the late 20th and early 21st centuries is
connected with the name of Heydar Aliyev, National Leader and
founder of the Republic of Azerbaijan. On his direct initiative
a special state body – the State Committee on the Diaspora
of the Republic of Azerbaijan – was instituted in order to unite
Azerbaijanis living in different parts of the world. The World
Congress of Azerbaijanis, as well as the universal formation and
development of the ideology of Azerbaijanism were also his
initiatives and have produced real results today. The policy of

Chapter 6
uniting Azerbaijanis around the world, pursued by Heydar Aliyev,
is successfully continued today by Ilham Aliyev, President of the
Republic of Azerbaijan. This policy serves the goal of creating a
single, integral and powerful Azerbaijani state in the near future.
It must not be forgotten that the only organization where all
the Azerbaijanis of the world are represented is the independent
and democratic state of Azerbaijan. The liberation of our holy
lands from the enemy and ensuring their security, achieving a
worthy place for Azerbaijan among the countries of the world
and its recognition by the world community is the duty of every
Azerbaijani, wherever in the world they may live.
In conformity with the law ‘On state policy on Azerbaijanis living
abroad’, Azerbaijanis living in foreign countries enjoy the same
rights as Azerbaijani citizens living in Azerbaijan. This unites them
around a national ideology, cultivates in them patriotism, love for
the motherland and ownership of their historical past and helps
these feelings to develop organically.
The national and spiritual unity of the Azerbaijani diaspora
received a substantial boost from historic meetings. Heydar Aliyev’s
annual address to Azerbaijanis around the world on 31 December,
411
the International Day of Solidarity of Azerbaijanis, and various
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

events in foreign countries were important in forming the diaspora

as an organized power and setting the priorities for the lobbying of
the Azerbaijani diaspora. The National Leader of Azerbaijan, Heydar
Aliyev, said in his address to Azerbaijanis around the world on 26
December 2000:

‘Good use must be made of the potential of the Azerbaijani

communities, cultural centres and friendship societies that are
already established in foreign countries. The history of countries
near and far shows that compatriots who live abroad in organized
communities and work with a clear purpose, united around a
unique national idea, who protect their progressive traditions are a
great help to their country and a very important factor in building
relations between their motherland and host countries.’

It is important to build relations among the organizations,

communities, associations and societies where Azerbaijani
diasporas live. Four congresses bringing together Azerbaijanis from
around the world were of historic importance in building relations
among the Azerbaijani diasporas. The First World Congress of
Azerbaijanis was held on 9-10 November 2001, the Second World
Congress on 16 March 2006, the third on 5 July 2011, and the
fourth on 3 to 4 June 2016.
Today President Ilham Aliyev, a worthy successor to Heydar
Aliyev, has raised the Azerbaijani diaspora to a new level of
development and keeps them in the focus of attention. Ilham
Aliyev’s policy on developing the diaspora is based on the ideology
and principles determined by Heydar Aliyev. The main purpose
of this policy is to unite Azerbaijanis living all over the world
in a single organization in conformity with the political course
determined by the National Leader.
412
The First Forum of the Heads of Azerbaijani and Turkic Diaspora

Section III
Organizations was held in Baku in September 2007, on the initiative
of President Ilham Aliyev. It showed that the Azerbaijani diaspora
has set major goals and that cooperation has been built among the
diaspora organizations of all Turkic-speaking peoples. The Baku
Declaration on the Strategy for the Joint Work of Azerbaijani and
Turkic Diaspora Organizations and other documents signed at the
forum determined the main principles and ideological and political
concept of the partnership of Azerbaijani and Turkic communities.
Every year Azerbaijani organizations and communities in
foreign countries commemorate the anniversary of the occupation

Chapter 6
of our territories and the bloody, mass crimes committed by the
Armenians during the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. They also ask
international organizations to punish the occupying country,
Armenia. The fact that the diasporas of other nations support the
Azerbaijani diaspora shows that the ideology of tolerance and
multiculturalism, the values of friendship and fraternity are not
ignored by other nations and even win their sympathy and love.
The ideology of Azerbaijanism that exists in different countries
is attractive for national diasporas from the socio-political point
of view, because it harmoniously embraces European and Turkic
values, their legacy and progress and the spirit of dialogue with
other cultures, both West and East.
The formation of a diaspora takes a long time, so the need
arises periodically to discuss pressing problems and issues. In this
context events both at home and abroad, attended by President
Ilham Aliyev, play an important role in shaping the diasporas.
President Aliyev issued an instruction on 11 August 2004 on the
development of a special Action Plan for the celebration of 2005
as the Year of the Republic of Azerbaijan in the Russian Federation
and the Year of the Russian Federation in Azerbaijan. The 413
Azerbaijani diaspora, the Congress of Azerbaijanis in Russia and the
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Federal National and Cultural Autonomy of Azerbaijanis in Russia

took an active part in the negotiations between the two countries
on this action plan.
President Ilham Aliyev held meetings with our compatriots living
in Russia and told them that they would always feel the support of
Azerbaijan, and that the Azerbaijani government would always take
care of them and pay attention to their needs. The President took
part in the St Petersburg International Economic Forum on 14 June
2014 and held meetings with representatives of the Azerbaijani
diaspora in St Petersburg. He assured them that new schools and
cultural centres would be opened in the city to help them preserve
their language, history and culture.
President Ilham Aliyev does not ignore the diaspora in other
countries either. For example, he spoke of the importance of
forming a diaspora in his address to the 24th Congress of the
Assembly of American-Turkish Associations in January 2004. He held
meetings with representatives of the local Azerbaijani community
in the USA on 26 April 2006, in Latvia on 5 October 2006, and in
Germany on 15 February 2007. He assured the representatives of
the diaspora organizations that the Azerbaijani government would
support them in raising awareness of Azerbaijan in the world.
The Second World Congress of Azerbaijanis held on 16 March
2006 helped to unite our compatriots living abroad around a
single ideology, giving a strong impetus to the process of diaspora
formation. President Aliyev’s historic speech at the Congress
determined the priorities for the next stage in establishing diaspora
organization and identified the new tasks to be done.
The realities of globalization set new goals for Azerbaijan
in diaspora formation. The creation of the State Committee for
414 Work with the Diaspora is another sign of the importance that
the Azerbaijani government attaches to the process of diaspora

Section III
formation. The Committee was established on the basis of the State
Committee for Work with Azerbaijanis Living Abroad under Decree
No. 54 issued by President Ilham Aliyev on 19 November 2008. The
regulations and structure of the State Committee for Work with the
Diaspora was approved by presidential decree on 14 May 2009.
The Third World Congress of Azerbaijanis held in Baku on 5-6
June 2011 set the ideology of national statehood at the foundation
of the latest stage in the work of the diaspora. The President’s
historic speech to the Congress set out the main priorities for the
new stage in the development of the diaspora, setting objectives.

Chapter 6
The work of the independent Republic of Azerbaijan to develop
the diaspora strengthens the national consciousness and loyalty to
the motherland of all Azerbaijanis.
President Aliyev considers the formation of the national
diaspora an urgent task, so he keeps it on the agenda in his
speeches, in documents signed by him, in his annual address to
Azerbaijanis around the world on 31 December and in meetings
held with representatives of the Azerbaijani communities abroad.
The idea of the national unity of our compatriots and the
establishment of organizations has been elevated to the level
of high state policy. Regular work is done in this field and our
compatriots living abroad are always aware of the care of the
Azerbaijani government and President Ilham Aliyev.
Azerbaijan is carrying out its historic mission to unite Western
and Eastern civilizations and successfully merge different cultures.
The policy pursued today helps strengthen partnership and
ensure peace and cooperation in the region and the world. The
international forums held at the initiative of Azerbaijan confirm that
the country is an active participant in intercultural dialogue and is
carrying out its historic, geographical, moral and cultural mission
successfully. 415
Questions
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

1. H
ow can the multicultural policy of the Republic of
Azerbaijan be seen in interstate relations?
2. W
hat can you say about the Baku Process and the stages of
its development?
3. W
hat events have been held as part of the Baku Process?
4. W
hat is the importance of the international forums held
as part of the Baku Process in terms of intercultural and
intercivilizational relations?
5. W
hat is the importance of teaching Azerbaijani
Multiculturalism as a discipline?
6. What are the goals of the Heydar Aliyev Foundation?
7. W
hat is the importance of the Heydar Aliyev Foundation’s
Azerbaijan –Address of Tolerance project?
8. W
hat events have been held as part of the Azerbaijan –
Address of Tolerance project?
9. W
hat religious monuments have been restored by the
Heydar Aliyev Foundation?
10. W
hat conferences have been organized by the Heydar Aliyev
Foundation to strengthen the traditions of multiculturalism
and tolerance?
11. W
hat can you say about the history of Baku International
Multiculturalism Centre and the instruction issued in
connection with it?
12. O
utline briefly the goals and objectives of Baku International
Multiculturalism Centre.
13. W
hat are the Baku International Multiculturalism Centre’s
main projects?
416
14. W
hat is meant by racial discrimination according to the

Section III
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination?
15. M
ay it be considered discrimination when a state treats its
own citizens differently from non-citizens?
16. H
ow is the idea of national minorities expressed in the
framework Convention for the Protection of National
Minorities?
17. Is the Helsinki Final Act on defending the rights of national
minorities legally binding?

Chapter 6
18. W
hat UNESCO documents on protecting the multicultural
environment has Azerbaijan signed?
19. W
hat are the stages in the formation of the Azerbaijani
diaspora?
20. W
hat can you say about the role of the National Leader of
Azerbaijan Heydar Aliyev in the creation and development of
the Azerbaijani diaspora?
21. W
hen were the world congresses of Azerbaijanis held?
22. W
hen was the State Committee for Work with the Diaspora
set up on the basis of the State Committee for the Work with
Azerbaijanis Living Abroad?
23. W
hat can you say about the role of President of the Republic
of Azerbaijan Ilham Aliyev in the development of an
Azerbaijani diaspora loyal to multicultural values?

References

1. Azərbaycan Respublikasının Konstitusiyası, Bakı, 1995.

http://www.e-qanun.az/?internal=view&docid=897&doctype=0
2. A
zərbaycan Respublikasında Ümumdünya Mədəniyyətlərarası
417
ialoq Forumunun təşkili barədə Azərbaycan Respublikası Prezi­
D
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

den­tinin Fərmanı. http://president.az/mobile/articles/2316

3. İlham Əliyev. III Qlobal Açıq Cəmiyyətlər Forumunun
açılışında çıxış etmişdir. http://president.az/mobile/
articles/15251
4. Prezident İlham Əliyev Dünya Azərbaycanlılarının Həmrəyliyi
Günü və Yeni il münasibətilə Azərbaycan xalqını təbrik edib.
h ttp://www.xezer xeber.com/gundem/107322/ilham-
eliyevdenazerbaycan-xalqina-tebrik
5. Bakı Beynəlxalq Multikulturalizm Mərkəzinin yaradılması haq­qın­
da Azərbaycan Respublikası Prezidentinin Fərmanı
http://www.president.az/articles/11740
6. Bakı Beynəlxalq Multikulturalizm Mərkəzinin Nizamnaməsi
h t t p : / / m u l t i k u l t u r a l i z m . g o v. a z / b a k i - b e y n e l x a l q -
multikulturalizmmerkezinin-nizamnamesi/358 Azərbaycan
multikulturalizmi
7. İlham Əliyev. İlham Əliyevin sədrliyi ilə Nazirlər Kabinetinin
2014-cü ilin sosial-iqtisadi inkişafının yekunlarına və 2015-ci
ildə qarşıda duran vəzifələrə həsr olunan iclası keçirilib.
http://www.president.az/articles/14007
8. İlham Əliyev. İlham Əliyev BMT Baş Məclisinin 65-ci sessiya­
sında çıxış etmişdir. http://president.az/articles/762?locale=az
9. İlham Əliyev. Prezident İlham Əliyev IV Ümumdünya
Mədəniyyətlərarası Dialoq Forumunun rəsmi açılışında iştirak
edib. 5 may 2017-ci il. http://azertag.az/xeber/1057274
10. Mehriban Əliyeva. Azərbaycan Respublikasının Birinci vitse-­pre­
zidenti xanım Mehriban Əliyevanın IV Ümumdünya Mədəniy­
yətlərarası Dialoq Forumunda çıxışı. http://www.azerbaijan-news.
az /index.php?mod=3&id=121348
11. A
zərbaycan diasporu: Böyük yolun başlanğıcı. Bakı, “Çaşıoğlu”,
2006.
418
12. A
zərbaycan diasporu. Ensiklopedik məlumat toplusu. Redaktor

Section III
və ön sözün müəllifi akademik Ramiz Mehdiyev, Diasporla İş
üzrə Dövlət Komitəsi, Bakı, 2012.
13. Dünya azərbaycanlılarının II Qurultayı, Bakı, 16 mart, 2016.
14. Qurultaya hesabat. Bakı, Adventa, 2011, 296 s.
15. “Milli və yaxud etnik, dini və dil azlıqlarına mənsub şəxslərin
hüquqları haqqında” Bəyannamə. 18 dekabr 1992-ci il.
16. “İrqi ayrı-seçkiliyin bütün formalarının ləğv edilməsi haq­
qında” Konvensiya. 21 dekabr 1965-ci il.
17. “Milli azlıqların hüquqlarının müdafiəsi haqqında” Çərçivə

Chapter 6
Kon­­­ven­siyası. 1 fevral 1995-ci il.
18. “Mədəni özünüifadə müxtəlifliyinin qorunması və təşviqinə
dair” Konvensiya. Noyabr 2001-ci il.
19. “Dözümlülük prinsipi haqqında” Bəyannamə. 16 noyabr 1995-ci il.
20. “Mədəni Müxtəliflik haqqında Ümumi Bəyənnamə” 2 noyabr
2001-ci il.
21. E
CRİ-nin Azərbaycan üzrə hesabatı (dördüncü monitorinq döv­
rü). 23 mart 2011-ci il.
22. Huntington S. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of
World Order. New York, Simon and Schuster, 1996.
23. Q
urbanlı M., Azərbaycanı tolerantlığın ən mükəmməl nümu­nə­
sinə çevirən Lider, 6 may 2015-ci il.
http://www.azerbaijan-news.az/index.php?mod=3&id=69030
24. Q
urbanlı M., “Azərbaycanın nümunəvi din siyasəti: uğurları­mız
və perspektivlər”, Dövlət və Din – № 12 (41), dekabr 2015.
Azərbaycan multikulturalizmi 359
25. Mükərrəmoğlu M., “Milli mədəniyyətimizin dünyaya inteqra­
siya­sında Azərbaycan diasporu əhəmiyyətli rol oynayır”, Xalq
qəzeti. – 2016, 6 yanvar. N 1. S. 5.
419
26. Mükərrəmoğlu M., Noyabrın 1-də “Gülüstan” sarayında
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

“Gənc­­lər sivilizasiyaların alyansı naminə” beynəlxalq konfrans

başlan­mışdır. “Xalq qəzeti”, 2007. 2 noyabr.- № 246, s. 3.
http://mehribanaliyeva.preslib.az/media-dd81ed5d3f.html
27. Rasimoğlu A., Heydər Əliyev Fondu ölkəmizin tərəqqisinə misil­
siz töhfələr verir. Azərbaycan. 2009, 22 avqust. № 185, s. 2.
28. Seyidbəyli Məryəm “Azərbaycan diasporu: tarix və müasirlik”,
Bakı 2016, səh. 397-416.

420
Chapter 7

Section III
AZERBAIJANI MULTICULTURALISM AND
WORLD MULTICULTURALISM MODELS

The previous chapters considered the Azerbaijani model of

multiculturalism, substantiating in scholarly terms the progressive
character of the Azerbaijani model of multiculturalism and its
management of ethnocultural diversity in the country. The

Chapter 7
main indication of this is the lack of ethnic, religious and racial
disagreements or conflicts in multicultural Azerbaijan.
As noted in Chapter 1, multiculturalism as a policy model for the
regulation of ethnocultural diversity first emerged in Canada and
then in several multicultural countries in Europe in the 1960s and
70s, and specific multiculturalism models were formed in a number
of countries. Comparison of world multiculturalism models with
the Azerbaijani multiculturalism model further enriches knowledge
of the policy of multiculturalism. This chapter, therefore, compares
the multiculturalism model of various countries with the Azerbaijani
model, seeking to define the similarities and differences.

7.1. Canadian Model

The North American country of Canada consists of ten provinces

covering a large area. It is the second largest country in the world
after Russia. The ethnic composition of the Canadian population
is also very diverse. Canada is a country with a cosmopolitan
population consisting of polyethnic and polyconfessional groups,
the result of waves of migration, alongside the local population
– Eskimos and Indians. Canada is unique in that it is one of the 421
rare countries to create the harmonious coexistence of people
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

who have all those differences both in individual and in social

life. This cosmopolitan environment created by migrants and
indigenous peoples has built a multicultural society in Canada.
Though the Canadian population is comprised of indigenous
peoples – national minorities and migrants, the so-called ‘internal
nation’, Francophones and Anglophones make up the main part
of the population. Thus, the ethnic and faith composition of
the population means that Canada can be called a multi-ethnic
state. Europeans, who settled in the area four centuries ago, live
alongside the aboriginal population who have been there for
thousands of years. The long process of immigration from different
countries has had a serious impact on the ethnic composition of
the population of the country. Now, Canadians of British descent
(13 million) and of French descent (9 million) comprise the majority
of the population. Other ethnic groups account for 33 per cent
of the population, while the local population accounts for just
1.3 per cent. Thus, the diverse ethno-confessional composition
of the Canadian population has created the model of Canadian
multiculturalism.
The idea of socialisation should be considered when studying
Canadian multiculturalism. Socialisation is the process by which
people become aware of belonging to a community. However,
in broad debates on multiculturalism in Canada, socialisation
is understood as a process of assimilation. This is the result of
the activity of racist practitioners directed against the policy
of immigration aimed at preserving their own cultural identity.
Changing the identity of immigrants to Canada, as well as the
Canadian identity given to Canadian-born children of immigrant
families are considered preferable to remaining as immigrants. In
this sense, the multiculturalism policy of Canada has many positive
422 aspects. Most important is the warm welcome to non-European
or non-Christian immigrants from the European Christians

Section III
who constitute the majority of the Canadian population. These
positive aspects also eliminate the uncertainty that concerns
ethnic Canadians. The modern life of Canada creates the idea of
a new and different individual in society, irrespective of language,
religion and ethnic origin. The idea of the individual has minimized
ethnicity-­based relations.
Current intellectual debates on the concept of multiculturalism
in Canada are based on the evaluation of the political demands
put forward by the Francophones with regard to the granting of
national minority status to the province of Quebec. In this sense,

Chapter 7
the first thoughts about multiculturalism were expressed in Cité
libre magazine, published by Pierre Elliott Trudeau in 1962. The
author emphasized that national minorities created the concept
of one nation and that it is possible to accept the legitimacy of
demands of a nation for autonomy. In his turn, Charles Taylor, in
his book The Pattern of Politics, published in 1970, focused on the
importance of Francophones in Canadian society. Based on his
research into French-speakers living in Canada, the author showed
that the idea of a special political status for the province of Quebec
was associated with the idea of strong asymmetric federalism.
Political issues such as ethnic minorities, cultural pluralism,
multiculturalism, and the policy of differentiation first emerged
in the Canadian context. In North America, two different societies
(Anglo-Saxon and French) with distinctive ethnicities have long
debated coexistence. Democratic discussions and initiatives put
forward by the British and French aimed at coexistence have
placed the Canadian model on the front line of the application of
the policy of multiculturalism worldwide. It is no coincidence that
the term multiculturalism has its origin in Canada. For the first time
in Canada multiculturalism has become a priority in state policy
directed at preser­
ving and developing the diverse ethnocultural 423
identities of the minority indigenous peoples alongside the two
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

founding peoples.
In Canada multiculturalism is both a sociological reality
and a political ideology. The former encompasses the diverse
ethnic mosaic of the Canadian people, while the latter enshrines
coexistence within this cultural pluralism through legislation.
Canada has lived through extensive waves of immigration since the
19th century. In the 1980s, immigrants of British and French origin
comprised 40 per cent of the population of the country. These two
societies are of great significance in the history of Canada, and
they are the two founding peoples of the Canadian state. Members
of these two peoples of European origin already constituted the
majority of the population of the country in the early 21st century.
The Federal Government officially started to implement the
policy of multiculturalism in the 1970s and 80s. The Canadian
people are multicultural, that is, they are composed not only of a
single nation, but of English and French-speaking immigrants and
ethnic minorities which is reflected in the Canadian Multiculturalism
Act (1988) and the Canadian Constitution. Accordingly, the country
has two official languages: English and French. French is the official
language of the autonomous province of Quebec. Though the state
is officially bilingual there are no two official cultures, because,
besides the English and French-speaking people, indigenous
peoples are also guaranteed the right to self-government, political
representation, the use of their mother tongue and the right to
protect their traditional economic structures.
Canadian multiculturalism gives broader rights to ethnic minorities.
In this sense, the Hutterites provide a good example of an
ethno-religious minority group. The tradition of the communal
ownership of property is still preserved by the Hutterites, as they
do not attach importance to private ownership. The Hutterite
424 church maintains a great ideological influence on its community.
Any member of the community who does not comply with the

Section III
religious rules is punished by the church. The church expels them
from the community and completely deprives them of their share
in the common property. These punitive measures are approved
as reasonable by the members of the ethno-religious group. If the
church deviated from this position, the Hutterite community might
be destroyed. Many of those who had been expelled from the
Hutterite community and deprived of property sought redress from
the Federal Court of Canada. However, in most cases, the Federal
Court did not satisfy the compensation demands of those expelled
from the community and defended the rights of the Hutterite

Chapter 7
community. This approach can be considered an example of the
specificity of Canadian multiculturalism based on collective rights.
The Canadian politician and philosopher Will Kymlicka, a
strong follower of the liberal tradition, who adhered to the
traditional principles of liberalism, argues that multicultural
rights can only be recognized under two conditions within the
framework of liberalism. The first of them implies the exclusion
of ‘internal restrictions’ within multicultural rights. In other words,
while claiming to protect their cultural identity, national, ethnic
or religious minorities cannot restrict the freedoms of other
individuals belonging to the group. Thus, some members of
minority groups may refuse to follow the traditional world view by
making use of their individual liberty. In this case, the individual
member of the minority group is accused of deviant behaviour by
the group or is deprived of many rights. However, liberal democrats
do not accept the legitimacy of such internal restrictions, and
prioritize individual freedoms (freedom of conscience and religion,
freedom of expression).
According to Kymlicka, the second limitation imposed by the
liberal movement on multicultural rights is ‘external protection’.
External protection prevents national and ethnic minorities from 425
being harassed by those constituting the majority of the population
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

in the country. On the other hand, it imposes restrictions on the

creation of hegemony of minorities over other groups, as well
as on the harassment of those groups as a result of the granting
of privileges to minorities. Thus, there is the possibility of
reconciliation between liberalism and multiculturalism policies,
provided that the two restrictions are put in place, and this can be
considered a model of liberal multiculturalism.
In our opinion, it is more appropriate to apply the model of
liberal multiculturalism than ‘communitarian multiculturalism’ in the
Republic of Azerbaijan, which has national and ethnic diversity and
a unitary political structure as well, because this model preserves
national-­ethnic diversity, and general integration (the idea of the
unified Azerbaijani people) is the main direction of the state policy.
The policy of multiculturalism in Canada is directed at the
protection of the ethnic heritage of the Canadians. It mainly
seeks to promote a tolerant attitude towards the people who
live in Canada and who are not ethnic Canadians. This policy
causes some contradictions between the proponents of liberal
multiculturalism and illiberals (communitarians). The adherents
of illiberal multiculturalism relate the formation of a coherent
identity of Canadians to their ethnic origin. But the proponents
of liberal multiculturalism argue that the formation of a unique
identity of individuals should be carried out in accordance with
their own private, individual choices. However, this policy seems
paradoxical in the Canadian context, because the concept of
liberal policy ultimately promotes the formation of identity within
the framework of a Canadian nation. According to the policy, the
more ethnic origins of minority individuals are promoted, the more
they consider themselves to be Canadians (i.e. the promotion of
diverse ethnic identities is important for the propagation of the
426 Canadian identity). How will this policy affect ‘the internal nations’?
There are two main internal nations in Canada. The first of them

Section III
are the Anglophones (English-speaking people) and the other
the Francophones (French-speaking people). The Anglophones
constitute more than half of the population of the country, while
the Francophones account for only one-third of the population in
Canada. Besides these two, there are minorities comprising a small
portion of ‘the internal nation’.
While being Canadian is an identification in the context of
the national minorities in Canada, Canadianness is the policy of
multiculturalism aimed at the secret integration of immigrant
groups at the expense of losing their cultural heritage. In 1996,

Chapter 7
86 per cent of the people living in Canada listed English or French
as their mother tongue, and only 1.7 per cent of the population
claimed to speak neither English nor French. In this regard, Evelyn
Kallen said that Canada should become a multilingual as well as a
multicultural society. All immigrants should be able to speak their
mother tongue and at the same time the Canadian government
should do as much as possible to assure that immigrants to Canada
retain their ancestral language and culture.
The government should give immigrants the opportunity
to preserve their languages, cultures, traditions and religions.
However, Kallen’s proposal for a multilingual and multicultural
society has some shortcomings. What happens if an immigrant
individual or group meets another ethnic minority? According to a
survey conducted in 1996, 36 per cent of the population had mixed
ethnic ancestries as a result of mixed marriages with multiple ethnic
ancestries.
In multiculturalism, ‘pluralism’ is the term suitable for racial
harmony and tolerance. For many proponents of multiculturalism
the main purpose of this policy is not only to protect pluralism
but also to support its effectiveness. The idea of Canadianness in 427
terms of national identity and shared values may arise through
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

pluralism. The emergence of the concept is only possible when

based on inter-group cooperation with many common experiences
and fundamental principles. The concept of citizenship in Canada
as well as in other countries has a wider framework than just formal
rights in terms of shared values and attachment to the country.
In a country where special feelings based on common values are
shared, national minorities and ethnic groups will be more closely
connected with each other. Social groups in many ways seem
very dependent on their ethnic origins, but this is not the case in
Canada, though the groups have connections with their history
and ethnic origins. Marriages between individuals belonging to
different groups emerged as a result of immigration. The Canadian
state does not attach importance to the ethnic and religious
identity of individuals closely linked with customs and traditions.
Therefore, Canadian society is regarded by many as an ideal one
which has the potential to solve the problem of individualism and
greatly influences modern Western society.

7.2. Multiculturalism in the United States of America

Discussions on multiculturalism in the United States of America

(USA) have developed for a variety of reasons. The first is the
policy of assimilation pursued towards the indigenous peoples
(aboriginals) living in the area before the discovery of the American
continent. Another reason is the bringing of large numbers of
African-born slave labourers to the American continent and
the subsequent assimilation process in order to overcome the
shortage of workers in the industrial and agricultural sectors of the
country. After the signature of the Declaration of Independence of
the United States, that is to say, after the political establishment
428 of the northern part of the country, the so-called ‘melting pot’
was formed with the aim of ensuring the unity of the European

Section III
immigrants and the Anglo-Saxons – this can be considered another
reason.
In addition to bringing to the fore their own language and
culture in comparison to subsequent new waves of immigrants to
the country, the European immigrants have been able to keep an
important place in the political and cultural life of the country, and
have created a unique demographic tableau through being ‘white’
and ‘Anglo-Saxon’. After the Anglo-Saxon immigrants, waves of
immigration from China, as well as from a number of countries in
Asia, and also from Latin America, have further enriched US cultural

Chapter 7
diversity. Latin American immigrants are distinctive in that they have
been able to preserve their languages and cultures, as well as to
maintain political, linguistic and cultural ties with their homeland,
unlike Chinese and other Asians. The aforementioned immigrant
groups are considered to belong to a more ‘alien’, different culture
compared to the Anglo-­
Saxon groups. The evaluation of these
groups, brought to the country for the purpose of work, as
representatives of an alien and distinct culture has led the Anglo-
Saxon and white factors to come to the fore in the formation of
political ideology in America. Ethnic discrimination later played a
part both in the assimilation of the indigenous people and in the
adaptation and ‘melting’ of immigrants into society. The ‘melting
pot’ and ‘Anglo-Saxon conformity’ models, as Kymlicka describes
them, have both been used together in certain cases. The ‘Anglo-
conformity’ model attaches great importance to the assimilation
of immigrants in order to forget their past and fully assimilate
to existing conditions. A society that attributes significance to
white thinking and has been formed on this socio-political basis
considers it expedient for emerging differences to pass through the
melting pot.
429
The Melting Pot
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

The United States received about one million immigrants from

the end of World War I to the early 1990s. The wave of immigrants
to the country came mainly from Western and Eastern Europe. The
settlement of those immigrants in big cities led to the creation of
an ‘immigrant problem’ in the country. The America of the 1960s,
as well as of previous years, was able to eliminate the differences
that emerged in the adaptation of immigrants to the socio-
economic structure of society. It consisted of the adaptation of
individuals and communities with different cultural characteristics
to the US ‘common’ economic and social ‘life’, ‘values’ and ‘life
style’, and in finding their own ‘place’ in this structure. Another
important aspect of this issue concerns the assimilation of ethnic
minorities into American values and life style.
It is very important to clarify the historical reasons for the
application of the assimilation policy. The preservation of difference
by many groups coming to the country with different cultures,
languages and religions alongside their integration into society
is among these historical reasons. Since the integration of these
groups into society resulted in a number of difficulties, the need
arose to find a solution to them. The challenges facing minorities
who integrate into US society have led both politicians and
intellectuals to use the concept of the melting pot instead of the
concept of assimilation to address those challenges. Since there
are a number of problems with the assimilation of diverse religious
groups, as stated by Herberg, it is important to create a different
melting pot in this regard.
Difficulties caused by religious assimilation have led to this
process almost losing its functionality, so the issue has become a
social problem. Glazer notes that although the history of waves
of migration to the USA of African Americans, Latinos, Jews, Scots
430 and Italians living in New York City predates the 20th century, they
have created a different social and economic environment. There

Section III
is some truth in Glazer’s words when he points out the economic
and social problems that emerged during the rapid integration
of different ethnic groups into the US before the 1960s. The
main problem of the USA, as a country with ethnic and religious
diversity, is the elimination of these differences in society, and
directing the differences towards social integration rather than
towards problems. At the same time, the emphasis on the ‘cult
of ethnicity’ in the concept of the melting pot has made this
issue even more problematic. Because the cult of ethnicity has a
communitarian nature, it has been shaped to expose the idea of

Chapter 7
the melting pot among both non-Anglo-Saxon Whites and non-
white groups, as well as to defy the concept of the individual, and
to protect and support other ethnic groups. In other words, the
cult of ethnicity rejected the idea that individuals of all nations are
melted into a new race of man. This factor also expresses the idea
that the United States of America is not a country of groups made
up of individuals, but rather a country comprised of social groups.
Ethnic thinking is a proof accepted by many Americans and the
issue of ethnicity is considered permanent and stable. In addition
to this argument, it should be noted that the cult of ethnicity is
also completely contrary to the theory of American history, which
portrays US society as an integrated whole.
The melting pot has meant the integration of ethnic minorities
into society as they renounce their cultural characteristics and
differences. To put it more precisely, the melting pot means
immigrants abandoning their own way of life, values and identity
in order to integrate into society. However, it would not be right to
call the melting pot an assimilation pot, because the melting pot
does not mean that all ethnic minorities have totally to renounce
their own differences and distinctive values. It was expected that
the cultural, religious, linguistic and social characteristics of ethnic 431
groups would integrate into society in the course of time as a
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

result of evolution. At the same time, the melting pot promotes

the biological mix through marriage, rather than the integration
of different ethnic groups and cultures. In this regard, Theodore
Roosevelt said: ‘The people belonging to different races of the old
world have got a new identity. However, the formation of the new
identity of the people by the melting pot took place from 1776 to
1879, and our nationality was determined by the people of the
Washington period.’

The Civil Rights Movement and the African Ameri­can

Statement of Equality
As the concept of the melting pot in the United States
refers to ethnic minorities, the African Americans fall outside
its scope. The African-American people have a distinctive place
in US multiculturalism policy, and their racial characteristics are
highlighted.
The concept of ‘us’ in the United States has a special status in
the social-cultural environment created by the Anglo-Saxon group.
The concept of ‘the other’, i.e. African American, should fit into
this socio-cultural environment. This racial discrimination emerged
as a social problem in the United States in the late 1940s. As
unemployment rose in Europe after World War II, the adaptation
of the African Americans to the society created by white people in
the US, as well as their social and economic status in that society
was another problem. US society was created by the conjunction
of the cultural, social and political characteristics of the Whites who
had previously migrated to the country, and also of other Whites,
who had later migrated to this area and adapted to the socio-
economic environment. However, from the late 1940s attempts
432 by the African Americans to enhance public activism and create
public and political unions, rather than simply being in the private

Section III
sector, posed the question of whether this society was acceptable
to African-Americans.
The civil rights movement is more effective in the political arena
of intergroup differences than cultural, religious and linguistic
differences. Thus, since 1950, the social movement organized
and led by African Americans, has put the protection of rights at
the forefront of the US political agenda. The elimination of racial
discrimination, particularly against African Americans, and the
principle of social equality were put before society at the outset of
the civil rights movement. The movement sought to end as soon as

Chapter 7
possible the racial discrimination that caused social segregation in
the United States and ensure the principle of equality in the social
sphere. At the same time, the civil rights movement worked for the
elimination of discrimination against the Blacks, positivity in their
social and political views, and towards ensuring equality of rights
and status of all people in society regardless of their race, ethnic
origin and religion. This movement, which sought to obtain all the
civil rights enjoyed by the Whites in the United States, required
that the citizen, i.e. not only one person, but everyone who has
an identity card and national status, has rights protected by law.
However, the civil rights movement subsequently headed in two
different directions because Black Muslims put forward their own
religious demands, which went beyond the scope of the struggle
for civil rights. That is to say, the participants in the movement were
no longer satisfied with the demand for national citizenship in the
struggle for equality, claiming that the struggle for equality should
be based on the identity of a particular group, and the identity
should be based on one of two grounds: ethnicity or religion.
The Civil Rights Movement was not only welcomed by the
US community, but played a major role in eliminating racial
discrimination against African Americans. In the 1980s, as a 433
result of the positive efforts made by this movement, good work
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

was carried out in the field of education; African Americans were

ensured equal rights to higher education, and new textbooks
were published. The positive aspect of the movement was that the
participants in the process aimed at achieving civil rights equal to
those of the Whites. The most important aspect of this activity was
to achieve the elimination of existing problems in society in the
interests of all ethnic groups. Thus, the positive solution to racial
discrimination instilled in society the idea of a positive response to
the beliefs of ethnic and religious groups in determining identity,
rather than internationalist confidence in civil rights.
This positive aspect of the movement resulted in negative
consequences for both Whites and Blacks. For the Whites, this
movement placed obstacles to smoother promotion prospects in
education and social spheres in comparison with Blacks, whereas
for the Blacks the civil rights movement caused difficulties in the
recognition and acceptance of their rights in society. However,
the liberals supported both the civil rights movement and the
continuation of positive action. They believed that both these social
processes could solve the problems of the African Americans from
the political point of view. Because the Blacks were considered to
belong to a lower social category from a socio-economic point of
view, they thought that the environment resulted from ‘othering’,
and where the ‘othering’ activities occupied an important place,
could only be resolved within the framework of equality. Overall,
this movement and action gave an impetus to the development
of multiculturalism in the United States and contributed to the
creation of the US model of multiculturalism.

434
Asian Americans and Hispanics

Section III
The term Asian Americans refers to groups who immigrated
from Asia to the United States in order to work or for other
purposes from the earliest days of the US to the present time.
However, the phrase does not encompass the highest social
category in society. It shows itself in ethnic and linguistic
differences, for the Chinese and Japanese constitute the majority
of immigrants from Asia. At the same time, there are quite a lot of
migrants from Eastern Asia and Indo-China.
The most important feature of the Asian Americans coming to
the United States is their lack of a colonial mentality In other words,

Chapter 7
unlike the Africans, the Asian Americans were not brought to
America by force and exploited as a result of events that occurred
in colonies. As Jopken says, the Asian people with no such history
have succeeded in education and business. At the same time, since
the Asians have not been subjected to the racial discrimination
experienced by African Americans, the civil rights movement and
positive action have not come to the fore either.
The Hispanics are numerically the largest ethnic group in the
United States. They also differ from other ethnic minorities in
terms of growth. As waves of migration of people of Spanish origin
continue, their natural progression also steadily increases. If this
process continues, in the next few decades one in four people
living in the United States will be of Spanish origin. According to a
survey conducted in 2000, one in seven US citizens was of Spanish
descent. They live mainly in Texas, California, Chicago, New York
and Miami. This ethnic group, called Latino, has been formed as a
result of waves of migration from Mexico, Cuba and South America
to the United States since the beginning of the 19th century. People
belonging to this ethnic group are called Latinos because they
speak a Latin language. The main characteristic of immigrants of
435
Latin American and Mexican origin is their ability to preserve their
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

culture and language and at the same time to keep strong ties with
their motherland.

General Assessment of US Multiculturalism

Multiculturalism in the United States emerged as a result of
two different factors. The first is the civil rights movement, and the
second the arrival of immigrants of Latin American origin. Both
factors emerged as a way of resolving the differences between
‘unity’ and ‘diversity’ in the United States. The US policy of
multiculturalism has prioritized shaping social identities and political
interests and also put ethnic diversity in the foreground as well.
Laying a stress on ethnicity is of great importance in society.
Kymlicka says that the ‘social culture’ owned by certain members
of society and the linguistic and historical background derived from
this social culture reveal the ability of individuals to be aware of
their own attitudes and differences.
Ethnic minorities seek recognition in order to protect individuals
in society from the melting pot or assimilation policy imposed
by the mainstream. These demands from ethnic groups and their
desire to protect themselves from the mainstream are a challenge
to the concepts of liberal policies and society. However, the claim
that the United States is multicultural in the political and social
spheres makes these demands reasonable. The problem mainly
concerns viewing immigrants and other ethnic groups as national
minorities, because considering them as a national minority leads
to increased political diversity and to the abstraction caused by
racial discrimination.
Multiculturalism in the social life of the United States is possible
with emphasis on similarities rather than differences. Will the
differences in social life be really welcomed, should there be a
436
redesign of the events on 11 September 2001? The political issues

Section III
that arise from the clash of civilizations thesis, the elimination of
racial discrimination and the attitude towards cultural diversity
remain objects of discussion. Thus, in the wake of the events of 11
September 2001, the problem of the assimilation of various ethnic
and religious groups in the United States began to be discussed in a
national context.
The idea of multiculturalism, which contradicts the Anglo-
Saxon conformity in the US of the 1960s, was an attempt to
show that the United States was a multicultural country rather
than a monocultural one, emphasizing the formation of various

Chapter 7
multicultural ethnic and religious groups in the country. However,
the events of 11 September 2001 turned the attitude towards the
distinctive features of ethnic minorities from positive to negative.
These events also led to a reconsideration of multiculturalism not
only in the United States, but in the whole of Europe, and in some
cases caused the rejection of this policy. Conservatives, particularly
in the United States, are sceptical about a tolerant attitude towards
different social groups in society, which has ultimately led to the
return of the old model to the agenda.

7.3. Australian Model

Another country that like Canada officially implements a policy

of multiculturalism is Australia. A large number of aboriginal
peoples inhabited the Australian continent before the settlers of
European descent came to the area.
Immigrants from Europe have formed the majority of the
population of modern Australia since the early 19th century.
Australia is a multicultural nation. After World War II, seven
million people immigrated to the country. Almost a quarter of
437
the population of Australia was born overseas. In addition to
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

immigrants, there are over 270 indigenous peoples in Australia who

speak 260 languages and identify with various tribal ancestries.
The Australian government is founded on the principles of
justice and integration while considering multiculturalism to be in
the national interests, as well as in the interests of all social groups
of the population. This policy encompasses cultural, religious
and linguistic issues. The phenomenon of cultural pluralism is
considered to be an Australian national asset. The multicultural
policy of Australia embraces the development of all common
values and cultural traditions. This policy creates opportunities for
everyone who considers themselves an Australian to protect their
own mother tongue and traditions without being discriminated
against, within the framework of the law.
The principles of Australian multiculturalism are as follows.
The Australian government highly appreciates and welcomes
the cultural diversity of the population of the country. This policy
largely focuses on the unity of the people, harmony in diversity
and the application of democratic values. The realization of cultural
diversity is a factor enriching the Australian people. Therefore, the
state recognizes and promotes cultural diversity on the basis of
legislation.
The Australian government is interested in building a fair,
inclusive society where all members of the population benefit from
the services and opportunities offered by the state. Regardless of
ethnic roots, every citizen has the opportunity to contribute to
the socio-economic and cultural life of Australia. The government
removes the barriers preventing those from culturally and
linguistically diverse backgrounds from joining government
programmes and ensures that the policy pursued in this direction is
equally accessible to all.
438
The Australian government highly values the economic benefits

Section III
of multiculturalism. The new labour force formed as a result of
immigration is considered to be the most valuable economic power
of Australia. Immigration and cultural diversity here give vitality to
economic life and increase the wealth of the country.
The Australian government rejects racism, discrimination,
intolerance, and bias. The government takes action against racism
and intolerance by anti-discrimination laws and appropriate
legislation.
The Australian government has established the Australian
Multicultural Council with the purpose of developing multiculturalism.

Chapter 7
The Multicultural Council explores the current issues of
multiculturalism in the country and gives recommendations to
the government in this area. Moreover, grants are allocated for
projects for multicultural arts and festivals in Australia, and sports
competitions with the participation of young people from different
ethnic backgrounds are organized. The multicultural policy of
Australia is one of the most successful models of multiculturalism
in the world.

7.4. General Review of European Multiculturalism

Multiculturalism is considered a question of ensuring the

harmony and coexistence of different cultures in modern European
countries. In this context, the multiculturalism policy of coexistence
of various ethnic and religious groups, as well as harmony based on
diversity, can often become the subject of heated debates mainly
in Britain and other European countries, including Switzerland,
the Netherlands, Germany and France. But increasingly anti-
immigration ideas are overshadowing the policy of multiculturalism
in Europe.
439
As a result of labour migration in Europe, various European
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

nations have come together in large industrial cities sharing

universal capitalism and liberal values of civilization and have
adopted the identity of a single nation. They have already been
recognized by their political and national identity, rather than
ethnic and religious. The paradigm of the nation based on the
ideas of secularism put an end to a centuries-old conflict as well
as civil wars between Catholics and Protestants in Europe, ensuring
their coexistence.
Today it is not possible to talk about a titular ethnos either in
Europe or the United States. Because of long-term migration
these countries have eliminated the concept of a titular ethnos. In
fact, the ethno-social mosaic of these countries, which has always
existed under the name of religious identity and civil nationalism,
shows that these societies have never been monocultural. The
super-ethnic indicator maintains itself in the single language
of these countries. But while the ideology of nationalism of
monoculture creates a myth about the existence of a single nation,
cultural minorities have preserved their existence in regions under
the shadow of this myth and have added colour and richness to a
single nation.
People who do not have religious or ethnic identity in Europe
often find themselves forced to join those groups, because
only groups and communities (their schools, theatres, clubs,
organizations, etc.) from different cultures are financed by
governments as they pursue the policy of multiculturalism.
This mechanism creates conditions for the establishment and
development of a state within the state. Traditions within these
groups and communities are strengthening and the cultural
revival here begins to be more passionate and ra­dical. In this
regard, Muslims in Europe are more involved in radical religious
440
communities. Within such radical communities, freedom of thought

Section III
and expression is restricted and human rights are violated.
Since these communities and groups are mainly closed, such
violations of rights are ignored by the law-enforcement authorities.
This tendency is expected to deepen even further and lead to the
gradual increase in independent self-governing communities within
a multicultural management system. It would also reduce the
burden of responsibility on the government.
If we take a general look at the European Union,
multiculturalism is welcomed by Germany, the Netherlands, the
Scandinavian countries and the United Kingdom. The rights of

Chapter 7
national minorities are ensured in these countries, although not
on the same level as in the Canadian or Australian models of
multiculturalism. These rights include mother tongue education,
increase in political activity of marginal groups, the imposition
of legislative compromises in order to implement religious and
traditional laws, etc.
As has been mentioned in the previous chapters, ideas about
the failure of multiculturalism in Europe have been voiced recently.
One of the causes of the current situation is the rise in the political
activity of ultra-right political parties advocating racism and
nationalism in a number of European countries. The politicians
from these parties are creating their own electorate by expressing
strong opinions about alien cultures in populist terms. Though
the supporters of these parties in Europe are not large in number,
the prevailing situation shows a decline of interest in European
multiculturalism. From this point of view, some legal limitations are
being imposed on immigration in a number of countries, especially
in the Netherlands; the acquisition of citizenship is becoming
more complicated, while the conditions for the revocation of
citizenship are simplified. All this brings into question the future
441
of multicultural Europe, making inevitable a policy towards the
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

protection of the multicultural values of the European states.

Now, let us look at the models of multiculturalism in different
European countries.

7.5. Multiculturalism in the UK

The policy of multiculturalism in the UK is primarily related to

the rights of immigrants. Ensuring the multi-ethnicity rights of
immigrants in this country is one of the priorities of the policy of
multiculturalism. However, it should be taken into consideration
that the way of life, values, and moral norms of the Anglo-Saxon
population are in a dominant position in British society. From
this point of view, social groups belonging to other cultures are
likely to integrate into the values of the ruling class. When there
are contradictions between the two cultures, no social group can
be British, while preserving their own cultural and ethnic identity.
Dual ethnocultural identity can only be realized here in the light
of dominant values. If the mentality of an ethnic group (immigrant
group) is not compatible with British culture, then it is possible to
integrate into society only when cultural roots are forgotten. In
the UK, respect for and tolerance of an alien culture can only be
displayed if the culture is compatible with the values of the ruling
class. That is to say, it is possible to benefit from multi-ethnic rights
after adopting the inherent values of British identity.
Multi-ethnicity rights are minority rights that make it easier for
the ethno-confessional groups composed mainly of immigrants
to express their cultural identities. The controversial issue here
is that some laws make concessions to the ethno-confessional
groups. For example, Muslims and Jews in the UK demand that
the laws prohibiting the slitting of animals’ throats should not
442 apply to them. But within the framework of ensuring freedom of
religion and belief, the law grants privileges to the Muslims and

Section III
Jews. Taking into account religious beliefs, the government allows
Muslims and Jews to slaughter animals in this way. Similarly, the
existing laws in Germany grant concessions to Muslims and Jews
concerning the slaughtering of animals and circumcision of young
boys.
The application of concessions and exceptions over regulation
clothing for Muslim women who work in the civil service in the UK,
and permission to wear traditional clothes for people of the Sikh
religion are good examples. In order to exercise the freedom of
religion, a Muslim woman while working in any job for the state

Chapter 7
(for example, a police officer) may wear a headscarf in addition
to the regulation clothing. Anyone belonging to the Sikh religion
who wishes to follow those traditions is granted some privileges
concerning traffic rules: if a Sikh wears a traditional turban, then
he is not obliged to wear the motorcycle helmet stipulated in the
traffic rules.
It has been noted above that the values accepted in society
should be adopted if minorities are to enjoy multi-ethnicity
rights in the UK. This means that members of ethnic and religious
minorities should respect and obey the accepted norms and values
of the country in order to preserve their own ethnocultural values.
However, some members of ethnic and religious minorities are
reluctant to adopt these values for various reasons. They prefer
to live with their own ethnocultural values, and do not want
to integrate into the society they have settled in. As noted in
subchapter 2.4, the former British Prime Minister David Cameron
argued that the present-day policy of multiculturalism was
ineffective because ethnic and religious minorities settled in the UK
did not want to integrate into society.

443
7.6. Multiculturalism in France
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

The laws prohibiting religious symbols in public schools in

France and the demands made by Muslim girls for an exemption
within the framework of freedom of religion or belief constitute
an example of polyethnic rights. However, these examples are not
typical of French society and polyethnic rights are not allowed.
Given the importance attached to the principle of secularism by
French society, there are no exceptions to the laws in this context.
France is a secular state according to the Constitution. For this
reason, society and political power consider the display of religious
beliefs and symbols in the public sphere to be inappropriate. Since
2004, Muslim girls have been prevented from wearing headscarves
in public schools, and other prohibitions have been imposed on
followers of the religion as well.
Although there is no official definition of the term ‘secular’ in
French law, in the legal sense, the term refers to the absence of a
dominant religion in the state, non-clericalism, the separation of
religion and the state, legislative authorities that are not based
on religion, and the principle of an impartial state approach to
all religious confessions. At the same time, secularism in France
is regarded as the liberation of the social sphere from religious
expressions, and also as a guarantor that the social sphere is not
exposed to religion. It is generally said that secularism in France
allows religion only at the individual level.
Discussions about the recognition of ethno-confessional groups
in France began in the 1980s. Along with political and economic
problems in France, integration and immigration issues in Europe
came to the fore in this period. The French system created the
French melting pot (assimilation) model that envisaged the
integration of migrants into the existing socio-political structure
444 (naturalization), thus moving away from multiculturalism.
The French government tries to solve the problems encountered

Section III
by the ethno-confessional groups, formed by migration, on the
basis of integrating them completely into French culture. More
precisely, it wants to turn people from ethnic communities into full
French citizens. The French model is different from multiculturalism,
where different social groups continue their coexistence. It should
also be said that the republican ideology maintains its importance
in France. According to this ideology, every French citizen is free
and enjoys equal rights, irrespective of ethnic origin.
France clearly sees itself as a multicultural society. The main
reason for this is the realization of the republican ideology and

Chapter 7
the nation-state political system. The French nation-state model is
based on the idea of an equal (one type) French citizen.

7.7. Multiculturalism in Germany

The Federal Republic of Germany, one of the biggest countries

in Western Europe, consists of 16 federal states. Germany was one
of the authors of the idea of the European Union. The population
of the country is more than 81 million. Germany is also a leading
country in terms of the number of migrants. Nowadays, more than
16 million migrants live in the country. Most of them are ethnic
Germans, Turks and Poles, who came from less developed countries
to work in Germany. German multiculturalism is connected with the
protection and development of the rights of migrants.
However, during a meeting with young members of the
conservative Christian Democratic Union Party in October 2010,
German Chancellor Angela, Merkel openly stated that programmes
to establish multiculturalism in Germany had utterly failed. After
this, the idea of the failure of multiculturalism in Europe began to
be voiced more frequently. Chancellor Merkel also emphasized
the importance of integrating migrants working in Germany 445
into the German language and German culture. She said that
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

since the thesis that migrants should return to their countries

is not appropriate, it is more acceptable for them to remain in
the country. Nevertheless, the social group formed as a result
of immigration still does not learn German, works in low-paid
jobs (without a contract), and evades payment of taxes to the
state budget. If the current situation continues unchanged, the
German economy is very likely to suffer. The isolation inflicted on
migrants has indeed resulted in the failure of multiculturalism in
Germany. The German government does not accept the isolationist
multiculturalism created in this situation.
Besides the Turks, there are some two million other immigrants
from nearly 40 countries in Germany. About half a million of them
are Muslims from the Middle East and Africa, and the rest are
mostly from the former Yugoslavia. Unlike the Turks, they have to
speak German among themselves. Since the Muslims cannot speak
a single language among themselves, they cannot form themselves
into a single culture. Therefore, the Turks constitute the centre of
Islamic culture in Germany, both in terms of numbers and cultural
associations. Three-quarters of the Muslims are practising and visit
mosques. Sunnis make up the majority. However, the government
does not create conditions for the Muslims in Germany to have
a single centre and to form a single lobby movement to protect
their rights. There is the Central Council of Jews in Germany
supported by Israel and international Jewish organizations, both
financially and spiritually. They receive all types of support from
the German government in the field of education, financial security
and rights. Although the Muslim immigrants were able to create
the Association of Islamic Cultural Centres, there is no support
for this organization from the governments of Muslim countries.
The Muslim governments do not support this organization.
446
Nevertheless, Muslims living in Germany continue to build

Section III
mosques, celebrate religious festivals and teach Islam.
As a way out, the German government sets some requirements
for immigrants who want to remain in the country: First of
all, they must learn the German language, even if they have
little participation in social life. The second requirement is that
immigrants should adopt German culture. It is important for the
successful integration of immigrants into German society and for
social cohesion.
Since the very beginning of its work, the Baku International
Multiculturalism Centre (BIMC) has sought to achieve the goals set

Chapter 7
by Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev and to promote Azerbaijan
as a multicultural centre in the world. One of the goals is to provide
the necessary moral support for the opening of BIMC branches in
foreign countries, as set out in the presidential decree of 11 March
2016 ‘On the Approval of the Action Plan on 2016 as the Year of
Multiculturalism in the Republic of Azerbaijan’ (Article 32). At present,
the Centre has branches in Dresden (Germany), Lisbon (Portugal),
Rome (Italy), Moscow and Yekaterinburg (Russia), Tel Aviv (Israel),
Chisinau (Moldova) and Sofia (Bulgaria). These branches perform the
mission of honorary ambassadors, thus helping to make Azerbaijan’s
voice of truth and justice heard in the international arena.
The first BIMC branch began its work on 22 January 2016 in
Dresden, Germany. Opening the first BIMC branch in Germany,
where debates and discussions have led to the rejection of
multiculturalism, was a historic event in terms of raising awareness
of Azerbaijan. It was appropriate that it should have been in
Dresden, where a manuscript of The Book of Dada Qorqud
(Kitabi Dada Qorqud), which preserves the spiritual energy of the
Azerbaijani people, is housed in the university library. The German
scientist Birgit Weissgerber is the head of the Dresden Branch of
Baku International Multiculturalism Centre. 447
7.8. Multiculturalism in Switzerland
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

The Swiss Confederation, which is considered one of the most

developed countries in the world, is a federal republic. It consists
of 26 cantons or administrative territories. It borders Germany in
the north, France in the west, Italy in the south, and Austria in the
east. With an area of 41,277 sq. km, the country has a population
of about 8.5 million, which is approximately the same as the
population of the Republic of Azerbaijan in terms of numbers
(according to estimates for mid-2016).
Switzerland is among the most diverse, unique countries of the
world. This small European country has many features considered
to be its hallmark.
Known for its chocolate, cheese and very accurate watches,
Switzerland has strong mechanical engineering, chemical and
pharmaceutical industries. It is also the world’s most important
financial and banking centre.
Switzerland is also unique in the political sphere. First of all,
it is the oldest federal state in Europe and the world, formed on
the basis of historical traditions including territorial and linguistic
unity. Although the Constitution has granted each canton the right
to withdraw from the Confederation since 1848, no canton has yet
exercised that right. Another distinctive feature is the principle of
direct democracy. Any citizen of the country can submit any issue
to a general vote (referendum) by collecting a total of 100,000
signatures.
Switzerland is also unique in its policy of neutrality. The
neutrality of Switzerland was guaranteed by the Congress of Vienna
in 1815. Since that time, Switzerland has not participated in any
war, including the two world wars in the 20th century. However, it is
448 interesting that $3 billion are allocated to the military budget every
year. The country is also home to the International Committee of

Section III
the Red Cross (ICRC), founded in February 1863 in Geneva. It is
no coincidence that the flag of Switzerland closely resembles the
official flag of the ICRC.
When talking about Switzerland, the first thing that comes
to mind is its linguistic and cultural diversity. According to some
researchers, multiculturalism was first used as a term in Switzerland
in 1957. The country has used this term with reference to its four
national languages. Since 1971, the meaning of the term has
expanded to include cultural diversity in addition to linguistic and

Chapter 7
religious diversity.
The role of linguistic factors in Switzerland is so great that the
formation of the country is based on the unity of territorial and
linguistic factors, rather than geographical ones. Researchers note
that the centuries-old success of Swiss multiculturalism is linked to
multilingualism, and this success is the result of the coincidence of
linguistic and cultural boundaries with territorial borders. Article
4 of the Constitution of the country specifies that four languages
(German, French, Italian and Romansh) are the national languages
of Switzerland. One of these languages is dominant in each canton.
Looking at the culturally and linguistically diverse composition
of the cantons, German is the most widely spoken language in
Switzerland. German is the official language of 17 Swiss cantons,
whereas French is the official language in seven cantons, Italian in
two cantons, and Romansh only in one canton.
One of the main features of the Swiss model of multiculturalism
is that the country arose from the merger of three great European
cultures – German, French and Italian. Each canton lives and acts in
accordance with its own culture, history, language and religion. At
the same time, every citizen of Switzerland has threefold citizenship
449
– municipal, cantonal and federal. Multiculturalism is considered to
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

be one of the national symbols of the Swiss Confederation.

The way of coexistence in Switzerland has not been shaped by
a large number of immigrants, as was the case in the United States,
Canada and Australia. Switzerland is not a country of immigrants.
The historical roots of the polyethnic, multi-confessional society
here date back to olden days. The different nations have lived
together for centuries. Federalism has united multifaceted Swiss
society for hundreds of years. Historically, the territorial-linguistic
federalism has been regarded as an important political heritage
and value, thus saving Swiss society from division into religious and
linguistic communities.
In the Preamble to the Swiss Constitution, the phrase ‘diversity
in unity’ clearly expresses the meaning of multiculturalism in
the country. As well as constituting the pivot of Swiss federalism,
multiculturalism also proves to be supra-constitutional. The
paradox is that it maintains the philosophical idea of ‘diversity in
unity’, which has existed for centuries, as a legal expression of the
real cultural diversity of the country, as well as the principle of
constitutionalism and the foundation of federalism.
The unity of statehood and political institutions for all members
of the Confederation constitutes the basis for the national unity
and solidarity of the people who are diverse in terms of culture,
language and religion. The peculiarity of the Swiss model of
multiculturalism lies in the further strengthening of this tradition
of society through socio-political, legal and cultural institutions
and mechanisms on the one hand, and in maintaining common
activities aimed at preserving specific identity on the other hand.
In the 20th century Swiss society was radically changed as a result
of the wave of student protests, which broke out across Europe in
450 1968. Especially in recent decades, the number of people who do
not regard themselves as belonging to any particular religion has

Section III
increased. Today they comprise more than 11 per cent of the total
population. On the one hand, religious and spiritual values have
become less important for people, and on the other hand, there
is an opportunity for more open and broad discussion of existing
problems. At present, language is a more important factor than
religion for stability in society.
According to the 2012 Federal Census, the religious affiliation of
the population is as follows:
Roman Catholic Church 38.2 %
Protestant Reformed Churches 26.9 %

Chapter 7
Other Christian Churches 5.7 %
Judaism 0.3 %
Other Churches and Religious Communities 1.3 %
Islamic Religious Communities 4.9 %
Those who claim to have no religious affiliation 21.4 %

7.9. Multiculturalism in Portugal

Steps are being taken to protect multiculturalism in the

Portuguese Republic, which has a population of 10.5 million. The
country is combating racial, religious and ethnic discrimination.
The Portuguese government is implementing special measures in
education, culture, the economy and other areas in order to create
an inclusive society*.
Unlike the Republic of Azerbaijan, Portugal has traditionally
been a country of emigration. The active wave of emigration from
Portugal dates back to the age of geographical discoveries starting
in the late 15th century. This process continued in subsequent
*
An inclusive society is one that respects and values the diversity of others. It unites
all people on the basis of equal rights, irrespective of race, religion, nationality, lan-
guage, sex, origin, faith or public and political affiliations. 451
periods and about two million Portuguese emigrated to Brazil
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

and the United States from the mid-19th to the middle of the 20th
century.
In the late 1950s, emigration from Portugal increased to meet the
growing demands and expanding labour market in Northern and
Central Europe. Over the next 15 years, emigration from Portugal
continued apace for both economic and political reasons (more than
1.5 million emigrants). Some of the emigrants left Portugal as a result
of the dictatorial regime in the country in 1926-74.
Waves of immigration alongside emigration have also shaped
cultural diversity in Portugal at different times. At the end of the
15th century, the city of Lisbon was known for its cultural diversity.
The geographical location of the city made it attractive for
merchants and travellers from England, the Netherlands, Spain and
Italy. In the first half of the 16th century, Lisbon was the European
city with the greatest number of inhabitants of African descent (10
per cent of the population).
Many researchers have called Portugal a ‘country of
immigration’ since 1993. The flow of immigrants into the country
has continued to grow since that time. While na­
tural movement
within the country has decreased, migrants have become a key
component of the total population.
In 2000-10, the flow of migrants to the country from South
America, particularly Brazil, increased from 17 to 28 per cent.
During that period, the number of arrivals from Asian countries
(mainly China) increased from 2.8 per cent to 6 per cent. On the
contrary, the number of migrants from Portuguese-speaking
countries decreased from 44 per cent to 24 per cent.
Portugal has had a unique form of religious diversity
throughout its history. In a country where the Catholic Church
dominates (about 90 per cent of the population are Catholic),
452 people of different faiths and beliefs live side by side in peace.
Recent waves of immigration have been instrumental in the

Section III
development of Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist, and Orthodox Christian
communities.
Azerbaijani multiculturalism has been able to open the doors
of Portugal, as another leading European country. On 15 February
2016, a branch of Baku International Multiculturalism Centre was
established at Lusófona University in Lisbon, Portugal. The head
of the representative office is Teresa Damásio, professor at the
university.

7.10. Multiculturalism in Spain

Chapter 7
During the period of the Emirate of Cordoba in Spain, the
followers of the three monotheistic religions – Christianity, Islam
and Judaism – lived side by side in peace, hence the expression
‘Spain of three civilizations’. Monuments representing the unity of
the three cultures are especially numerous in the southernmost
region of Spain, Andalusia.
The phrase ‘Toledo of three cultures’ is popular among tourists
visiting the city. Toledo is a reflection of a forgotten period of
tolerance and proof of the favourable multicultural conditions
that existed in Spain in the past. The famous Toledo School of
Translators (Escuela de Traductores de Toledo) is a good example
of the success­
ful coexistence of different civilizations. The old
manuscripts discovered by Christians there were translated
by Christians, Muslims and Jews. One of the most interesting
monuments is the Synagogue of Santa Maria la Blanca, which was
built in 1180 and is considered one of oldest synagogues. It is
unusual in that it was built by Muslims, not Jews.
The peaceful coexistence of the three cultures ended in the
late 15th century. Spain has managed to preserve its multicultural
environment despite the period of the Spanish Inquisition and the 453
tough years of the Franco dictatorship. This is confirmed by the art
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

form flamenco. The Spanish word flamenco was first mentioned in

the 19th century, when the art form emerged. Flamenco is the result
of a combination of different ethnic groups. It is often thought
to be part of Gypsy (Romany) culture, and the Gypsies played
the major role in the emergence of flamenco. Although the most
famous flamenco musicians, singers and dancers are often ethnic
Gypsies, we should not forget the contribution of Arab-Muslim,
Andalusian and Jewish ethnic groups to the formation of this art.
The signs of Arab music are obvious in some of the flamenco
singing styles. This similarity manifests itself in such forms of
flamenco as granaina, siguiriyas and soleares. But what brought
these ethnic groups together? As noted above, these ethnic groups
were historically able to live together in peace. However, political
persecution brought the ethnic groups closer together. From 1492,
the Jews, Gypsies and Arabs were subject to persecution in Spain,
because of the policy of Christianization pursued by the kings of
Spain. It is possible to see in the translations of flamenco songs the
protest of different people against oppression and their feelings of
sadness. This style was mastered by the Gypsies who immigrated to
Spain in the 15th century, but flamenco is an art form shared among
a number of cultures.
Having passed through tough socio-political periods in the
20th century, Spain has experienced a revival of a transparent
multicultural environment in recent decades. Modern Spanish
society has undergone changes in social structure as a result of
evolution in the cultural and religious spheres in the country over
the last decades. Society has moved from cultural and religious
uniformity to multiculturalism. The ‘Unified Spain’ project of
Francisco Franco, who was known as a dictator and ruled Spain for
about 40 years, was never realized. Although the project aimed to
454 create a society with a single religion, the socio-political processes
in the country in the last quarter of the 20th century prevented it.

Section III
Spain is distinctive for its multifaceted culture and has maintained
its multiculturalism. One of the main reasons for the survival
of Spanish multiculturalism is that after Franco’s dictatorship,
national Catholicism lost its monopoly of the state administration.
Catholicism had been the dominant religion in the country for
500 years from 1492, but was weakened when it did not receive
official status in the Constitution adopted in 1978. Article 16 of the
Constitution clearly states that no religion will receive official status
at the state level and that religious communities in Spanish society
will be taken into consideration by government bodies. Moreover,

Chapter 7
since the 1980s, a wave of migrants from various regions of Africa,
Latin America and other regions began to arrive in Spain. The result
is that Muslims and Christians, followers of two of the greatest
religions of the world, are returning to the rules of coexistence.
Analysis of the sociopolitical and demographic situation
after the year 2000 shows the positive impact of the immigration
process on public consciousness in Spain. The demographic
situation is changing from that in the 20th century. The growth
of immigrants this century heralds the creation of a broader
multicultural environment in the country in the near future.
There is no need to visit the big cities in Spain in order to see a
multicultural country. Even in the medium-­sized and smaller towns,
people in different national dress and shops selling speciality
produce are signs of racial, and cultural diversity. There are signs of
multiculturalism in educational institutions as well. Young women
wearing headscarves and fashionable clothes, faces of various
colours and features and the variety of languages and music create
an atmosphere of diversity.
An ideal multicultural environment has been observed in Spain
in recent decades. Not only followers of the three monotheistic
455
religions, but also members of dozens of religious and ethnic
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

groups can live together in peace and safety. The tolerance and
multiculturalism that existed in the Middle Ages in Spain have
indeed left their mark on the country of 47 million people, though
this multiculturalism has not always been evident.

7.11. Multiculturalism in Italy

Italy is one of the largest states in southern Europe with a

population of 58 million. Unlike other European countries, Italy has
a higher birth rate and natural population growth. In ancient times
Italy was home to many aboriginal peoples, known as the Italic
peoples, who were not connected linguistically or ethnically. Greeks
arrived as colonists, while many peoples residing there belonged
to other Indo-European groups (Ligures, Venetics, Lepontics,
Messapians) or to non-Indo-European language groups (Etruscans,
Raeti). As a result of occupations, active colonization and a policy
of assimilation of the local population, the Romans became the
main population in the European part of the Roman Empire. The
Roman population of the Italian province became the base of the
formation of the modern Italian nation.
Today the main ethnic group is Italian. National minorities
have lived in substantial numbers in certain areas of Italy for many
centuries. For example, the Friuli live in Friuli–Venezia Giulia region,
while over 200,000 Ladins live in Trentino-Alto Adige region, who
are related to the Friuli terms of language, speaking one of the
High German dialects of the region. There are Francophone groups
(4,500 people) in Piedmont in the north-west of the country.
Slovenians and Croatians live in the smaller regions bordering
former Yugoslavia. There is another smaller Croatian group (4,500)
in Molise in southern Italy. There are Albanian colonies with a
456
population of about 80,000 in southern Italy and on the island of

Section III
Sicily, and Greeks (30,000) in southern Italy and Catalans (15,000)
in north-western Sardinia (Alghero). The population of San Marino
also consists of Italians (15,000).
The Republic of Italy is one of the European states to enshrine
the protection of minority languages in its Constitution – Article
6 says ‘The republic safeguards linguistic minorities through
appropriate norms’. The law also recognizes as linguistic minorities
the Albanians, Catalans, Greeks, Germans, Slovenians, Croatians,
and the Franco-Provencal people, Friuli, Ladins, Occitanians, and
Sardinians who use French.

Chapter 7
The Constitution also reflects ethno-confessional issues:
‘The State and the Catholic Church are, each within its own order,
independent and sovereign. Their relations are regulated by the
Lateran Treaties,’ and ‘All religious confessions are equally free before
the law. Religious confessions other than Catholicism have the right
to organise in accordance with their own statutes, in so far as they
are not in conflict with Italian laws. Their relations with the State are
regulated by law on the basis of agreement between the respective
representatives.’
Rome’s sensitive response to modernization and its stra­tegy of
‘purifying Christianity’ allowed Italian Catholicism to be protected
from the manifestations of anti-clericalism and consequences
of modernisation. Though all the European countries have been
subject to secularization, the degree of impact has been different
in each country. Italy was an exception in this sense. Unlike other
states, that encountered modernism unarmed, Italy had its own
strategy of modernization of the church.
There are some ethnic minorities in the south of Italy that still
preserve their religious identities. Greek and Russian immigrants
have preserved Orthodoxy in Italy in the last two centuries.
457
Muslim immigrants have helped to form the country’s Muslim
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

community. Most of the Muslim immigrants in Italy are from Asia

and Africa. According to different sources, between 1.2 and 1.6
million Muslims live in Italy, about 2.5 per cent of the population.
The difference in figures can be explained by the fact that some
migrants are living illegally in the country. Approximately two-
thirds of them are Moroccans and some 100,000 are from Tunisia.
The rest are Egyptian, Bangladeshi, Senegalese, Pakistani and
Nigerian. Some 10,000 Muslims are Italians, who have adopted
Islam. Most Muslims are Sunni, while there are 15,000 Shia.
The creation of Muslim communities in the heart of the
Catholic world has not been universally welcomed. There is always
a polemic between the supporters and opponents of Islam. The
second generation of Italian Muslims speaks fluent Italian, as they
study in Italy. Nevertheless, the majority of them remain committed
to the national and traditional values of their parents, which
prevents their integration into Italian society. It should be said,
however, that for a long time Italy has been a major ‘supplier’ of
emigrants.
Azerbaijani multiculturalism could also ‘conquer’ Italy in the Year
of Multiculturalism. A branch of Baku International Multiculturalism
Centre opened in the Italian capital Rome on 15 March 2016. It is
headed by Sandro Teti, Italian publisher and politician.

7.12. Multiculturalism in Turkey

Multiculturalism, which is applied to different areas in Western

countries, occurs in the context of political and sociological
language practices. Expressions occur at the societal level.
Expression reveals meaning, and thus societies build links between
458 existing symbols and meanings. The meanings attributed to
multiculturalism, in accordance with other concepts used in the

Section III
social sciences, arise from the academic and intellectual stratum, or
rather academic and intellectual interests. Just as there is no single
truth, an expression cannot be created by a single group. There are
different ways of expression created by different groups. This is the
crucial factor behind the concept, widespread in social sciences,
that societal events cannot be understood in terms of just one
cause.
From the political point of view, multiculturalism has different
theoretical and practical aspects in the context of the historical and
social realities of different countries. There are those who support

Chapter 7
the expression of multiculturalism and those who do not.
Various changes related to various ways of thinking have
occurred in the evolution of multiculturalism in Turkey. The
purpose of multiculturalism in Turkey lies in the expression of
it. In this sense, in Turkey multiculturalism is in the background
of society and is shaped in accordance with societal changes
and requirements. While the theory of multiculturalism takes
a back seat, the concept expresses the demands for equality
among different cultures and minority languages, religions and
ethnic groups and is emphasized in the words ‘recognition’ or
‘multicultural citizenship’. So while this is a theoretical concept, it
is also extremely important in the practical sphere. In general,
multiculturalism in the oriental countries is applied to different
spheres; therefore its political and sociological aspects are different.
Several geographical, political and social factors have played a
determinant role in the birth of academic and intellectual interest in
multiculturalism in Turkey. Particularly, consideration of minorities,
the concept of the nation and ideas of nationhood are a more
modern trend in Turkey than in the past.
459
The political assessment of national minorities in Turkey puts
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

greater stress on religious differences than ethnic differences,

while diversity can be seen in the minorities’ own assessments.
Discussions on multiculturalism in Turkey are centred on both
national minorities and cultural diversity. There is a mosaic of
cultures in the geography of Anatolia today.
Since 2000 discussions of multiculturalism in Turkey have
given priority to the notion of Turkishness as an identity. In the
modern understanding of nation in Turkey, Turkishness, being
part of Turkey, applies to all national minorities and ethnic groups
in the geographical area, as opposed to Turkicness (being a Turk).
Publication of a report of the Prime Minister’s Human Rights
Advisory Commission’s Working Group on the Rights of Minorities
and Cultural Realities in 2004 started a range of discussions on the
subject. The debate on multiculturalism sparked by this report was
of great significance.
An important difference between Turkey and the West is that
the Western countries were subject to migration at every stage
of history. Particularly after World War II migrants streamed to
Europe. They were Westerners, who had lived in the colonies,
and local people from the colonial counties that had gained their
independence. This mass migration developed a multicultural
society, particularly in Europe and America. While Turkey was not
subject to such waves of migration, diverse national minorities and
ethnic groups were appreciated in the context of a unitary state. In
comparison with the Western countries Turkey reached the nation-
state stage very late. In parallel there are fears and criticisms that
multiculturalism and diversity could threaten unity and equality in
the country. At the same time claims that Turkey is a country of
many cultures pursue a poli­tical purpose. According to those who
defend this idea, the history of Turkish culture does not include
460 the division into ‘I’ and ‘other’. They see this division as arising
from Western history; in other words, the West creates its own

Section III
discrimination. In Turkey ‘we’ rather than ‘I’ is at the forefront, and
‘I’ divides ‘we’.
The influence of the report ‘On the Rights of Minorities’ in
discussions on multiculturalism in Turkey is undeniable, raising the
idea of Turkishness and cultural diversity. The idea of Turkishness
was a political tool and ideology in the Ottoman period, aimed at
integrating into the empire the minorities who wanted to leave the
empire. The ideology of Turkishness as discussed in political and
intellectual circles from the early 2000s centred on the idea of an

Chapter 7
overarching Turkish identity for the minorities and cultures within
the borders of the country.
Academic discussions on multiculturalism in Turkey can
be divided into two categories: one is against the notion of
multiculturalism, and the other is in favour. Among the arguments
cited by the opponents of multiculturalism is that diversity could
create problems in the social sphere and that Turkishness could
damage the national and spiritual unity of the country, as it had
many times in the past. Supporters of multiculturalism appreciate
the Canadian practice of it. Problems may be overcome if steps are
taken in democratization associated with national minorities and
diverse ethnic groups. Accelerating the process of democratization
before joining the European Union may enable the country to solve
the cultural and language problems of national minorities and
ethnic groups.
Multiculturalism in Turkey has emerged on the basis of
identity. Particularly since 1990 the demands for diversity of
different national minorities and ethnic groups have become
topical in the socio-political sphere. At the same time, in the
1990s, the parties and public associations, which were based
on the concept of the nation state, were subject to change in 461
parallel with new developments in the political field. This change
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

led to the emergence of new factors, instead of the solutions put

forward by the central parties. In a sense, the central parties have
created a situation where the demands of diversity can be heard
instead of nationalist and centralist expressions, and where many
different factors have developed and can be used as a tool of
multiculturalism. This tendency, which can also be interpreted in
terms of post modernism, is important in shaping discussion of
multiculturalism and ethnic, linguistic and cultural diversity.

7.13. Multiculturalism in Russia

Multiculturalism is the manifestation of the existence, autonomy

and survival of different cultures by preserving their national
identity and traditions. In many respects the existence of different
cultures may be a natural occurrence in every state founded on a
political and ethnic basis, but the political situation causes different
interpretations of multiculturalism in different countries.
Europe and Russia are, of course, regions where many ethnic
groups, cultures and traditions exist. Nevertheless, in the historic
sense Russian multiculturalism can be considered in terms of the
European Jews living in the European countries and preserving their
religion, language, customs and alphabet.
After the collapse of the USSR, Russia welcomed a large number
of migrants, many of whom intended to settle permanently there.
But the cultural distance between people of the post-Soviet
countries is much smaller than between the people of French
Africa and the Arab East, for example. The historical tradition of
intercultural existence (even with elements of assimilation) has
stretched since the conquering of the Turkic states along the Volga
462 in the 16th century. Long-term coexistence within the framework
of a unified political structure, a unified system of education and

Section III
upbringing led to a rapprochement in psychological values,
especially among the older generations.
Approximately, half of the migrants are from the younger
generation who came to Russia after the collapse of the USSR.
For this reason, it seems that the cultural and ethnic diversity of
modern Russia will grow stronger. Nevertheless, it cannot yet
be said with certainty that closed ethnocultural societies, which
live in accordance with their own laws, not those of their host
society, have formed in the territory of the Russian Federation. All
the ethnocultural societies within Russia adhere to the existing

Chapter 7
legislation (even quite closed social groups of labour migrants from
China and Central Asia, cultures alien to Russian civilization). At the
same time, it should be noted that the vast majority of migrants to
Russia come from Central Asia. As a state, since the 16th century
Russia has long historical experience of coexistence with peoples of
the Islamic civilization living in the territory. In addition, the mood
of xenophobia in Russian society should be mentioned. This can
be linked to the preservation of a homogenous cultural and civic
model in Russia and the growing number of migrants.
Is there multiculturalism in Russia? It is accepted that the term
is not so appropriate to Russian society. Russia has never been a
mono-ethnic state. Russia was initially formed as an imperial-type
state which united the members of different nations, ethnic groups,
cultures and religions under its rule. Over the centuries, united
with the Orthodox religion and recognizing its role in the state, a
polyethnic elite formed in the Russian state.
During the Soviet era the idea of internationalism existed in
public life in Russia. The mutual interaction and intermingling
of national cultures and customs led to the creation of a unified
education system and upbringing with equal rights for all the
463
nations in the Soviet Union. In this sense, the collapse of the USSR
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

did not cause any significant changes at the end of the 20th and
beginning of the 21st centuries. Education in Russia is secular and,
therefore, the religious affiliation of students in higher education,
except for the religious universities, is not important for their
education. The principle of tolerance in education creates every
opportunity for every nation, even when they are in conflict with
each other. It should be noted that migration to Russia is relatively
specific in comparison with the Western countries. This situation
in Russia is still attributable to other post-Soviet countries. The
cultural distance between migrants and the main population of
the host country is much less than in the Western countries and
the United States. The unified education system, which existed
in the territory of the former USSR for more than half a century,
covering several generations, practically created a single language,
which helps communications among the nations and has led to
commonality in the knowledge system.
Besides, the highly mobile nature of the population of the former
Soviet republics means that present-day migrants have a high level
of social competence. The social communication skills gained by
these people during the Soviet era give them the opportunity to act
economically and commercially within the former USSR countries.
In other words, their ability to adapt, and hence, their ability to
integrate is unmatched among the Asian and African migrants who
want to live in North America and Western Europe.
More than half a million migrants have already gained
Russian citizenship. Large Russian cities are reminiscent of major
Western cities from the point of view of ethnicity, language, faith
and lifestyle. Undoubtedly, the cultural diversity of the Russian
population will only increase under the impact of migration. In this
situation, retaining a monocultural model means to be deaf and
464 blind to the present reality.
Of course, there is aggression and xenophobia in Russia

Section III
towards people from other nations and religions. But the higher
education system here is far from any form of aggression, and the
education of students does not depend on their national affiliation
and religious beliefs, but directly on their interests in education
and learning. The historically established education system allows
young people easily to become accustomed to the Russian
educational environment and to get a comprehensive education.
For this reason, we can talk about diversity and mutual tolerance
within the contemporary education system in Russia, but not
multiculturalism.

Chapter 7
At the same time, it is necessary to note that there are
actually two types of multiculturalism in Russia: the traditional
multiculturalism based on the historical existence of ethnic groups
and cultures in a single space and the newly emerging migratory
multiculturalism, where substantial numbers of the population
create a different environment from the point of view of ethnicity
and culture. These new migrants remain socially isolated. However,
unlike European countries, the new type of multiculturalism does
not predominate in Russia, although it does bear the risk of stoking
xenophobia. Ethnic groups and cultures exist in Russia in conditions
of traditional multiculturalism, but the Russian political elite and
media prefer not to use this term.
Another branch of the Baku International Multiculturalism
Centre opened on 10 March 2016, in Moscow, capital of the
Russian Federation, under the aegis of the Russian State Duma.
The executive director of the Moscow branch is Professor Natalia
Krasovskaya. Another branch in the Russian Federation was
established at the Boris Yeltsin Ural Federal University and is led
by the University’s Professor Alexander Nesterov. Azerbaijani
multiculturalism is taught as a subject at this university.
465
7.14. Multiculturalism in Georgia
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

It may be presumed from the diversity of approaches towards

understanding the multicultural reality in different national
societies that it is impossible for people with different histories,
cultures and identities to coexist peaceably, according to the
general, universal principles of tolerance. The steps towards the
social stabilization of a complicated ethnocultural and ethno-social
environment must take into consideration not only the interests of
groups, but also of individuals. A concrete national policy should be
drawn up on this basis and its effectiveness should be evaluated on
the same basis, too.
The reason for the plurality of typologies of multiculturalism
is connected with the diversity of the research interests and
value bases of the compilers of these typologies. The seven types
of multiculturalism, shown by Stuart Hall and Terence Turner
– conservative, liberal, pluralist, commercial, corporate, critical
revolutionary and difference multiculturalism – can be divided into
two main categories: inclusive (or inclusive multiculturalism) and
non-inclusive multiculturalism (or multiculturalism of exceptions).
A combined model is more suitable for Georgian multiculturalism,
one directed at integration on the political level (formation of a
unified societal culture) and supporting only the cultural (religious,
artistic) diversity of individuals and groups. This model envisages
the rapid integration of different cultural groups into the common
space of the state. The types of multiculturalism described were
determined on various bases, so while they all describe the policy
of real multiculturalism they are not all mutually exclusive.
Today many countries have cultural diversity and the greater
this diversity the more it may conceal potentially contentious
issues. In Georgia cultural minorities and majorities defend
466 their positions in terms of language rights, regional autonomy,
representation in political parties and administrative organs,

Section III
demands on the educational programmes of primary and high
schools, immigration policy and even national symbols such
as the national anthem and state holidays. Women, ‘visible
minorities’, aborigines or local peoples and the disabled can be
shown as subjects of social policy. The study of relations between
ethnic majorities and national minorities are very relevant in the
multicultural regions of Georgia.
While it is genuinely important to learn the language of the new
motherland, this is not enough for loyalty to the country, especially

Chapter 7
when there is pressure on immigrants from the government and
negative treatment on the part of the indigenous majority.
In order to use cultural diversity to improve society, on the
one hand, it is necessary to reconsider historical experience in
the regulation of inter-ethnic relations, and, on the other hand, to
improve the administrative skills of personnel, who carry out social,
cultural and national policy. The principles of multiculturalism
can be adapted to Georgian conditions on the basis of a modern
integration policy in line with leading European and worldwide
trends that help to create a unified socio-cultural space. This means
there is a need for major change in the previous forms of cultural
and national relations between national minorities and majorities.
First of all, it demands the best algorithms for activity among
groups and a change in the nature of relations between the state, its
institutions and different groups of the population.
In this sense, the organization of democratic governance,
political, socio-economic and cultural life, as well as the forms of
creative initiative of individuals and social collectives developed
in Western societies, are useful and effective for certain type of
civilizations (Max Weber). The multicultural ideologies of national 467
states are carried out in the form of national policy. Their main
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

principles are the following: no discrimination against national

and ethnic minorities within the national society; the principle of
social and legal equality with the majorities within the national
society; interracial and intercultural tolerance among different
groups of the population; first, the acceptance of the multi-ethnic
and multicultural nature of national society; second, recognition
of the equal status of national majorities and national minorities;
recognition of their right to take decisions to protect and develop
their languages, ethnic cultures and way of life, to take possession
of ethnic areas, and for their ethnocultural and political future.
Azerbaijan is the closest of the multicultural models for
Georgia because of the closeness of the axiological systems in the
historical sources of the two cultures. First of all, this belongs to
basic concepts that define the main aspects of value. The conflict
between ‘ours’ and ‘not ours’ is at the basis of relations between
nations; unlike cultures that try to keep a distance from foreigners
(this can be seen in the terminology: goy in Jewish, qaco in Gypsy,
varvar in Greek, gavur in Turkish and so on), Georgians receive
guests as messengers from God. This is reflected in language with
special terminology – the word sautsxo (the best of something,
what is reserved for guests). The saying ‘We are all sons of Adam,
Tatars are our brothers too’ is a shining manifestation of tolerance
(the word ‘Tatar’ is used instead of the ‘Azerbaijani’ ethnonym in
Georgian literary sources).
Since paroemiology is an important part of the information
basis shaping models of multiculturalism, classical literature reflects
the main values of both Azerbaijan and Georgia.
The work of the giants of world literature Nizami Ganjavi and
Shota Rustaveli should be mentioned first of all. In fact, the main
468
concepts at the basis of multiculturalism (inter-national, gender,

Section III
confessional etc.) are reflected in their works. The classics, reflecting
the influential aspects of multiculturalism, shaped the period
dubbed ‘the Renaissance of the Orient’ by scholars.
The experience of relations with the Abkhaz and Ossetians
is also interesting. In the Soviet period in Georgia instruction
in Abkhaz and Ossetian schools was in the respective mother
tongues, at a time when no such schools existed in the Russian
Federation. As a result of the efforts of the mass media of Russia,
political conflicts were presented as ethnic confrontations, as in

Chapter 7
Nagorno-Karabakh, which contradicted the principles of tolerance
and multiculturalism that characterized our people.
Special mention should also be made of the role of Baku
International Multiculturalism Centre. The creation of a branch of
the Centre in Georgia accelerates the process of understanding
multiculturalism and stimulates research in this area.

7.15. Multiculturalism in Moldova

The Constitution of the Republic of Moldova was adopted on

29 July 1994, announcing the primacy of international law and
liberties. The Constitution approved the Moldovan language
written in the Latin alphabet as the official language of the country,
and defined the status of other languages spoken in the country.
The Russian language was given a special status, reflecting its
difference from other regional languages. The preamble to
the Constitution of the Republic of Moldova declares that the
government will try ‘to protect the interests of the ethnic minorities
living with the Moldovans in the Republic of Moldova’.

469
Article 10 covers the unity of the people and their right to
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

national identity. The second clause of Article 10 declares that

‘The State recognises and guarantees all its citizens the right to the
preservation, development and expression of their ethnic, cultural,
linguistic and religious identity.’ (In other words, it ensures the right
to the forms of identity listed in this article.)
Article 13 of the Constitution regulates use of language in the
country. Paragraph 1 declares Moldovan based on the Latin alphabet
the state language. Paragraph 2 acknowledges and protects the right
to the preservation, development and use of the Russian language
and other languages spoken in Moldova.
The Constitution recognizes that all citizens are equal before
the law and public authorities, ‘regardless of theit race, nationality,
ethnic origin, language, religion, sex, opi­nion, political affiliation,
property or social origin’. (Article 16)
Article 35 on education enshrines the right of the individual ‘to
choose the language of training and education according to the
law’.
According to Paragraph 18 of the law, the government
guarantees the rights of citizens to study in the Moldovan and
Russian languages in preschool nurseries, general secondary
schools, technical, professional, high and higher educational
schools. The government also creates conditions for citizens
of other nationalities to exercise their rights to education and
upbringing in their mother tongues (Gagauz, Ukrainian, Bulgarian,
Hebrew, Yiddish, and other languages)*.
*
It should be noted that this right was reflected in the Constitution of 1978 too: Ar-
ticle 3.4 concerns ‘the equal rights of the citizens of other nationalities of the Mol-
dova Soviet Socialist Republic … that they have the right to use the languages of
other peoples of the USSR along with their native language’. Under Article 43 the
citizens of the Moldova SSR have the right ‘to education in their native language’.
It should be acknowledged, however, that the latter clause here did not function,
as the education system in Soviet Moldova was built on the Moldovan and Russian
470 languages.
Chapter 6 covers language in names and information.

Section III
According to Article 24 the names of squares, streets, blind-alleys
and districts are in the official language of the country, except
in areas inhabited by the Gagauz where they are in the Gagauz
language. In the villages where the majority of the population
are Ukrainians, Russians or Bulgarians, these names should be
in the appropriate local language. The texts of advertisements,
notifications, announcements and other types of visual information
are in the official language of the country, but in the appropriate
territories should be translated into Russian or Gagauz. The names,
labels and marks on goods produced in the country, instructions

Chapter 7
concerning these goods, and all other visual information should be
in the official language of the country and in Russian. In rural areas
where the majority of the population are Ukrainians, Russians, or
Bulgarians, the said information should be in their languages.
Chapter 7 determines state protection of languages, setting
out legislation on language and determining responsibility for its
violation.
This act of legislation adopted on the eve of the fall of the Soviet
Union acted as Moldova’s linguistic credo during the country’s
transition. It guided relations among the peoples living there and
formed the basis of numerous normative-legal acts, including the
Constitution.
One of the inalienable rights of man is the protection of national
and cultural identity, which is enshrined in domestic normative and
legal acts of the Republic of Moldova and in the many international
treaties that the Republic has signed.
The interests in the problems of national minorities in Europe
are echoed in the new democratic countries. It should be noted
that international normative and legal acts have priority over local
legislation. The young Republic of Moldova, which has chosen
471
the road of integration to Europe, was bound to pay attention to
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

this problem. Perhaps, there was another aspect to this interest

too. The Russian language, as a widespread means of official
communication, was important amongst the languages of the
multi-ethnic population of this region and became one of the most
popular languages in inter-ethnic communication.
As noted above, after the independence of Moldova the
situation of the Russian language changed, but the level of
knowledge of the Moldovan language in society was not enough
for it to replace Russian. At the same time, the process of national
revival increased interest in the languages and cultures of ethnic
minorities. It was beneficial because it distracted the people’s
attention from the Russian language. It would also pave the way
for the mother tongue of the national minority to function as a
means of communication among the Russian ethnos, and for the
Moldovan language to be sustainable as the main language of
communication among all nations within the country.
The Labour Code of the Republic of Moldova enshrines the
protection of ethnic rights. The code forbids any discrimination
on racial, national, and religious grounds. This protection is also
enshrined in the law ‘On the judicial system’, the Code on Legal
Violations and the Criminal Code of the Republic of Moldova and in
other legal documents.
The rights of national minorities are also enshrined in the
following legislation: on identity documents in the national
passport system, on television and radio, on the television and
radio code of the Republic of Moldova, on media, on religious
beliefs, on judicial authority, on advertisements, on the acts of
citizenship and on culture. The law enshrines the right of the
individual to enjoy their culture, regardless of national affiliation,
472 social status, language and other issues.
Law № 382-XV (19 July 2001) adopted by the Parliament of the

Section III
Republic of Moldova ‘On the legal status of persons belonging to
national minorities and their organizations’ was a new step in the
development of legislation concerning Russian-speaking citizens.
This document occupies a special place among the normative
acts that regulate many problems in interethnic relations. The final
draft of the law was presented by a group of parliamentarians to
parliament in May 1997. The law was adopted in the first reading
in July 1997. Later, a number of provisions were changed in
accordance with the framework Convention on the Protection of
National Minorities, ratified by the Republic of Moldova in 1996. A

Chapter 7
number of laws and other previously adopted legal acts had to be
changed in line with this new law.
In the last 20 years the Republic of Moldova joined many
international normative-legal acts, some of which cover legal
guarantees for national minorities as well. According to a decision
of Parliament dated 10 September 1991 (No. 707 – XII) ‘On the
association of the Republic of Moldova to the international legal
acts on human rights’ the Republic of Moldova acceded to the full
package of international documents. Particular mention should
be made of the International Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Racial Discrimination, the Copenhagen Meeting of the
OSCE Conference on the Human Dimension, the Charter of Paris for
a New Europe, the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide, the Final Act of the Conference on
Security and Cooperation in Europe and the Convention Against
Discrimination in Education.
The Republic of Moldova joined the International Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination (it came into force in
the Republic of Moldova on 25 February 1993), the Convention for
the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and 473
the Additional protocol on the rights of minorities (1201) to the
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

European Convention on Human Rights of the Council of Europe.

Analysis of the international legislative acts joined by the Republic
of Moldova in the years of independence, and its domestic ethnic
and civil legislation reveals a dynamic in the development of a
normative-legal base to ensure the rights and freedoms of national
minorities. But there have been inconsistencies in this situation
at different stages. The various political forces in government in
Moldova throughout its independence have displayed complete
indifference to the non-majoritarian ethnos, including the ethnic
and civil interests of the Russian-speaking population.
There are many Russian-language mass media in Gagauzia,
while the amount of literature published in Gagauz is also
growing. The main issues covered by the media are national
identity, regional news, the economy and culture. Newspapers and
magazines are published in Russian, Moldovan and Gagauz.
There is an education system functioning for the national
minorities in three languages in the Republic of Moldova:

1. Schools where the language of instruction is Russian (20.3%);

2. Schools where the language of instruction is Russian, but

the mother tongue is taught as a discipline: Ukrainian – 55,
Gagauz – 32, Jewish – 2, Polish – 1, German – 1;
3. Experimental schools where the language of instruction is the
mother tongue in the primary and secondary stages in separate
classes (Ukrainian and Bulgarian). *

Schools with Russian-language instruction are also considered

educational institutions for the national minorities.

*
T
hese figures are from 2006. Никитченко А. Система образования к полиязыч-
ному и мультикультурному образованию. Материалы международной конфе-
474 ренции, 5-6 декабря 2006. Кишинэу, 2008, стр. 61-73.
On 4 May 2016, a branch of Baku International Multiculturalism

Section III
Centre opened in the capital of the Republic of Moldova. The
executive director of the branch is the well-known lawyer, former
Ombudsman Aurelia Grigoriu.

7.16. Multiculturalism in Israel

The Holocaust was the result of the policy of anti-Semitism

pursued by the ruling circles of the Third Reich during World
War II. The word holocaust in translation from the Greek means
‘completely burnt’ or ‘reduced to ashes’. It is used in both broad

Chapter 7
and narrow meanings. In its broad meaning it is a massacre
that physically exterminates people and social groups. But in
its narrow meaning holocaust means the genocide carried out
against the Jews. From the beginning of World War II Hitler’s
Nazi Germany sought to exterminate the Jews and decided to
settle them in ghettos created in Polish territory. During World
War II approximately six million Jews were murdered as a result
of massacres not only in the Nazi Germany of Hitler, but also in
the territories of Europe occupied by Germany, as well as in the
USSR. During World War II, the majority of the Jews exposed to
fascist oppression were exterminated in the concentration camps,
including Auschwitz-Oswiecim, Sobibor, Treblinka, Plaszow, and
Dachau. Only a few Jewish prisoners survived. The United Nations
adopted a resolution declaring 27 January Holocaust Memorial Day
from 2005.
The Jews exposed to the tragedy of the Holocaust were able
to create their state in the aftermath of World War II. According
to the resolution of the UN General Assembly, dated 29 January
1947, the independent Israeli state was declared on the territory of
Palestine from 14 May 1948. Since then Israel has used the melting
475
pot model of multiculturalism implemented in the USA to manage
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

its ethnocultural diversity. Today 42% of world Jews live in Israel.

Newcomers from the diaspora maintain their past but also enter
the process of integration into Zionist culture on the basis of the
melting pot system. According to figures from the Organization
for Economic Cooperation and Development one million four
thousand Jews moved to Israel from different countries in the last
25 years. Israel is now attempting to unify the idea of nationalism
(a ‘Zionist state’ or ‘Jewish state’) with the notion of a modern
liberal state. The first term refers to the number of Jews and the
latter to the symbols and values based on Jewish traditions. As a
liberal democratic state with a system of cultural autonomy, Israel
guarantees the rights of all citizens. The guarantee of these rights is
at a higher level than in some developed European countries.
For decades Jewish leaders gave up the idea of Israeli
imperialism. In this sense, Israel is a common Jewish project. In
surveys of Jewish youth in the USA 20 per cent of respondents say
that Israel occupies an important place in their identity. In order to
be an Israeli, you need to be part of it in some way. But this does not
mean that you should deny the Jewish state and democracy.
Until the early 1960s a cultural war was under way between the
Arabic and Hebrew languages. Even, the publication of newspapers
in Hebrew was prohibited. In the 1970s about 700,000 Arabs
moved to Israel from the Arab countries.
When the melting pot began to fail in the 1970s and 80s,
another Israel seemed to emerge on the political arena. With the
emergence of the Black Panther movement, society was ready
to recognize ‘the other’ in the management of culture. As a
consequence, delimitation occurred between the first and second
elite cultures of Israel which had found their place in mass culture;
in other words, distinctions appeared in all sorts of things, from
476 music to clothes, even in traditional management.
In the 1990s the situation changed again. Israel was ready to

Section III
welcome a wave of immigrants known as the ‘golden million’. These
were the newcomers from the former Soviet Union who included
many lawyers, journalists and army officers. Many of them were
specialists in education, high technology and other fields, who were
lacking in the traditional first and second elite of Israel.
The term ‘golden million’ referred to the million Jews who came
from the former Soviet Union. They are called the new Ashkenazis
– the third Israel. They also include Sephardi Jews from Central Asia
and the south Caucasus. Israeli society accepted it. In the 1970s,
had you asked someone what he thought about having a school, a

Chapter 7
kindergarten, a newspaper and a television channel in Russian, he
would have replied, ‘Why?’ Now they answer would be ‘Why not?’
One of the major symbols of Israeli multiculturalism is Jerusalem
– the Holy City. As the centre of three world religions, the city
attracts many tourists.
Roughly 7,000 Jewish families moved from Azerbaijan to Israel.
They were Ashkenazi (European) Jews and Mountain (Sephardi)
Jews who moved there in the early 1990s. According to unofficial
information, 7,000 or 8,000 ethnic Azerbaijanis live in Israel. They
have mainly settled in the cities of Acre, Haifa, Hadera and Tel
Aviv. Some 53,000 Mountain Jews from Azerbaijan live in Akko,
where they form 12 per cent of the population. They never forget
Azerbaijan and always remember the Land of Fire. In this sense,
multiculturalism has an old history in Israel and has already
become reality.
On 3 May 2016, the Israeli branch of the Baku International
Multiculturalism Centre was established in Israel. Its executive
director is the political scientist Arye Gut.

477
7.17. Multiculturalism in Indonesia
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

Indonesia has a population of 230 million, the majority of

whom belong to the Austronesian group of over 300 ethnicities
and ethnic groups. According to the 2010 census, over 1,340
different nations and ethnicities live in this country. This important
difference is the result of different approaches to the issue of ethnic
groups. For example, some sources consider the Cheribons to be
an ethnic group, while other sources suggest that the Javanese
are the titular ethnos. The Betawi and Bantenese peoples are also
considered either ethnicities or titular ethnoses.
There are also other non-aboriginal ethnic groups living in
Indonesia, which migrated from other countries. Most of them
are Chinese. Ethnic Chinese live in all parts of the country, but the
majority of them live in the big cities. Migration of the Chinese
to Indonesia dates a long way back in history, but their mass
migration began in the 16th century. Traditionally, they have
controlled much of the economy of Indonesia. Therefore, relations
between the local people and migrant Chinese have always been
tense. These conflicts became much worse during the presidency
of General Suharto. In that period the exacerbation of sociocultural
conflicts between the Chinese and the local people and the ban
on Chinese people speaking in Chinese made some deny their
ethnicity.
Migrants from India and the Arab countries form communities
in various regions of the country, especially in big cities. There are
fewer Europeans and people born of mixed marriages of Europeans
and Indonesians. Most of them either moved to different countries,
especially to the Netherlands, or were repatriated after World War
II and the independence of Indonesia.
478
The official language of the Republic of Indonesia is the

Section III
Indonesian language. The Indonesian language is compulsory in all
general secondary schools, according to the Constitution. Almost
all the population of the country knows their ethnic language as
well as the official language. According to a report issued in 2009,
719 living languages are spoken in Indonesia.
Indonesia is a secular country, but religion plays an important
role in the life of the Indonesian people. It is expressed in the
ideology of the Indonesian people, Pancasila – ‘belief in the one
God’. According to the constitution adopted in 1945, all citizens

Chapter 7
have religious freedom. Legislation adopted in 1965 envisages
government help for the major religions – Islam, Protestantism,
Catholicism, Hinduism and Confucianism.
Interreligious and interethnic relations in Indonesia have not
always been friendly. Clashes between different ethnicities and
religions broke out in the last centuries of Indonesian history.
These clashes became more regular in the 20th century. At different
periods the government has itself adopted decisions fostering
tolerance or discrimination. For example, during the Orba regime
(Orde Baru or New Order) new laws were passed against the
ethnic Chinese, restricting their cultural and religious practices,
especially Buddhism and Confucianism. In 1966 and 1998 President
Suharto made an attempt to decrease the number of Muslims in
the government and to increase the number of Christians. In the
beginning of 1990 there were two groups in military government
who had different views on making Indonesia an Islamic country.
The group headed by General Prabowo struggled to create an
Islamic state in Indonesia, while Wiranto’s nationalist group sought
to establish a secular government.
The ethno-confessional conflicts in Indonesia have both shared
and unique causes. Most of the conflicts are deep-rooted, but 479
the most recent ones are the result of critical conditions in socio-
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

economic and political life. Therefore, the government is carrying

out various projects to improve the socio-economic condition
of the people, to promote tolerance and stable relations among
followers of the officially recognized religions and to establish
integration among ethnic groups, in short, to shape a multicultural
environment.

Questions

1.
What can you say about the role of Anglophones
and Francophones in the formation of Canadian
multiculturalism?
2. What is the definition of the ‘melting pot’?
3. What can you say about the civil rights movement in the USA?
4. What is the role and function of immigrants in the formation
of multiculturalism in the USA?
5. What can you say about the history of Australian multiculturalism?
6. What are the basic principles of multiculturalism in Australia?
7. What are the main features of French multiculturalism?
8. What are the main features of German multiculturalism?
9. What are the distinguishing features of the Swiss Confederation?
10. What is the official language of Switzerland?
11. What is the role of multilingualism as a language factor in
the formation of Swiss multiculturalism?
12.
What is the difference between multiculturalism in
Switzerland and multiculturalism as practised in other West
European countries?
13.
What can you say about religious diversity and religious
480 identity in Switzerland?
14.
What are the main reasons for the formation of a

Section III
multicultural society in Portugal?
15. What are the key features of emigration in Portugal?
16. What ethnic groups live in Portugal?
17. In what way does flamenco embody the multicultural
environment of Spain?
18. What ethnic groups live in Spain?
19. Why was General Franco’s project for a ‘Unified’ Spain not
realized?
20.
What can be said about the role of migrants in the

Chapter 7
formation of the multicultural environment in modern
Spain?
21. What city is the centre of three world religions?
22. What are the main features of Italian multiculturalism?
23.
Under what conditions do other religious communities
operate in Italy, alongside the Roman Catholic community?
24.
What is the documentary basis for the protection and
preservation of linguistic minorities in Italy?
25. What are the arguments of opponents of multiculturalism in
Turkey?
26. What are the arguments of proponents of multiculturalism in
Turkey?
27. When did the trend for multiculturalism begin to manifest
itself in a more active way in Turkey?
28.
What is the main reason for the growth of ethnocultural
diversity in Russia in modern times?
29. What are the main features of Russian multiculturalism?
30. What are the key features of multiculturalism emerging in
Georgia? 481
31. Is the demand for ethnic minorities in Georgia to learn the
Azerbaijani Multiculturalism

language of their new homeland sufficient to shape a loyal

attitude towards the country of residence?
32. What are the reasons for giving the Russian language special
status in Moldova?
33. Which laws enshrine the protection of the rights of national
minorities in Moldova?
34. What is the significance of the law ‘On the rights of persons
belonging to national minorities and on the legal status
of their organizations’ adopted by the Parliament of the
Republic of Moldova on 19 July 2001?
35.
How did the collapse of the Soviet Union affect the
multicultural situation in Israel?
36. Which religions are officially recognized in Indonesia and
what kind of state-religion relationships are there in the
country?
37. W
hat is the largest non-aboriginal ethnic group in Indonesia?
38. How many living languages are used in Indonesia?
39. Do you consider it right that the conflicts in Abkhazia, South
Ossetia and Nagorno-Karabakh are presented as ethnic
conflicts in the mass media of some countries? Why?

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%D0%BB%D1%8C

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