Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Power System Protection 2015

Chapter 1

Fundamentals of Power System Protection

1.1 Objectives:
In this chapter, we will provide an overview of electrical energy systems. Make a case
for protection systems. Describe necessity of apparatus and system protection. Define a
relay element. Discuss evolution of relays from electromechanical to numerical relay.
Describe functioning of a circuit breaker. We will introduce the following: Principle of
overcurrent protection. Principle of directional overcurrent protection. Principle of
distance protection. Principle of differential protection. For simplicity in explaining the
key ideas, we consider three phase bolted faults. Generalization of different fault types
will be discussed in subsequent chapters. Also, in this chapter we will: Overview
dynamics in power systems. Introduce system protection relays like underfrequency
relays, rate of change of frequency relays, reverse - power flow relays etc. Give a brief
introduction to lightning protection. Finally in this chapter we will learn the following
desirable attributes of protection system viz: Dependability. Security. Sensitivity.
Selectivity. Reliability. Necessity of speed in relaying. Speed vs. accuracy conflict. A
protection system is characterized by following two important parameters:
Dependability, and Security

1.2 Overview of Electrical Energy Systems:

Electrical energy systems consists of various equipment’s connected together.
Typically, power is generated at lower voltages (a few kV) (3-phase ac voltage source)
which is stepped up by a transformer and fed into a transmission grid. Thermal power
should be generated at pit heads and hydro power at reservoirs. A transmission grid is
a meshed network of high voltage lines and transformers. It can have multiple voltage
levels like 400 kV, 220 kV, etc. The power is delivered to load centers which may be
far off (even thousands of km's apart).
Fig 1.1 shows the electrical grid of Saudi Arabia. It can be seen that large amount of
generation is concentrated in the western end while large load centers are concentrated
in the eastern end. The power is transferred through the ac network and HVDC lines.
At load centers, voltage levels are stepped down by step down transformers in multiple
stages and finally power is delivered to the end user by a distribution system which is
mostly radial (no loops) in nature. A unique feature of electrical energy systems is its
natural mode of synchronous operation. It implies that during steady state the electrical
frequency is same all through the system irrespective of the geographical location. This
closely knits the system together. We can perceive all generators acting in tandem like
the ballet dancers in a dance.

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Fig. 1.1 Saudi Arabia electrical power grid

They may occupy different angular positions, but all machines rotate at the same
electrical speed. This close knitting implies an embedded interaction of generators
through the transmission network which is governed by the differential and algebraic
equations of the apparatus and interconnects. This aspect is referred to as the system
behavior. This system has to be protected from abnormalities which is the task of
protection system.

1.3 Why do we need Protection?

Electrical power system operates at various voltage levels from 415 V to 400 kV or
even more. Electrical apparatus used may be enclosed (e.g., motors) or placed in open
(e.g., transmission lines). All such equipment undergo abnormalities in their life time
due to various reasons. For example, a worn out bearing may cause overloading of a
motor. A tree falling or touching an overhead line may cause a fault. A lightning strike
(classified as an act of God!) can cause insulation failure. Pollution may result in
degradation in performance of insulators which may lead to breakdown. Under
frequency or over frequency of a generator may result in mechanical damage to it's
turbine requiring tripping of an alternator. Even otherwise, low frequency operation will
reduce the life of a turbine and hence it should be avoided. It is necessary to avoid these
abnormal operating regions for safety of the equipment.
Even more important is safety of the human personnel which may be endangered due
to exposure to live parts under fault or abnormal operating conditions. Small current of
the order of 50 mA is sufficient to be fatal! Whenever human security is sacrificed or
there exists possibility of equipment damage, it is necessary to isolate and de-energize

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the equipment. Designing electrical equipment from safety perspective is also a crucial
design issue which will not be addressed here. To conclude, every electrical equipment
has to be monitored to protect it and provide human safety under abnormal operating
conditions. This job is assigned to electrical protection systems. It encompasses
apparatus protection and system protection.

1.4 Types of Protection:

Protection systems can be classified into apparatus protection and system protection.

1.4.1 Apparatus Protection:

Apparatus protection deals with detection of a fault in the apparatus and consequent
protection. Apparatus protection can be further classified into following:
 Transmission Line Protection and feeder protection
 Transformer Protection
 Generator Protection
 Motor Protection
 Busbar Protection

1.4.2 System Protection:

System protection deals with detection of proximity of system to unstable operating
region and consequent control actions to restore stable operating point and/or prevent
damage to equipment’s. Loss of system stability can lead to partial or complete system
blackouts. Under-frequency relays, out of-step protection, islanding systems, rate of
change of frequency relays, reverse power flow relays, voltage surge relays etc. are used
for system protection. Wide Area Measurement (WAM) systems are also being
deployed for system protection. Control actions associated with system protection may
be classified into preventive or emergency control actions.

1.4.3 Analogy with Functioning of a Human being:

A human being is a complex system that performs through various apparatus like legs,
hands, eyes, ears, heart, bones, blood vessels etc. The heart is analogous to an electrical
generator and stomach to the boiler. The eating process provides raw material to
generate calories. The power generated is pumped by heart through a complex network
of blood vessels. The primary transmission is through arteries and veins. Furthermore,
distribution is through fine capillaries. The system operator is the brain which works on
inputs of eyes, ears, skin etc. Diagnosing abnormality in any of these organs and taking
remedial measures can be thought of as job of "apparatus protection". However, does
this cover the complete gambit of anomalies? Are fever, infection etc, a specific
apparatus problem? Why does it cause overall deterioration in functioning of the human
being?

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The answer lies in the fact that the system which encompasses body has also abstraction
like the mind. Overall health is not just an aggregation of apparatus. It is something
much more complex. It involves complex process and associated dynamics (biological,
chemical, mechanical etc.) and control. Thus, protecting a system is not just apparatus
protection but something much more. Since we cannot define this "much more" clearly,
it is complex and challenging. Monitoring of system behavior, taking corrective
measures to maintain synchronous operation and protecting the power system apparatus
from harmful operating states is referred as system protection.

1.5 What is a Relay?

Formally, a relay is a logical element which processes the inputs (mostly voltages and
currents) from the system/apparatus and issues a trip decision if a fault within the relay's
jurisdiction is detected. A conceptual diagram of relay is shown in fig 1.2. In fig 1.3, a
relay R1 is used to protect the transmission line under fault F1. An identical system is
connected at the other end of the transmission line relay R3 to open circuit from the
other ends as well. To monitor the health of the apparatus, relay senses current through
a current transformer (CT), voltage through a voltage transformer (VT). VT is also
known as Potential Transformer (PT).

Fig. 1.2 Conceptual diagram of relay

Fig. 1.3 Typical relaying system

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The relay element analyzes these inputs and decides whether (a) there is a abnormality
or a fault and (b) if yes, whether it is within jurisdiction of the relay. The jurisdiction of
relay R1 is restricted to bus B where the transmission line terminates. If the fault is in
it's jurisdiction, relay sends a tripping signal to circuit breaker (CB) which opens the
circuit. A real life analogy of the jurisdiction of the relay can be thought by considering
transmission lines as highways on which traffic (current/power) flows. If there is an
obstruction to the regular flow due to fault F1 or F2, the traffic police (relay R1) can
sense both F1 and F2 obstructions because of resulting abnormality in traffic (power
flow). If the obstruction is on road AB, it is in the jurisdiction of traffic police at R1;
else if it is at F2, it is in the jurisdiction of R2. R1 should act for fault F2, if and only if,
R2 fails to act. We say that relay R1 backs up relay R2. Standard way to obtain backup
action is to use time discrimination i.e., delay operation of relay R1 in case of doubt to
provide R2 first chance to clear the fault.

1.6 Evolution of Relays:

If we zoom into a relay, we see three different types of realizations: Electromechanical
Relays, Solid State Relays, and Numerical Relays.

1.6.1 Electromechanical Relays:

When the principle of electromechanical energy conversion is used for decision making,
the relay is referred as an electromechanical relay. These relays represent the first
generation of relays. Let us consider a simple example of an over current relay, which
issues a trip signal if current in the apparatus is above a reference value. By proper
geometrical placement of current carrying conductor in
the magnetic field, Lorentz force F=Bilsinθ is
produced in the operating coil. This force is used to
create the operating torque. If constant 'B' is used (for
example by a permanent magnet), then the
instantaneous torque produced is proportional to
instantaneous value of the current. Since the
instantaneous current is sinusoidal, the instantaneous
torque is also sinusoidal which has a zero average
value. Thus, no net deflection of operating coil is
perceived.
On the other hand, if the B is also made proportional to
the instantaneous value of the current, then the
instantaneous torque will be proportional to square of
the instantaneous current (non-negative quantity). The
average torque will be proportional to square of the rms
current. Movement of the relay contact caused by the

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operating torque may be restrained by a spring in the overcurrent relay. If the spring has
a spring constant 'k', then the deflection is proportional to the operating torque (in this
case proportional to Irms2). When the deflection exceeds a present value, the relay
contacts closes and a trip decision is issued. Electromechanical relays are known for
their ruggedness and immunity to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI).

1.6.2 Solid State Relays:

With the advent of transistors, operational amplifiers etc, solid state relays were
developed. They realize the functionality through various operations like comparators
etc. They provide more flexibility and have less power consumption than their
electromechanical counterpart. A major advantage with the solid state relays is their
ability to provide self-checking facility i.e. the relays can monitor their own health and
raise a flag or alarm if its own component fails. Some of the advantages of solid state
relays are low burden, improved dynamic performance characteristics, high seismic
withstand capacity and reduced panel space.
Relay burden refers to the amount of volt amperes (VA) consumed by the relay. Higher
is this value, more is the corresponding loading on the current and voltage sensors i.e.
current transformers (CT) and voltage transformers (VT) which energizes these relays.
Higher loading of the sensors lead to deterioration in their performance. A performance
of CT or VT is gauged by the quality of the replication of the corresponding primary
waveform signal. Higher burden leads to problem of CT saturation and inaccuracies in
measurements. Thus it is desirable to keep CT/VT burdens as low as possible. These
relays have been now superseded by the microprocessor based relays or numerical
relays.

1.6.3 Numerical Relays:

The block diagram of a numerical relay is shown in fig 1.5. It involves analog to digital
(A/D) conversion of analog voltage and currents obtained from secondary of CTs and
VTs. These current and voltage samples are fed to the microprocessor or Digital Signal
Processors (DSPs) where the protection algorithms or programs process the signals and
decide whether a fault exists in the apparatus under consideration or not.

Fig. 1.5 Block diagram of numerical relay

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In case, a fault is diagnosed, a trip decision is issued. Numerical relays provide

maximum flexibility in defining relaying logic. The hardware comprising of numerical
relay can be made scalable i.e., the maximum number of v and I input signals can be
scaled up easily. A generic hardware board can be developed to provide multiple
functionality. Changing the relaying functionality is achieved by simply changing the
relaying program or software. Also, various relaying functionalities can be multiplexed
in a single relay. It has all the advantages of solid state relays like self-checking etc.
Enabled with communication facility, it can be treated as an Intelligent Electronic
Device (IED) which can perform both control and protection functionality. Also, a relay
which can communicate can be made adaptive i.e. it can adjust to changing apparatus
or system conditions. For example, a differential protection scheme can adapt to
transformer tap changes. An overcurrent relay can adapt to different loading conditions.
Numerical relays are both "the present and the future". Hence, in this course, our
presentation is biased towards numerical relaying. This also gives an algorithmic
flavour to the course.

1.7 What is a Circuit Breaker?

A Circuit Breaker (CB) is basically a switch used to interrupt the flow of current. It
opens on relay command. The relay command initiates mechanical separation of the
contacts. It is a complex element because it has to handle large voltages (few to
hundreds of kV's) and currents (in kA's). Interrupting capacity of the circuit breaker is
therefore expressed in MVA. Power systems under fault behave more like inductive
circuits. X/R ratio of lines is usually much greater than unity. For 400 kV lines, it can
be higher than 10 and it increases with voltage rating. From the fundamentals of circuit
analysis, we know that current in an inductive circuit (with finite resistance) cannot
change instantaneously. The abrupt change in current, if it happens due to switch
opening, will result in infinite di/dt and hence will induce infinite voltage. Even with
finite di/dt, the induced voltages will be quite high. The high induced voltage developed
across the CB will ionize the dielectric between its terminals. This results in arcing.
When the current in CB goes through the natural zero, the arc can be extinguished
(quenched). However, if the interrupting medium has not regained its dielectric
properties then the arc can be restruck. The arcing currents reduce with passage of time
and after a few cycles the current is finally interrupted.
Usually CB opening time lies in the 2-6 cycles range. CBs are categorized by the
interrupting medium used. Minimum oil, air blast, vacuum arc and SF6 CBs are some
of the common examples. CB opening mechanism requires much larger power input
than what logical element relay can provide. Hence, when relay issues a trip command,
it closes a switch that energizes the CB opening mechanism powered by a separate dc
source (station battery). The arc struck in a CB produces large amount of heat which
also has to be dissipated.

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1.8 Protection Paradigms - Apparatus Protection:

This scheme is based on the intuition that, faults typically short circuits, lead to currents
much above the load current. We can call them as over-currents. Over current relaying
and fuse protection uses the principle that when the current exceeds a predetermined
value, it indicates presence of a fault (short circuit). This protection scheme finds usage
in radial distribution systems with a single source. It is quite simple to implement. Fig
1.6 shows a radial distribution system with a single source. The fault current is fed from
only one end of the feeder. For this system it can be observed that:
 To relay R1, both downstream faults F1 and F2 are visible i.e. IF1 as well as IF2
pass through CT of R1.
 To relay R2, fault F1, an upstream fault is not seen, only F2 is seen. This is because
no component of IF1 Passes through CT of R2. Thus, selectivity is achieved
naturally. Relaying decision is based solely on the magnitude of fault current.
Such a protection scheme is said to be non-directional.

Fig. 1.6 Radial distribution system

1.9 Directional Overcurrent Protection:

In contrast, there can be situations where for the purpose of selectivity, phase angle
information (always relative to a reference phasor) may be required. Fig 1.7 shows such
a case for a radial system with source at both ends. Consequently, fault is fed from both
the ends of the feeder. To interrupt the fault current, relays at both ends of the feeder
are required.
In this case, from the magnitude of the current seen by the relay R2, it is not possible to
distinguish whether the fault is in the section AB or BC. Since faults in section AB are
not in its jurisdiction, it should not trip. To obtain selectivity, a directional overcurrent
relay is required. It uses both magnitude of current and phase angle information for
decision making. It is commonly used in subtransmission networks where ring mains
are used.

Fig. 1.7 A radial system with source at both ends

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1.10 Distance Protection:

Consider a simple radial system, which is fed from a single source. Let us measure the
apparent impedance (V/I) at the sending end. For the unloaded system, I =0, and the
apparent impedance seen by the relay is infinite. As the system is loaded, the apparent
impedance reduces to some finite value (ZL+Zline) where ZL is the load impedance and
Zline is the line impedance. In presence of a fault at a per-unit distance ‘m', the impedance
seen by the relay drops to a mZline as shown in fig 1.8.
The basic principle of distance relay is that the apparent impedance seen by the relay,
which is defined as the ratio of phase voltage to line current of a transmission line (Zapp),
reduces drastically in the presence of a line fault. A distance relay compares this ratio
with the positive sequence impedance (Z1) of the transmission line. If the fraction
Zapp/Z1 is less than unity, it indicates a fault. This ratio also indicates the distance of the
fault from the relay. Because, impedance is a complex number, the distance protection
is inherently directional. The first quadrant is the forward direction i.e. impedance of
the transmission line to be protected lies in this quadrant. However, if only magnitude
information is used, non-directional impedance relay results. Fig 1.9 and 1.10 shows a
characteristic of an impedance relay and ‘mho relay' both belonging to this class. The
impedance relay trips if the magnitude of the impedance is within the circular region.
Since, the circle spans all the quadrants, it leads to non-directional protection scheme.
In contrast, the mho relay which covers primarily the first quadrant is directional in
nature.

Fig. 1.8 Fault in Transmission line

Fig. 1.9 Impedance relay Fig. 1.10 Mho relay

Thus, the trip law for the impedance relay can be written as follows:
𝑉𝑅
|𝑍𝑎𝑝𝑝 | = < |𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑡 |, then trip; else restrain. While impedance relay has only
𝐼𝑅
one design parameter, Zset, 'mho relay' has two design parameters Zn, λ. The trip law for

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mho relay is given by if |𝑍𝑎𝑝𝑝 | < |𝑍𝑛 |𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃 − 𝜆), then trip; else restrain. As shown in
the fig 1.10 'θ' is the angle of transmission line. Based upon legacy of electromechanical
relays 'λ' is also called 'torque angle'.

Example 1.1:
(a) Find out the value of Zn for a mho relay with torque angle 75o which has to give
100% protection to a 50 km long 110kV transmission line with impedance 0.8Ω per km
and angle 80o.
(b) If the maximum load on this line is 1000A at 30o lagging, is there any possibility of
relay tripping on load? CT ratio is 1000:5, and VT ratio = 1000.

Ans: (a) The two design parameters of a mho relay are Zn and λ. Here the torque angle,
λ of the relay has been selected as 75o.
The transmission line impedance ZLine as on primary = 0.8x50=40Ω
ZLine (secondary) = ZLine (Primary) RC/RV = 40x200/1000=8Ω
where Rc, CT ratio = 200, and Rv, VT ratio = 1000
ZLine=Zncos(θ-λ), where θ angle of transmission line
Zn=ZLine/(cos(θ-λ))=8.03 Ω, this value is to be set on the mho relay.
(b) Maximum Load current = 1000A, and VLine=110kV
Zload=VLine/√3𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 , Zload=63.5Ω
Zload (secondary) = Zload (Primary) RC/RV = 63.5x200/1000=12.7Ω
Since this value will not fall within the operating circle, the mho relay will not trip for
this load.

1.11 Principle of Differential Protection:

Differential protection is based on the fact that any fault within an electrical equipment
would cause the current entering it, to be different, from the current leaving it. Thus by
comparing the two currents either in magnitude or in phase or both we can determine a
fault and issue a trip decision if the difference exceeds a predetermined set value.

1.11.1 Differential Protection for Transmission Line:

Fig 1.11 shows a short transmission line in which shunt charging can be neglected. Then
under no fault condition, phasor sum of currents entering the device is zero i.e. 𝐼⃗⃗𝑠 +
⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅 = 0 Thus, we can say that differential current under no fault condition is zero.
However in case of fault in the line segment AB, we get i.e. differential current in
presence of fault is nonzero. This principle of checking the differential current is known
as a differential protection scheme. In case of transmission line, implementation of
differential protection requires a communication channel to transmit current values to
the other end. It can be used for short feeders and a specific implementation is known

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as pilot wire protection. Differential protection tends to be extremely accurate. Its zone
is clearly demarcated by the CTs which provide the boundary.

Fig. 1.11 Differential protection of short transmission line

1.11.2 Differential Protection for Transmission Line (Tapped Line):

Differential protection can be used for tapped lines (multi-terminal lines) where
boundary conditions are defined as follows:
Under no fault condition: ⃗⃗𝐼1 + ⃗⃗⃗𝐼2 + ⃗⃗⃗𝐼3 = 0
Faulted condition: ⃗⃗𝐼1 + ⃗⃗⃗𝐼2 + ⃗⃗⃗𝐼3 ≠ 0
Differential protection for detecting faults is an attractive option when both ends of the
apparatus are physically located near each other. e.g. on a transformer, a generator or a
bus bar.

Fig. 1.11 Differential protection for Tapped transmission line

1.11.3 Differential Protection for Transformer:

Consider an ideal transformer with the CT connections, as shown in fig 1.12. To
illustrate the principle let us consider that current rating of primary winding is 100A
and secondary winding is 1000A. Then if we use 100:5 and 1000:5 CT on the primary
and secondary winding, then under normal (no fault) operating conditions the scaled
CT currents will match in magnitudes. By connections the primary and secondary CTs
with due care to the dots (polarity markings), a circulating current can be set up as
shown by dotted line. No current will flow through the branch having overcurrent
current relay because it will result in violation of KCL. Now if an internal fault occurs

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within the device like interturn short etc., then the normal mmf balance is upset i.e.
N1I1≠N2I2. Under this condition, the CT secondary currents of primary and secondary
side CTs will not match. The resulting differential current will flow through overcurrent
relay. If the pickup setting of overcurrent relay is close to zero, it will immediately pick
up and initiate the trip decision. In practice, the transformer is not ideal. Consequently,
even if I2=0, I1≠0, it is the magnetization current or (no load) current. Thus, a differential
current always flows through the overcurrent relay. Therefore overcurrent relay pick up
is adjusted above the no load current value. Consequently, minute faults below no load
current value cannot be detected. This compromises sensitivity.

Fig. 1.12 Differential protection for transformer

1.11.4 Differential Protection for Busbar:

Ideally, differential protection is the solution for the bus-bar protection. Figure 1.13
illustrates the basic idea. If the fault is external to the bus, it can be seen that algebraic
sum of the currents entering the bus is zero. 𝐼⃗⃗⃗𝐴 + 𝐼⃗⃗⃗𝐵 + 𝐼⃗⃗⃗𝐶 + 𝐼⃗⃗⃗𝐷 + 𝐼⃗⃗⃗𝐸 = 0. On the other
hand, if fault is on the bus (internal fault), this sum is not zero. ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐴 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐵 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐷 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐸 =
𝐼⃗⃗⃗𝐹 . Thus, differential protection can be used to protect a bus.

Fig. 1.13 Differential protection for busbar

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1.12 Protection Paradigms - System Protection:

1.12.1 Overview of Power System Dynamics:

Usually, system protection requires study of the system dynamics and control. To
understand issues in system protection, we overview dynamical nature of the power
system. Power system behavior can be described in terms of differential and algebraic
system of equations. Differential equations can be written to describe behaviour of
generators, transmission lines, motors, transformers etc. The detailing depends upon the
time scale of investigation. Figure 1.14 shows the various time scales involved in
modelling system dynamics. The dynamics involved in switching, lightening, load
rejection etc have a high frequency component which die down quickly. In analysis of
such dynamics, differential equations associated with inductances and capacitances of
transmission lines have to be modelled. Such analysis is restricted to a few cycles. It is
done by Electromagnetic Transient Program EMTP. At a larger time scale (order of
seconds), response of the electromechanical elements is perceived. These transients are
typically excited by faults which disturb the system equilibrium by upsetting the
generatorload balance in the system. As a consequence of fault, electrical power output
reduces instantaneously while the mechanical input does not change instantaneously.
The resulting imbalance in power (and torque) excites the electromechanical transients
which are essentially slow because of the inertia of the mechanical elements (rotor etc).
Detection and removal of fault is the task of the protection system (apparatus
protection). Post-fault, the system may or may not return to an equilibrium position.
Transient stability studies are required to determine the post fault system stability. In
practice, out-of-step relaying, under frequency load shedding, islanding etc are the
measures used to enhance system stability and prevent blackouts. The distinction
between system protection and control (e.g. damping of power swings) is a finer one.
In the today's world of Integrated Control and Protection Systems ICPS, this distinction
does not make much sense. In this lecture, we discuss these issues from distribution
system perspective. In the next lecture, a transmission system perspective will be
discussed.

Fig. 1.14 Transient spectrum

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1.12.2 System Protection Relays:

Consider a medium voltage distribution system having local generation (e.g., captive
power generation) as shown in fig 1.15 which is also synchronized with the grid. During
grid disturbance, if plant generators are not successfully isolated from the grid, they also
sink with the grid, resulting in significant loss in production and damage to process
equipments. The following relays are used to detect such disturbances, its severity and
isolate the inplant system from the grid.
 Underfrequency and over frequency relays.
 Rate of change of frequency relays.
 Under voltage relays.
 Reverse power flow relays.
 Vector shift relays.

Fig. 1.15 Captive generator that exports power and meets load demand

Underfrequency Relay and Rate of Change of Frequency Relay:

In case of a grid failure (fig. 1.16), captive generators tend to supply power to other
consumers connected to the substation. The load-generation imbalance leads to fall in
frequency. The underfrequency relay R detects this drop and isolates local generation
from the grid by tripping breaker at the point of common coupling. After disconnection
from the grid, it has to be ascertained that there is load-generation balance in the
islanded system. Because of the inertia of the machines, frequency drops gradually. To
speed up the islanding decision, rate of change of frequency relays are used.

Fig. 1.16 Loss of utility and over loading of captive plant

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Undervoltage Relay:
Whenever there is an uncleared fault on the grid close to the plant, the plant generators
tend to feed the fault, and the voltages at the supply point drops. This can be used as a
signal for isolating from the grid.

Reverse Power Relay:

Distribution systems are radial in nature. This holds true for both utility and plant
distribution systems. If there is a fault on the utility's distribution system, it may trip a
breaker thereby isolating plant from the grid. This plant may still remain connected with
downstream loads as shown in fig 1.17 and 1.18. Consequently, power will flow from
the plant generator to these loads. If in the prefault state, power was being fed to the
plant, then this reversal of power flow can be used to island the plant generation and
load from the remaining system. This approach is useful to detect loss of grid supply
whenever the difference between load and available generation is not sufficient to
obtain an appreciable rate of change of frequency but the active power continues to flow
into the grid to feed the external loads.

Fig. 1.17 Utility and plant Fig. 1.18 Isolation of grid and
generator in parallel reversal of power flow

Example 1.2:
In fig 1.17, consider that the plant imports at all times a minimum power of 5 MW.
Studies indicate that for various faults in utility side, minimum power export from the
plant generator is 0.5 MW. Deduce the setting of reverse power relay. If the plant
generator is of 50 MW capacity, what is likelihood of underfrequency or rate of change
of frequency relay picking up on such faults?
Ans: Reverse power flow relay can be set to 0.4 MW. Since minimum reverse power
flow is 1% of plant capacity, it is quite likely, that utility disconnection may not be

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noticed by underfrequency or the rate of change of frequency relays. Vector shift relays
and system protection schemes in transmission systems will be discussed in more details
in later lectures.

1.12.3 Lightning Protection:

Many line outages result from lightning strokes that hit overhead transmission lines.
Lightning discharges normally produce overvoltage surges which may last for a fraction
of second and are extremely harmful. The line outages can be reduced to an acceptable
level by protection schemes like installation of earth wires and earthing of the towers.
Lightning overvoltages can be classified as follows:
 Induced overvoltages which occur when lightning strokes reach the ground near
the line.
 Overvoltages due to shielding failures that occur when lightning strokes reach
the phase conductors.
 Overvoltages by back flashovers that occur when lightning stroke reaches the
tower or the shield wire.
 The most commonly used devices for protection against lightning surges are the
following:
 Shielding by earth wires: Normally, transmission lines are equipped with earth
wires to shield against lightning
 Discharges. The earthwires are placed above
the line conductor at such a position that the
lightning strokes are intercepted by them. In
addition to this, earthing of tower is also
essential.
 Lightning Arrestors: An alternative to the use
of earthwire for protection of conductors
against direct lightning strokes is to use
lightning arrestors in parallel to insulator
strings. Use of lightning arrestors is more
economical also.
Fig. 1.19 Lighting discharge

ZnO varistor is commonly used as lightning arrestor because of its peculiar resistance
characteristic. Its resistance varies with applied voltage, i.e, its resistance is a nonlinear
inverse function of applied voltage. At normal voltage its resistance is high. But when
high voltage surges like lightning strokes appear across the varistor, its resistance
decreases drastically to a very low value and the energy is dissipated in it, giving
protection against lightning.

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1.13 Desirable Attributes of Protection:

1.13.1 Dependability:
A relay is said to be dependable if it trips only when it is expected to trip. This happens
either when the fault is in it's primary jurisdiction or when it is called upon to provide
the back-up protection. However, false tripping of relays or tripping for faults that is
either not within it's jurisdiction, or within it's purview, compromises system operation.
Power system may get unnecessarily stressed or else there can be loss of service.
Dependability is the degree of certainty that the relay will operate correctly:
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦% = × 100
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠
Dependability can be improved by increasing the sensitivity of the relaying system.

Sensitivity: For simplicity, consider the case of overcurrent protection. The protective
system must have ability to detect the smallest possible fault current. The smaller the
current that it can detect, the more sensitive it is. One way to improve sensitivity is to
determine characteristic signature of a fault. It is unique to the fault type and it does not
occur in the normal operation. For example, earth faults involve zero sequence current.
This provide a very sensitive method to detect earth faults. Once, this signature is seen,
abnormality is rightly classified and hence appropriate action is initialized.

1.13.2 Security:
On the other hand, security is a property used to characterize false tripping on the relays.
A relay is said to be secure if it does not trip when it is not expected to trip. It is the
degree of certainty that the relay will not operate incorrectly:
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦% = × 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠
False trips do not just create nuisance. They can even compromise system security. For
example, tripping of a tie-line in a two area system can result in load-generation
imbalance in each area which can be dangerous. Even when multiple paths for power
flow are available, under peak load conditions, overloads or congestion in the system
may result. Dependability and security are contrasting requirements. Typically, a relay
engineer biases his setting towards dependability. This may cause some nuisance
tripping, which can in the worst case, trigger partial or complete blackout! Security of
the relaying system can be improved by improving selectivity of the relaying system.

Selectivity: Like sensitivity, selectivity also implies an ability to discriminate. A relay

should not confuse some peculiarities of an apparatus with a fault. For example,
transformer when energized can draw up to 20 times rated current (inrush current)
which can confuse, both overcurrent and transformer differential protection. Typically,
inrush currents are characterized by large second harmonic content.

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This discriminant is used to inhibit relay operation during inrush, there by, improving
selectivity in transformer protection. Also, a relay should be smart enough, not just to
identify a fault but also be able to decide whether fault is in it's jurisdiction or not. For
example, a relay for a feeder should be able to discriminate a fault on it's own feeder
from faults on adjacent feeders. This implies that it should detect first existence of fault
in it's vicinity in the system and then take a decision whether it is in it's jurisdiction.
Recall that directional overcurrent relay was introduced to improve selectivity of
overcurrent relay.
This jurisdiction of a relay is also called as zone of protection. Typically, protection
zones are classified into primary and backup zones. In detecting a fault and isolating
the faulty element, the protective system must be very selective. Ideally, the protective
system should zero-in on the faulty element and only isolate it, thus causing a minimum
disruption to the system. Selectivity is usually provided by (1) using time discrimination
and (2) applying differential protection principle. With overcurrent and distance relays,
such boundaries are not properly demarcated (see fig 1.20). This is a very important
consideration in operation of power systems. However with a differential protection the
CT location provides 'crisp' demarcation of zone of protection of CT (see fig 1.21). The
fault F1 is in the relay's zone of protection, but fault F2 is not in its jurisdiction. Because
differential protection scheme do not require time discrimination to improve selectivity,
they are essentially fast. These aspects will be discussed in more detail in the later
chapters.

Fig. 1.20 Distance or over current protection

Fig. 1.21 Differential protection scheme

1.13.3 Reliability:
A relaying system has to be reliable. Reliability can be achieved by redundancy i.e.
duplicating the relaying system. Obviously redundancy can be a costly proposition.
Another way to improve reliability is to ask an existing relay say, protecting an

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apparatus A to backup protection of apparatus B. Both the approaches are used

(simultaneously) in practice. However, it is important to realize that back-up protection
must be provided for safe operation of relaying system. Redundancy in protection also
depends upon the criticality of the power apparatus. For example, a 400 kV transmission
line will have independent (duplicated) protection using same or a different philosophy;
on the other hand, a distribution system will not have such local back-up. A quantitative
measure for reliability is defined as follows:
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦% = × 100
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠+𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠

Example 1.3:
The performance of an overcurrent relay was monitored over a period of one year. It
was found that the relay operated 14 times, out of which 12 were correct trips. If the
relay failed to issue trip decision on 3 occasions, compute dependability, security and
reliability of the relay.
Number of correct trips = 12
Number of desired trips = 12 + 3 = 15
12
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦% = × 100 = 80%
15
12
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦% = × 100 = 85.71%
14
12
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦% = × 100 = 70.59%
15+2
Note that even though dependability and security are individually above 80%, overall
reliability much poor (only 70.55%).
Note that number of desired trips can be greater than or equal to number of correct trips.
A desired trip may not happen for various reasons like, the fault level being below the
relaying sensitivity, stuck circuit breaker, incorrect setting of relays poor maintenance
of circuit breaker etc.

Zone of Protection: A relay's zone of protection is a region defined by relay's

jurisdiction (see fig 1.22). It is shown by demarcating the boundary. This demarcation
for differential protection is quite crisp and is defined by CT's location. On the other
hand, such boundaries for overcurrent and distance relays are not very crisp.

Fig. 1.22 Overlapping of protection zones

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It is essential that primary zones of protection should always overlap to ascertain that
no position of the system ever remains unprotected. It can be seen in fig 1.22. This
overlap also accounts for faults in the circuit breakers. To provide this overlap
additional CTs are required.

1.13.4 Necessity of Speed in Relaying:

To maximize safety, and minimize equipment damage and system instability, a fault
should be cleared as quickly as possible. This implies that relay should quickly arrive
at a decision and circuit breaker operation should be fast enough. Typically, a fast circuit
breaker would operate in about two cycles. A reasonable time estimate for ascertaining
presence of fault is one cycle. This implies approximately three cycle fault clearing time
for primary protection. On the other hand, if five cycle circuit breaker is used, fault
clearing time increases to six cycles. So long as short circuit fault exist in a transmission
system, the electrical output of generator remains below the mechanical input. If a
bolted three phase fault occurs close to generator terminal (fig 1.23), Pe = 0. Thus, as
per equation with input Pm; the generator accelerates.
𝑑2 𝛿
2𝐻 = 𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑒
𝑑𝑡 2

Fig. 1.23 Single machine infinite bus system

Fig 1.24 shows the pre and post fault characteristics for the single machine infinite bus
system shown in fig 1.23. Initial operating point A is on the pre fault characteristic.
Occurrence of fault reduces Pe to 0. The power generation imbalance accelerates
generator and hence its δ (power angle) increases. At point C the fault is cleared by
tripping the faulted line and the system moves to post fault characteristics. The power
output jumps to point D. Now Pe > Pm and the machine decelerates. At point E, Δω=ω-
ω0 is equal to zero and the extreme point of swing is reached.
As Pe > Pm, the deceleration continues and hence the rotor starts retarding. At point O,
Pe = Pm the acceleration is zero, but machine speed is lower than nominal speed ω0=2πf0.
Consequently, the angle δ continues to fall back. However, as δ reduces further, Pe also
reduces, therefore Pm - Pe > 0 and the generator starts accelerating. This arrests the drop
in δ at point F and the swing reverses, again a consequence of acceleration. In absence
of damping, these oscillations will recur just like oscillation of a simple pendulum.
However, because of damping provided by generator, the oscillations reduce in
magnitude and finally system settles to equilibrium at point O. It should be obvious that
interval BC is dependent on fault clearing time of the protection system. The shaded

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area ABCC1 is the acceleration area and area C1DEE1 the deceleration area. As per equal
area criteria, the post fault system reaches stable equilibrium if accelerating area equals
to the decelerating area. The limit point for deceleration is defined by point G the
intersection point of Pm0 and the post fault characteristic.

Fig. 1.24 Equal area criteria

Fig. 1.25 System islanding

If the swing of generator exceeds beyond point G, the generator moves from
deceleration to acceleration region. Then, its angle δ continues to rise indefinitely, and
the machine is said to go out-of-step. If any machine goes out-of-step with rest of system
it has to be islanded. Out-of-step condition in a multi machine system can be simulated
by transient stability program. Detection in real-time is a much more challenging task
and it is dealt by ‘out-of-step relaying' schemes. When a multi machine system is
islanded in to different sub-systems, then for stable operation of each sub-system, it is
necessary that each sub-system should have generation load balance. Fig 1.25, however
it should be obvious by now that from the stability perspective, transmission system
protection should be made as fast as possible. As the fault clearing time increases, the
stability margin (area EE1G) reduces. The fault clearing time at which the stability
margin reduces to zero is called the critical clearing time.

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1.13.5 Speed Vs. Accuracy Conflict:

Intuition tells us that quickness is an invitation to disaster. The possible consequences
of quick tripping decisions are:
 Nuisance Tripping
 Tripping for faults outside the relay jurisdiction.
Nuisance tripping is the tripping when there is no fault, e.g. an overcurrent relay tripping
on load. It compromises faith in the relaying system due to unnecessary loss of service.
On the other hand, tripping on faults that are outside the relay's jurisdiction also cause
an unwarranted loss of service in the healthy parts of the system. It has to be mentioned
that speed and accuracy bear an inverse relationship. The high-speed systems tend to be
less accurate for the simple reason that a high speed system has lesser amount of
information available at it's disposal for making decision. Thus, the protection engineer
has to strike a balance between these two incompatible requirements. Innovations in
protection are essentially driven by such requirements. The ways to tackle this conflict
will become clear as we proceed into future lectures.

Fig. 1.26 Conceptual illustration of speed vs accuracy conflict

Recap:
In this chapter we have learnt the following: Necessity of a protection system, Three
generations of relays, Role of Circuit Breaker. Types of protection i.e. apparatus
protection and system protection, Principle of overcurrent protection, Principle of
distance protection, Principle of directional overcurrent protection, Differential
protection, and Applications to apparatus protection. Dynamics in power systems,
Various system protection relays like underfrequency relays, rate of change of
frequency relays, reverse power flow relay, under voltage relay etc., Lightning
protection. Also, in this chapter we have learnt the following desirable attributes of
protection system viz: Dependability, Security, Sensitivity, Selectivity, Reliability,
Necessity of speed in relaying, and Speed vs. accuracy conflict.

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Review Questions
1. What are the two types of protection?
2. Why is system protection required?
3. What are the functions of a relay and a circuit breaker?
4. Describe various generation of relays.
5. In fig 1.5, why is a resistor connected across CT secondary?
6. Why is phase angle information required to protect a radial system with source
at both ends?
7. Discuss the basic principle of distance protection.
8. How is differential protection scheme used in the following:
(a) Transmission line protection.
(b) Transformer protection.
(c) Busbar protection.
9. For the tapped line (fig 1.11), no relays are provided at the tapping point. Can
you explain reasons for the same?
10. Describe various system protection relays in use.
11. What are the functions of an underfrequency relay?
12. Explain the functioning of reverse power flow relay.
13. How transmission lines are protected against lightning?
14. Explain the functioning of ZnO varistor.
15. How is reliability achieved in a protective system?
16. Distinguish between dependability and security of a relay.
17. How is selectivity criteria provided in
(a) Overcurrent protection scheme
(b) Differential protection scheme.
18. Why is high speed system said to be less accurate?
19. The performance of a distance relay was monitored over a period of 2 years. It
was found that it operated 15 times, 12 were desired trips due to faults in its
jurisdiction. It was found that relay failed to issue trip decision on 2 occasions.
Compute dependability and security for the relay.
20. Define the following terms
(a) % Dependability
(b) % Security
(c) % Reliability

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