RESEARCH PROCESS

FF

Review FF
concepts
Define and theories
research Design research Interpret
Formulate Collect data Analyze
problem (including and
Review hypotheses (execution) data
F F report
previous sample design)
1 research III V VI
IV VII
findings
II Where FF-Feed forward-serves the
vital function of providing the criteria
Literature for evaluation
review F-Feedback-helps in controlling sub
system to which it is transmitted.
F
 NB:
 The chart indicates that the research process
consist of a number of closely related
activities.
 Such activities overlap continuously rather
than following a strictly prescribed sequence.
 At times ,the first step determines the nature
of the last step to be undertaken.
 The various steps are not mutually exclusive nor
are they separate and distinct.
 They do not necessarily follow each other in any
specific order and the researcher has to keep
on anticipating at each step in the research
process ,the requirements of the subsequent
steps.
 However the following order provides a useful
procedure guideline regarding the research
process.
 The following order provides a useful procedural guideline
regarding the research process
i. Formulating the research problem
ii. Extensive literature survey
iii. Developing the hypothesis
iv. Preparing the research design
v. Determining the sample size
vi. Collecting the data
vii.Execution of the project
viii.Analysis of data
ix. Hypothesis testing
x. Generalizations and interpretation
xi. Preparation of the report or presentations of the results.
Formulating the research problem
There are two types of research problems ie those
that relates to nature and those that relate to
relationship between variables.
At the very onset ,the researcher must single out
the problem he would want to study ie he must
decide the general area of interest or aspect of
subject matter he would want to inquire into.
Initially the problem may be stated in a broad
general way and then the ambiguities if any
relating to the problem is resolved.
The feasibility of a particular solution has to be
considered before a working formulation can be
set up.
Two steps are involved in formulating the
research problem ie understanding the problem
thoroughly and rephrasing the same into
meaningful terms from an analytical point of
view.
Best way of understanding the problem –discuss
it with own colleagues or discuss with those that
have expertise in the matter
Statement of the objective is important
because it determines the data which are to
be collected ,the characteristics of the data
which are relevant, relations to be explored
and the choice of techniques to be used in
these explorations and the form of the final
report.
Extensive literature survey
The researcher must examine all available
literature to get himself acquainted with the
selected problem.
Two types of review:
 Conceptual literature-concerning concepts and
theories
 Empirical literature-consisting of studies made
earlier which are similar top to the one
proposed.
Outcome of literature review-knowledge as to what
data and other materials are available to enable the
researcher specify his research problem in a
meaningful context.
After this the researcher rephrases the problem into
analytical and operational terms.ie put the problem
in as specific terms as possible .
Developing the hypothesis
After extensive literature survey ,researcher
should state in clear terms the working hypothesis
/hypotheses.
Hypothesis-a tentative assumption made in order
to draw out and test its logical or empirical
consequences .
They provide the focal point for the research.
Hypothesis
They affect the manner tests must be conducted in the analysis of
data and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the
data analysis.
Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of
research in hand.
The role of hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the
area of research and to keep him in track.
It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more
important facets of the problem.
It indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of
data analysis to be used.
 Approach for developing working hypotheses
i. Discussion with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and
the objectives in seeking a solution.
ii. Examination of data and records ,if available ,concerning the problem for
possible trends , peculiarities and other clues.
iii. Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems.
iv. Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field
interviews on a limited scale with interested parties and individuals.
NB -working hypothesis arise as a result of a-priori thinking ,examination of
the available data and material including related studies and the counsel of
experts and interested parties.
NB-There are cases where hypotheses are not necessary eg for exploratory or
formulative research do not aim at testing the hypothesis.
Preparing the research design
This means that the researcher will be required to state
the conceptual structure within which research would
be conducted.
Importance of research design
The preparation of such a design facilitates research to
be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information.
It provides for the collection of relevant evidence with
minimal expenditure of time ,effort and money but how
all these can be achieved depends on the research
purposes, which may be categorized as ;explorative,
description ,diagnosis and experimentation.
For example for explorative research ,a flexible
research design which provides opportunity for
considering many different aspects of a problem
is considered.
For descriptive research, the suitable research
design would be the one that minimises bias and
maximizes the reliability of the data collected
and analysed.
Types of research designs
Non experimental

Experimental
Are of two types ;absolute and comparative
For example when a farmer want to determine the impact
of a fertilizer on the yield of a crop ,this can be referred to as
Absolute experiment.
For example if a farmer wants to determine the impact of
one fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other
fertilizer, this can be referred to as comparative experiment.
Comparative experiment - When we talk about design of
experiments ,the researcher normally conducts comparative
experiment.
Comparative experiment can either be
Informal designs (such as before -and after-
without control ,after- only with control ,before –
and –after with control )
Formal designs examples ;completely randomized
design ,randomized block design, Latin square
design ,simple and complex factorial.
Task for my students
Describe the following formal research
designs;completely randomized design
,randomized block design, Latin square design
,simple and complex factorial
Preparation of a research design requires the
following considerations
i. The means of obtaining the information.
ii. The availability and skills of the researcher and his
staff (if any)
iii. Explanation of the way in which selected means
of obtaining information will be organized.
iv.The time available for research
v. The cost factor relating to research ie the finance
available for that purpose.
DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE
All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’.
A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population' is
known as a census inquiry.
It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items
are covered no element of chance is left and highest
accuracy is obtained.
But in practice this may not be true.
Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will
get larger and larger as the number of observations
increases.
Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of
bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use of
sample checks.
Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of
time, money and energy.
Census inquiry is not possible in practice under many
circumstance eg ,blood testing is done only on sample
basis.
A sample-represents selection of only a few items from
the population /universe for study purposes.
Types of sample designs
Deliberate sampling/purposive/non probability
sampling
 This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate
selection of particular units of the universe for
constituting a sample which represents the universe.
 When population elements are selected for inclusion in
the sample based on the ease of access, it can be called
convenience sampling.
At a times, such a procedure may give biased results
particularly when the population is not homogeneous.
 In judgement sampling ,the researcher’s judgment is used
for selecting items which he considers as representative
of the population. Eg a judgement sample of college
students might be taken to secure reactions to a new
method of teaching.
 Judgement sampling is used quite frequently in
qualitative research where there is desire to test
hypotheses rather than to generalize to larger
populations.
Simple random /chance /probability sampling
Here each and every item in the population has an equal
chance of inclusion in the sample and each one of the
possible samples ,incase of finite universe has the same
probability of being selected.
Systematic sampling
Eg in some instances ,the most practical way of sampling
is to select every 15th name on a list , every 10th house on
one side of the street etc.
This type of sampling is known as systematic sampling.
An element of randomness is usually introduced into this
kind of sampling especially when the sampling frame is
available in the form of a list.
Stratified sampling
If the population from which a sample is to be drawn
does not constitute a homogenous group, then
stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain
a representative sample.
In this technique ,the population is stratified into a
number of non overlapping sub populations or strata
and sample items are selected form each stratum.
If the items selected from each stratum is based on
random sampling the entire procedure, first
stratification and then simple random sampling, it is
known as stratified random sampling.
Quota Sampling
In stratified sampling ,the cost of taking random samples
from individual strata is often so expensive that interviewers
are simply given quota to be filled from different strata ,the
actual selection of items for sample being left to the
interviewers judgement.
This is called quota sampling.
The size of the quota for each stratum is generally
proportionate to the size of that stratum in the population.
It is an important form of non-probability sampling.
Quota samples generally happen to be judgement
samples rather than random samples.
Cluster Sampling and area sampling
Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and
then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than
individual elements for inclusion in the sample.
Area sampling- used especially when the geographical
area of interest happens to be a big one.
The total geographical area of interest is subdivided into
smaller non overlapping areas generally called
geographical clusters ,then a number of these are
randomly selected and all units in these small areas are
included in the sample.
Multi stage sampling
Is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling.
This technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a
considerably large geographical area e.g an entire
Country.
Under this sampling, the first stage may be to select large
primary sampling units e.g states ,then districts ,then towns,
and finally certain families within towns.
If the technique of random sampling is applied at all
stages ,the sampling procedure is described as multi stage
random sampling.
Sequential sampling
This is somewhat a complex sample design where
the ultimate size of the sample is not fixed in
advance but is determined according to
mathematical decisions on the basis of information
yielded as survey progresses.
This design is usually adopted under acceptance
sampling plan in the context of statistical quality
control.
 NB
 Several of the methods of sampling described above may be
well used in the same study in which case it can be called
mixed sampling.
 One should resort to random sampling so that bias can be
eliminated and sampling error can be estimated.
 But purposive sampling is desirable when the universe happens
to be small and a known characteristic of it is to studied
intensively.
 Also there are conditions under which sample designs other
than random sampling may be considered better for reasons
like convenience and low costs.
 The sample design to be used must be decided by the
researcher taking into consideration the nature of inquiry and
other related factors.