CHAPTER 1:ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS:

EMS Audit- ISO 14001: 2015:

ISO 14001 is an internationally agreed standard that sets out the requirements for an
environmental management system. It helps organizations improve their environmental
performance through more efficient use of resources and reduction of waste, gaining a
competitive advantage and the trust of stakeholders.
ISO 14001 is the business improvement tool that helps organizations implement a flexible
and robust environmental management system, making them more resilient and sustainable.
It brings environmental management into the heart of an organization, complementing
business strategy and helping improve environmental performance over time. Incorporating
the latest environmental thinking including lifecycle perspective it helps provide greater
protection for the environment. It’s a framework which helps you focus on the increasing
expectations of customers and other stakeholders, as well as regulatory requirements. It’s
flexible and agile so you can make it work for your business. That’s how ISO 14001:2015
really adds value.
ISO 14001 was revised in 2015 to bring it up to date with the needs of modern businesses and
the latest environmental thinking. It’s based on Annex SL, the new high-level structure
(HLS) which is a common framework for all ISO management systems. This helps keep
consistency, align different management system standards, offer matching sub-clauses
against the top-level structure and apply common language across all standards. It makes it
easier for organizations to incorporate their environmental management system, into core
business processes, make efficiencies, and get more involvement from senior management.
Key requirements of ISO 14001:2015
Clause 1: Scope This clause relates to the scope or coverage of the standard to help
organizations achieve the intended outcomes of its EMS.
Clause 2: Normative reference There are no normative references, for example other
additional requirements in other standards, that have to be considered. The clause is retained
in order to maintain the same numbering scheme as all the other management system
standards.
Clause 3: Terms and definitions at first sight, the listing of terms and definitions seems
confusing as they are not in alphabetical order. Instead, the approach stipulated by ISO is that
terms and definitions are in the order that they appear in the standard. It may be easier to use
this listing in conjunction with the alphabetical listing in Annex C. An organization will also
need to identify the ‘interested parties’ relevant to their EMS and their needs. These could
include customers, communities, suppliers and non-government organizations and may
change over time. Finally, the last requirement is to establish, implement, maintain and
continually improve the EMS in accordance with the requirements of the standard. Key
requirements of ISO 14001:2015
Clause 4: Context of the organization This is a new clause that establishes the context of the
EMS and how the business strategy supports this. ‘Context of the organization’ is the clause
that underpins the rest of the standard. It gives an organization the opportunity to identify and
understand the factors and parties that can affect, either positively or negatively, the EMS.
Firstly, the organization will need to determine external and internal issues that are relevant
to its purpose i.e. what are the relevant issues, both inside and out, that have an impact on or
affect its ability to achieve the intended outcome(s) of the EMS. Importantly, issues should
include not only environmental conditions that the organization affects but also those that it is
affected by.
Clause 5: Leadership This clause is all about the role of “top management” which is the
person or group of people who directs and controls the organization at the highest level. The
purpose is to demonstrate leadership and commitment by integrating environmental
management into business processes. Top management must demonstrate a greater
involvement in the management system and need to establish the environmental policy,
which can include commitments specific to an organization’s context beyond those directly
required, such as the ‘protection of the environment’. There is greater focus on top
management to commit to continual improvement of the EMS. Communication is key and
top management have a responsibility to ensure the EMS is made available, communicated,
maintained and understood by all parties. Finally, top management need to assign relevant
responsibilities and authorities, highlighting two particular roles concerning EMS
conformance to ISO 14001 and reporting on EMS performance.
Clause 6: Planning This clause focuses on how an organization plans actions to address both
risks and opportunities which have been identified in Clause 4. It focuses the organization on
the development and use of a planning process, rather than a procedure to address both a
range of factors and the risk associated with such factors. Consideration of risks needs to be
proportionate to the potential impact they may have, and opportunities could include
substitute raw materials for example. For the first time, there is an explicit reference to
abnormal and emergency situations. Even more importantly, the reference to a consideration
of a life cycle perspective and the clause notes highlights that significant aspects can give rise
to risks that are both beneficial and adverse. Another key area of this clause is the need to
establish measurable environmental objectives. Finally, this clause covers what is referred to
as “planning of changes”. This has to be done in a systematic manner. Organizations should
consider identifying who is involved, when changes are to take place and the potential
consequences of change.
Clause 7: Support This clause is all about the execution of the plans and processes that
enable an organization to meet their EMS. Simply expressed, this is a very powerful
requirement covering all EMS resource needs. Organizations will need to determine the
necessary competence of people doing work that, under its control, affects its environmental
performance, its ability to fulfil its compliance obligations and ensure they receive the
appropriate training. In addition, organizations need to ensure that all people doing work
under the organization’s control are aware of the environmental policy, how their work may
impact this and implications of not conforming with the EMS. Finally, there are the
requirements for ‘documented information’ which relate to the creation, updating and control
of specific data.
Clause 8: Operation This clause deals with the execution of the plans and processes that
enable the organization to meet their environmental objectives. There are specific
requirements that relate to the control or influence exercised over outsourced processes and
the requirement to consider certain operational aspects ‘consistent with a life cycle
perspective’. These 6 means giving serious consideration to how actual or potential
environmental impacts happening upstream and downstream of an organization’s site-based
operations are influenced or (where possible) controlled. Finally, the clause also covers the
procurement of products and services, as well as controls to ensure that environmental
requirements relating to design, delivery, use and end-of-life treatment of an organization’s
products and services are considered at an appropriate stage.
Clause 9: Performance Evaluation This is all about measuring and evaluating your EMS to
ensure that it is effective and it helps you to continually improve. You will need to consider
what should be measured, the methods employed and when data should be analysed and
reported on. As a general recommendation, organizations should determine what information
they need to evaluate environmental performance and effectiveness. Internal audits will need
to be carried out, and there are certain “audit criteria” that are defined to ensure that the
results of these audits are reported to relevant management. Finally, management reviews
will need to be carried out and “documented information” must be kept as evidence.
Clause 10: Improvement This clause requires organizations to determine and identify
opportunities for continual improvement of the EMS. The requirement for continual
improvement has been extended to ensure that the suitability and adequacy of the EMS—as
well as its effectiveness— are considered in the light of enhanced environmental
performance. There are some actions that are required that cover handling of corrective
actions. Firstly, organizations need to react to the nonconformities and act. Secondly, they
need to identify whether similar nonconformities exist or could potentially occur. This clause
requires organizations to determine and identify opportunities for continual improvement of
the EMS. There is a requirement to actively look out for opportunities to improve processes,
products or services; particularly with future customer requirements in mind.

Aspects and impact of Environment Management:

The identification of environmental aspects is an important step towards recognizing their
impacts on our planet. This proves helpful in setting and formulating objectives, targets, and
other programs that may be directed towards solving environmental problems.
1. Definition of Environmental Aspect Environmental Aspect is an element of an
organization's activities, products or services that can interact with the environment. There
are two types of environmental aspects:
(i) Direct Environmental Aspect Activities over which a company can be expected to have an
influence and control. For example, emissions from processes.
(ii) Indirect Environmental Aspect Actual or Potential activities over which the organization
can be expected to have an influence, but no control. For example, supply chain-controlled
aspects, customer-controlled aspects, aspects managed elsewhere within the same company.
2. Identification of Environmental Aspects:
(a) Identify Activities, Services and Products.
(b) Draw up an inventory of all operations and processes, identify releases (normal,
abnormal, accidental, and emergency situations).
(c) Consider direct and indirect environmental aspects.
(d) Consider:
• Emissions to air.
• Release to water.
• Waste Management.
• Contamination of land.
• Impact on communities.
• Use of raw materials and natural resources.
• Other local environmental and community issues.

3. Records of Environmental Aspects:

• Review based on sound understanding of environmental issues associated with the process.
• Check that both Direct and Indirect Environmental Aspects have been included.
• Check the method of assigning significance.
• Check that both actual and potential aspects have been included.
• Check that legislative requirements have been taken in view. Environmental Aspect and
Impact: The Basics In the study of environment, it is essential to identify each possible
environmental aspect and impact of it on our surroundings. The various environmental
aspects each have a number of different impacts on the environment.

Potential impacts must also be identified.

1. Commonly Used Definitions in the Study of Environmental Aspect and Impact
1.1. Environmental Impact Any change to the environment whether adverse or beneficial
(wholly or partially) resulting from an organization's activities products or services.
1.2. Significant Impact The activity that results in substantial breach of statutory regulations
under abnormal conditions. Knowledge of environmental aspect and impact is necessary in
order to have a thorough awareness of the world we live in.

2. Identification of Environmental Aspect and Impact Inputs and Outputs of a manufacturing

process
3. Cause and Effect Activity Spray Painting Aspect Emissions of Solvent to air Impact
Global Warming plus Ozone Depletion Activity At start-up of spray painting Aspect
Emissions of Solvent to water Impact Water Pollution Knowledge of environmental aspect
and impact is necessary in order to have a thorough awareness of the world we live in
Activity Spray on to the ground for 5 seconds Aspect Contamination of land Impact Land
Pollution
4. Potential Environmental Impacts Let us now list out a number of environmental aspects.
We shall discuss each environmental aspect and impact that each has on the environment
4.1 Natural Resources Possible Aspect Over Consumption Impact Depletion of minerals, raw
materials, and energy sources Possible Aspect Habitat Destruction Impact Depletion of living
resources
4.2 Air Possible Aspect CO2, CH4 fossil fuel combustion Impact Global warming Possible
Aspect CFCs, halons, other chlorinated compounds Impact Ozone layer depletion Possible
Aspect SO2 NOx NH3 Impact Acid precipitation Possible Aspect Automobile, bus, truck
emissions Impact Rising ground level ozone Possible Aspect Industrial emissions :
evaporation Impact Exposure to hazardous gases Possible Aspect Energy installations Impact
Exposure to smoke Possible Aspect Nuclear installation, wastes, natural sources Impact
Exposure to radioactivity
4.3 Land Possible Aspect Hazardous or radioactive waste, air deposition Impact
Contamination Possible Aspect Mining, construction, drainage Impact Disturbance and soil
erosion, loss of soil cover, water logging, disturbs groundwater, loss of habitats
4.4 Visual, Noise, Nuisance Possible Aspect Construction Impact Visual Possible Aspect
Production, processes, waters Impact Dust Possible Aspect Machinery, traffic Impact Odour,
noise, vibration.

Environmental Policy

Industry is committed to running its business in a responsible, environmentally sound and

sustainable manner. We recognise that our supply chain, processes and products have both
direct and indirect environmental impacts. We seek to identify these and to find effective
ways of eliminating or reducing them. Our aim is to achieve continuous improvement in our
environmental performance. Throughout our global operations we regard compliance with
the law as the minimum standard to be achieved and will put in place additional
environmental programmes to go beyond compliance where appropriate. Environmental
Objectives Our environmental objectives have been chosen, and are regularly reviewed, to
ensure that our actions effectively implement our environmental policy; they are:
• To take significant environmental aspects and impacts into account throughout our
operations, maintaining a functioning environmental management system at each factory.
• To ensure that environmental issues are properly assessed and considered when key
decisions are taken about supply chains, processes and new product development.
• To establish and measure the significant environmental impacts of our operations, set
targets for performance improvements and monitor progress against those targets in areas
including but not limited to energy, greenhouse gas emissions, water usage / quality and
waste.
• To use energy and natural resources wisely and efficiently, eliminate and minimise waste,
and re-use and recycle where practical.
• To make a real and meaningful contribution to mitigating climate change and global water
scarcity, by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and water impact across the complete
lifecycle of our products and their packaging, reflecting national and international
government agendas when setting targets.
• To engage with our suppliers, customers and other stakeholders on environmental issues,
including the sustainability of our raw and packaging material supply chains (via the
Responsible Sourcing of Natural Raw Materials Policy and Global Manufacturing Standard
Policy, both available.
• To ensure that employees have a level of knowledge and understanding appropriate to their
environmental responsibilities and are aware of actions they can take to reduce their impacts.
• To conduct an annual review, including progress against targets, and to make that review
publicly available in our annual Sustainability Report. The Chief Executive Officer (CEO) is
the Board member with specific responsibility for the Company’s environmental policy and
performance. This responsibility is delegated operationally through the Company’s line
management structure, which includes a Global Sustainability Director responsible for
coordinating environmental performance across the Company.
ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT PROGRAMMES OR ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT PLAN (EMP)
Preparation of environmental management plan is required for formulation, implementation
and monitoring of environmental protection measures during and after commissioning of
projects. The plans should indicate the details as to how various measures have been or are
proposed to be taken including cost components as may be required. Cost of measures for
environmental safeguards should be treated as an integral component of the project cost and
environmental aspects should be considered at various stages of the projects:
a) Conceptualization: preliminary environmental assessment
b) Planning: detailed studies of environmental impacts and design of safeguards
c) Execution: implementation of environmental safety measures
d) Operation: monitoring of effectiveness of built-in safeguards

The management plans should be necessarily based on considerations of resource

conservation and pollution abatement, some of which are:
a) Liquid Effluents
b) Air Pollution
c) Solid Wastes
d) Noise and Vibration
e) Occupational Safety and Health
f) Prevention, maintenance and operation of Environment Control Systems
g) House-Keeping
h) Human Settlements
i) Transport Systems
j) Recovery - reuse of waste products
k) Vegetal Cover
l) Disaster Planning
m) Environment Management Cell

a) Liquid Effluents
i. Effluents from the industrial plants should be treated well to the standards as
prescribed by the Central/State Water Pollution Control Boards.
ii. Soil permeability studies should be made prior to effluents being discharged into
holding tanks or impoundments and steps taken to prevent percolation and ground
water contamination.
iii. Special precautions should be taken regarding flight patterns of birds in the area.
Effluents containing toxic compounds, oil and grease have been known to cause
extensive death of migratory birds. Location of plants should be prohibited in such
type of sensitive areas.
iv. Deep well burial of toxic effluents should not be resorted to as it can result in re-
surfacing and ground water contamination. Re-surfacing has been known to cause
extensive damage to crop and livestock.
v. In all cases, efforts should be made for re-use of water and its conservation.
b) Air Pollution
i. The emission levels of pollutants from the different stacks, should conform to the
pollution control standards prescribed by Central or State Boards.
ii. Adequate control equipment should be installed for minimising the emission of
pollutants from the various stacks.
iii. In-plant control measures should be taken to contain the fugitive emissions.
iv. Infrastructural facilities should be provided for monitoring the stack emissions and
measuring the ambient air quality including micro-meteorological data (wherever
required) in the area.
v. Proper stack height as prescribed by the Central/State Pollution Control Boards
should be provided for better dispersion of pollutants over a wider area to minimise
the effect of pollution.
vi. Community buildings and townships should be built up-wind of plant with one-half to
one-kilometre greenbelt in addition to physiographical barrier.

c) Solid Wastes
i. The site for waste disposal should be checked to verify permeability so that no
contaminants percolate into the ground water or river/lake.
ii. Waste disposal areas should be planned down-wind of villages and townships.
iii. Reactive materials should be disposed of by immobilising the reactive materials with
suitable additives.
iv. The pattern of filling disposal site should be planned to create better landscape and be
approved by appropriate agency and the appropriately pre-treated solid wastes should
be disposed according to the approved plan.
v. Intensive programs of tree plantation on disposal areas should be undertaken.

d) Noise and Vibration

i. Adequate measures should be taken for control of noise and vibrations in the industry.
ii. Occupational Safety and Health
iii. Proper precautionary measures for adopting occupational safety and health standards
should be taken.
iv. Prevention, maintenance and operation of Environment Control Systems
v. Adequate safety precautions should be taken during preventive maintenance and shut
down of the control systems.
vi. A system of inter-locking with the production equipment should be implemented
where highly toxic compounds are involved.

e) House - Keeping

Proper house-keeping and cleanliness should be maintained both inside and outside of the
industry.
f) Human Settlements
i. Residential colonies should be located away from the solid and liquid waste dumping
areas. Meteorological and environmental conditions should be studied properly before
selecting the site for residential areas in order to avoid air pollution problems.
ii. Persons who are displaced or have lost agricultural lands as a result of locating the
industries in the area, should be properly rehabilitated.

g) Transport Systems
i. Proper parking places should be provided for the trucks and other vehicles by the
industries to avoid any congestion or blocking of roads.
ii. Siting of industries on the highways should be avoided as it may add to more road
accidents because of substantial increase in the movements of heavy vehicles and
unauthorised shops and settlements coming up around the industrial complex.
iii. Spillage of chemicals/substances on roads inside the plant may lead to accidents.
Proper road safety signs both inside and outside the plant should be displayed for
avoiding road accidents.

h) Recovery - reuse of waste products

Efforts should be made to recycle or recover the waste materials to the extent possible. The
treated liquid effluents can be conveniently and safely used for irrigation of lands, plants and
fields for growing non-edible crops.
i) Vegetal Cover

Industries should plant trees and ensure vegetal cover in their premises. This is particularly
advisable for those industries having more than 10 acres of land.
j) Disaster Planning

Proper disaster planning should be done to meet any emergency situation arising due to fire,
explosion, sudden leakage of gas etc. Firefighting equipment and other safety appliances
should be kept ready for use during disaster/emergency situation including natural calamities
like earthquake/flood.
k) Environment Management Cell

Each industry should identify within its setup a Department/Section/Cell with trained
personnel to take up the model responsibility of environmental management as required for
planning and implementation of the projects.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

(EIA) PROCESS The first phase of an environmental assessment is called an Initial

Environmental Examination (IEE) and the second is Environmental Impact Studies (EIS) or
simply detailed EIA.
a) Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) IEE is carried out to determine whether
potentially adverse environmental effects are significant or whether mitigation
measures can be adopted to reduce or eliminate these adverse effects. The IEE
contains a brief statement of key environmental issues, based on readily available
information, and is used in the early (pre-feasibility) phase of project planning. The
IEE also suggests whether in-depth studies are needed. When an IEE is able to
provide a definite solution to environmental problems, an EIA is not necessary. IEE
also requires expert advice and technical input from environmental specialists so that
potential environmental problems can be clearly defined.

b) Environmental Impact Assessment(EIA): EIA is a procedure used to examine the

environmental consequences or impacts, both beneficial and adverse, of a proposed
development project and to ensure that these effects are considered in project design. The
EIA is therefore based on predictions. These impacts can include all relevant aspects of the
natural, social, economic and human environment. The study therefore requires a
multidisciplinary approach and should be done very early at the feasibility stage of a project.
In other words, a project should be assessed for its environmental feasibility. EIA should
therefore be viewed as an integral part of the project planning process. Unlike the
environmental audit (EA), which is conducted on existing projects, the EIA is applied to new
projects and the expansion aspects of existing projects.

4.1 Screening EIA process kicks off with project screening. Screening is done to determine
whether or not a proposal should be subject to EIA and, if so, at what level of detail.
Guidelines for whether or not an EIA is required are country specific depending on the laws
or norms in operation. Legislation often specifies the criteria for screening and full EIA.
Development banks also screen projects presented for financing to decide whether an EIA is
required using their set criteria. The output of the screening process is often a document
called an Initial Environmental Examination or Evaluation (IEE) (Section 4.1). The main
conclusion will be a classification of the project according to its likely environmental
sensitivity. This will determine whether an EIA is needed and if so, to what detail.
4.2 Scoping The aim of EIA is not to carry out exhaustive studies on all environmental
impacts for all projects. Scoping is used to identify the key issues of concern at an early stage
in the planning process (Ahmed & Sammy, 1987). The results of scoping will determine the
scope, depth and terms of reference to be addressed within the Environmental statement.
Identify concerns and issues for consideration in an EIA Ensure a relevant EIA Enable those
responsible for an EIA study to properly brief the study team on the alternatives and on
impacts to be considered at different levels of analysis Determine the assessment methods to
be used Identify all affected interests Provide an opportunity for public involvement in
determining the factors to be assessed, and facilitate early agreement on contentious issues
Save time and money Establish terms of reference (TOR) for EIA study Scoping should be an
ongoing exercise throughout the course of the project. The following environmental tools can
be used in the scoping exercise

Checklists – Checklists are standard lists of the types of impacts associated with a particular
type of project. Checklists methods are primarily for organizing information or ensuring that
no potential impact is overlooked. They comprise list questions on features the project and
environments impacts. They are generic in nature and are used as aids in assessment.

Matrices - Matrix methods identify interactions between various project actions and
environmental parameters and components. They incorporate a list of project activities with a
checklist of environmental components that might be affected by these activities. A matrix of
potential interactions is produced by combining these two lists (placing one on the vertical
axis and the other on the horizontal axis). They should preferably cover both the construction
and the operation phases of the project, because sometimes, the former causes greater impacts
than the latter. However, matrices also have their disadvantages: they do not explicitly
represent spatial or temporal considerations, and they do not adequately address synergistic
impacts.

Networks – these are cause effect flow diagrams used to help in tracing the web relationships
that exist between different activities associated with action and environmental system with
which they interact. They are also important in identifying direct and cumulative impacts.
They are more complex and need expertise for their effective use.

Consultations – with decision-makers, affected communities, environmental interest groups

to ensure that all potential impacts are detected. However, there can be danger in this when
excessive consultation is done and some unjustifiable impacts included in the Tour.

4.3 Baseline data collection the term "baseline" refers to the collection of background
information on the biophysical, social and economic settings proposed project area.
Normally, information is obtained from secondary sources, or the acquisition of new
information through field samplings, interviews, surveys and consultations with the public.
The task of collecting baseline data starts right from the period of project inception; however,
a majority of this task may be undertaken during scoping and actual EIA. Baseline data is
collected for two main purposes to provide a description of the current status and trends of
environmental factors (e.g., air pollutant concentrations) of the host area against which
predicted changes can be compared and evaluated in terms of significance, and to provide a
means of detecting actual change by monitoring once a project has been initiated Achieng
EIA – General procedures Only baseline data needed to assist prediction of the impacts
contained in the Tour and scoping report should be collected.

4.4 Impact analysis and prediction Predicting the magnitude of a development likely impacts
and evaluating their significance is core of environmental assessment process (Morris &
Therivel, 1995). Prediction should be based on the available environmental baseline of the
project area. Such predictions are described in quantitative or qualitative terms.
4.4.1 Considerations in impact prediction Magnitude of Impact: This is defined by the
severity of each potential impact and indicates whether the impact is irreversible or,
reversible and estimated potential rate of recovery. The magnitude of an impact cannot be
considered high if a major adverse impact can be mitigated. Extent of Impact: The spatial
extent or the zone of influence of the impact should always be determined. An impact can be
site-specific or limited to the project area; a locally occurring impact within the locality of the
proposed project; a regional impact that may extend beyond the local area and a national
impact affecting resources on a national scale and sometimes trans-boundary impacts, which
might be international. Duration of Impact: Environmental impacts have a temporal
dimension and needs to be considered in an EIA. Impacts arising at different phases of the
project cycle may need to be considered. An impact that generally lasts for only three to nine
years after project completion may be classified as short-term. An impact, which continues
for 10 to 20 years, may be defined as medium-term, and impacts that last beyond 20 years are
considered as long-term. Significance of the Impact: This refers to the value or amount of the
impact. Once an impact has been predicted, its significance must be evaluated using an
appropriate choice of criteria. The most important forms of criterion are: Specific legal
requirements e.g. national laws, standards, international agreements and conventions, relevant
policies etc. Public views and complaints Threat to sensitive ecosystems and resources e.g.
can lead to extinction of species and depletion of resources, which can result, into conflicts.
Geographical extent of the impact e.g. has trans- boundary implications. Cost of mitigation
Duration (time period over which they will occur) Likelihood or probability of occurrence
(very likely, unlikely, etc.) Reversibility of impact (natural recovery or aided by human
intervention) Number (and characteristics) of people likely to be affected and their locations
Cumulative impacts e.g. adding more impacts to existing ones. Uncertainty in prediction due
to lack of accurate data or complex systems. Precautionary principle is advocated in this
scenario.
4.4.2 Impact prediction methodologies Several techniques can be used in predicting the
impacts. The choices should be appropriate to the circumstances. These can be based on:
Professional judgment with adequate reasoning and supporting data. This technique requires
high professional experience. Experiments or tests. These can be expensive. EIA – General
procedures 9 Achieng Past experience Numerical calculations & mathematical models. These
can require a lot of data and competency in mathematical modelling without which hidden
errors can arise Physical or visual analysis. Detailed description is needed to present the
impact. Geographical information systems, Risk assessment, and Economic valuation of
environmental impacts
4.5 Analysis of alternatives Analysis of alternative is done to establish the preferred or most
environmentally sound, financially feasible and benign option for achieving project
objectives. The World Bank directives requires systematic comparison of proposed
investment design in terms of site, technology, processes etc in terms of their impacts and
feasibility of their mitigation, capital, recurrent costs, suitability under local conditions and
institutional, training and monitoring requirements (World bank 1999). For each alternative,
the environmental cost should be quantified to the extent possible and economic values
attached where feasible, and the basic for selected alternative stated. The analysis of
alternative should include a NO PROJECT alternative.
4.6 Mitigation and impact management Mitigation is done to avoid, minimize or offset
predicted adverse impacts and, where appropriate, to incorporate these into an environmental
management plan or system. For each potential adverse impact, the plan for its mitigation at
each stage of the project should be documented and costed, as this is very important in the
selection of the preferred alternative. The objectives of mitigation therefore are to: find better
alternatives and ways of doing things; enhance the environmental and social benefits of a
project avoid, minimise or remedy adverse impacts; and ensure that residual adverse impacts
are kept within acceptable levels.

Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)

The final EIA report is referred to as an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS).
Most national environmental laws have specified what the content of EIS should have.
Multilateral and bilateral financial institutions have also defined what should be contained in
an EIS. Ideally, the content of an EIS should have the following: Executive Summary Policy,
Legal and Administrative Framework
Description of the environment Description of the Proposed Project in detail Significant
Environmental Impacts Socio-economic analysis of Project Impacts Identification and
Analysis of Alternatives Mitigation Action/Mitigation Management
Plan Environmental Management Plan Monitoring Program Knowledge gaps
Public Involvement List of References Appendices including
o Reference documents, photographs, unpublished data
o Terms of Reference
o Consulting team composition
o Notes of Public Consultation sessions

EIA RELATED STUDIES

Social Impact Assessment (SIA) Social Impact Assessment (SIA) includes the processes of
analysing, monitoring and managing the intended and unintended social consequences, both
positive and negative, of planned interventions and any social change processes invoked by
those interventions (Vanclay, 1999). The analysis should include the use of land, culture, the
main economic activities e.g. tourism, agriculture, employment levels and impact on service
provision e.g. education, water use, traffic, energy use etc. Its primary purpose is to bring
about a more sustainable and equitable biophysical and human environment. Social Impact
Assessment assumes that social, economic and biophysical impacts are interconnected. Social
Impact Assessment (SIA) is therefore done to ensure that there is no mismatch between the
development and socio-cultural and economic of the project area.

Health Impact Assessment (HIA) Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social
well-being and not merely absence of disease or infirmity (WHO, 1946). In most EIAs, HIA
is usually included under SIA. HIA is now emerging as a key component of EIA because
health is determined by a multiplicity of factors including socio-economic and environmental
factors. There is no clear definition about where health concerns end and where
environmental or social concerns begin. HIA is a broad concept that may be interpreted in
different ways by a range of different users but all imply an interest in the safeguarding and
enhancement of human health and a concern that human activities and decisions, in the form
of development projects, plans, programs and policies can affect human health in both
positive and negative ways. EIA – General procedures 15 Achieng

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) SEA is undertaken much earlier in the

decision-making process than EIA - it is therefore seen as a key tool for sustainable
development. „Strategic Environmental Assessment aims to incorporate environmental and
sustainability considerations into strategic decision-making processes, such as the
formulation of policies, plans and programs. ‟

1 ENVIRONMENTPOLLUTIONS AND CONTROL MEASURES

1.1 AIR POLLUTION AND CONTROL MEASURES

1) WHO defines air pollution as the contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment
by any chemical, physical or biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics
of the atmosphere.
2) It may cause diseases, allergies or death of humans; it may also cause harm to other
living organisms such as animals and food crops, and may damage the natural or built
environment. Human activity and natural processes can both generate air pollution.
3) Air Pollution is condition when the quality of air deteriorates to an extent that it
becomes difficult to breathe. For example, the emissions from industries and motor
vehicles pollute the air to an extent that causes damage to living organisms.
4) CAUSES/SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION: MANMADE CAUSES
i. Rapid industrialization
ii. Fast urbanization
iii. Rapid growth in population
iv. Growth of vehicles on the roads and
v. Activities of human beings have disturbed the natural balance of the
atmosphere like deforestation, installation of thermal plants, chemical and
petrochemical plants.
vi. Greenhouse gases

NATURAL CAUSES Volcanic eruption, Forest fires, Marsh gas emission,

Biological decay, Deflation of sand and dust, Radioactive materials, Micro-organisms
such as algae, fungi, bacteria, yeast, moulds, spores are transported by wind to distant
places causing air pollution.
5) Air pollutants refer to the abnormal substances (solids, liquids, and gases) that are
present in air in intolerable limits.

Classification of air pollutants: Air pollutants can also be divided into two categories:
primary pollutant and secondary pollutant.
i. Primary pollutants: Primary pollutants are emitted directly from the sources.
The example of primary pollutant includes carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon
monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide, nitric-oxide, ammonia, hydrogen sulphide,
and radioactive substances. Industrial fumes and smokes, ash, dust, mist, are
other primary sources of air pollution.
ii. Secondary pollutants: The secondary pollutants are not emitted from the
sources.
They are formed when primary pollutants interact with atmospheric
constituents. Example includes sulphur-trioxide (SO3), nitrogen-trioxide,
ozone (O3), hydrocarbons, acid rain, etc.

6) Major Air Pollutants The pollutants that contribute major portion of global air
pollution are:

i. Sulphur Oxides (Sox): These substances are produced by industry,

particularly the industrial combustion of fossil fuels. They are also produced
naturally when volcanoes erupt.
ii. Nitrous oxides(N2O): These oxides are released into the atmosphere when
industrial combustion occurs at high temperatures.
iii. Carbon monoxide (CO): When fuels (especially wood, oil, coal and natural
gas) do not burn ‘cleanly’ (i.e. their combustion is incomplete), they can emit
carbon monoxide. One of the main sources of CO is exhaust fumes from
vehicles such as cars.
iv. Carbon dioxide (CO2): This noxious gas is another pollutant released when
fossil fuels are burnt.
v. Suspended particulates matter: Small particles can be released into the air
by aerosol use and by the combustion of fossil fuels (for example, soot is
released when coal is burned).
vi. Lead is a solid and highly toxic metal. Its compounds are emitted into the
atmosphere as particulate matter.
vii. Hydrocarbons Lower hydrocarbons accumulate due to decay of vegetable
matter.
viii. Chromium is a solid toxic metal emitted into the atmosphere as particulate
matter.
ix. Ozone is a highly reactive gas with an unpleasant odour occurring in the
stratosphere where it protects mankind from the harmful ultra-violet rays from
the Sun. However, on earth, it is a pollutant.
x. Photochemical smog is a brownish smoke that frequently forms on clear,
sunny days over large cities with significant amounts of automobile traffic.

7) EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

i. Acid rain: Acid compounds in the air dissolve into the rain and make the rain
acidic. When it falls, acid rain can erode buildings and poison the earth and
sea.
ii. Smog: Particulates can cause thick, gloomy clouds in the air. This can
severely limit visibility, and is a particular problem in big cities where vehicle
use is very heavy.
iii. Respiratory problems in humans: Sulphides, nitrous oxides and carbon
monoxide can all cause respiratory illness in humans in high quantities or over
long periods of time, these pollutants can also be fatal.
iv. Global warming: Greenhouse gases are a group of pollutants (for instance
CO and SO) which form a layer in the atmosphere above the earth which traps
in the sun’s rays and causes them to reflect back onto the earth. This warms up
the earth and is known as the greenhouse effect because it essentially turns the
earth into a giant greenhouse filled with heat.
v. The acidification of the oceans: If the air is polluted, these pollutants can
dissolve into the oceans and saturate them with carbon, particulates, sulphides
and nitrates. In this way, air pollution turns into water pollution as well,
spoiling the habitats of marine and freshwater life.
vi. Freak weather: Global warming does not just cause global temperatures of
earth and sea to rise. It also causes freak weather events such as huge
blizzards, forest fires, tsunamis and so on. This disrupts agriculture, destroys
animals’ habitats and causes poverty, drought and the displacement of vast
numbers of human beings across the face of the earth.

8) EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS

i. Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)
Health effects include nose and throat irritation, ling damage, bronchitis,
asthma, reproductive problems and cancer.
Environmental Effects include reduced visibility and acid deposition. Acid
deposition may lead to damaged trees, soils and aquatic life in lakes.
ii. Carbon monoxide:
Health effects include reduced ability of red blood cells to carry oxygen to
body cells and tissues. This leads to headache and anaemia. At high levels it
causes coma, irreversible brain damage and death.
iii. Sulphur Dioxide
Health effects involve breathing problems for healthy people.
Environmental effects involve reduced visibility and acid deposition on trees,
lakes, soils and monuments leading to their deterioration and adverse effect on
aquatic life.
iv. Nitrogen Dioxide:
Health effects include lung irritation and damage. Environmental effects
involve acid deposition leading to damage of trees, lakes, soil and ancient
monuments. NO2 can damage fabrics.
v. Lead
Health effects: Lead accumulates in the body and brain leading to nervous
system damage and mental retardation (especially in children), digestive and
other health problems. Lead containing chemicals are known to cause cancer
in test animals.

Environmental Effects: It can harm wildlife.

vi. Hydrocarbons Human effects: They are carcinogenic

9) Control of Air Pollution:

i. Industrial estates should be established at a distance from residential areas.
ii. Use of tall chimneys shall reduce the air pollution in the surroundings and
compulsory use of filters and electrostatic precipitators in the chimneys.
iii. Removal of poisonous gases by passing the fumes through water tower
scrubber or spray collector.
iv. Use of high temperature incinerators for reduction in particulate ash
production.
v. Development and employment of non-combustive sources of energy, e.g.,
nuclear power, geothermal power, solar power, tidal power, wind power, etc.
vi. Use of non-lead antiknock agents in gasoline.
vii. Attempt should be made to develop pollution free fuels for automobiles, e.g.,
alcohol, hydrogen, battery power. Automobiles should be fitted with exhaust
emission controls.
viii. Industrial plants and refineries should be fitted with equipment for removal
and recycling of wastes.
ix. Growing plants capable of fixing carbon monoxide, e.g. Phaseolus vulgaris,
Coleus blumei, Daucus carota, Ficus variegata
x. Growing plants capable of metabolising nitrogen oxides and other gaseous
pollutants, e.g., Vitis, Pimis, Jttniperus, Quercus, Pyrus, Robinia pseudo-
acacia, Viburnum, Crataegus, Ribes, Rhamnus.
xi. Afforestation of the mining area on priority basis.

xii. Encouraging people to use public transport, walk or use a cycle as opposed to
private vehicles
xiii. On a larger scale, governments are taking measures to limit emissions of
carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. The Paris Agreement, a
voluntary agreement among 118 nations ratified on November 4, 2016, is one
effort being enacted on a global scale to combat climate change. As a part of
the agreement, each country agreed to take measures to combat climate
change, with the ultimate goal of keeping the post-industrial global
temperature rise below two degrees Celsius.

10) Control of SPM by Gravitation

Equipment used: Gravitational Settling Chamber

A typical gravitational chamber is shown below. The dust laden gas enters at the inlet
and due to the sudden increase in cross-section the particulate matter settles at the
bottom and can be removed from the dust hoppers as shown
The clean gas free from particulate matter exits from the outlet
IMPORTANT FACTS:
i. Simple to construct and maintain
ii. Efficient to remove particles of diameter greater than 50 mm from gas streams
iii. They are used as pre-cleaners before passing gases through high efficiency
collection devices
iv. They rely on gravitational settling and are the simplest and oldest mechanical
collectors for removal of particulates from gas streams
v. Flow within the chamber must be uniform without macroscopic mixing
vi. Dust removal system must be sealed to prevent production of turbulence due
to air from leaking into chamber
vii. Efficiency of the equipment increases with increased residence time of the
waste gas. Hence, the equipment is operated at lowest possible gas velocity
viii. The size of the unit depends on: gas velocity which should preferably be less
than 0.3 m/s

1.2 WATER POLLUTION AND CONTROL MEASURES

1) Water pollution may be defined as “the alteration in physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of water which may cause harmful effects on humans and aquatic life.”
2) Point and non-point sources of water pollution:
i. Point sources: These are pollutants that are discharged at specific locations
through pipes, ditches or sewers into bodies of surface waters.
Ex: Factories, sewage treatment plants, abandoned underground mines and oil
tankers.
ii. Non-point sources These pollutants cannot be traced to a single point of
discharge. They are large land areas or air-sheds that pollute water by runoff,
subsurface flow or deposition from the atmosphere.
Ex: Acid deposition, runoff of chemicals into surface water from croplands
3) Causes of water pollution
i. Industrial process: When manufacturers and factories are simply allowed to
pour toxic chemicals into water bodies before treatment, the water becomes
polluted. The oxygen levels in the water also decreases. The toxic chemicals
include: lead, sulphuric acid, mercury and used oil.
ii. Inorganic Industrial waste: Inorganic wastes such as acids, mercury, lead
and heavy metals can destroy the normal body processes. The presence of
these toxic and corrosive substances in water is dangerous to living things.
Factories and other industries dump waste products into water at an alarming
rate.
iii. Agricultural fertilizers: By a process known as leaching, agricultural
chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides can wash into rivers and lakes,
poisoning them.
iv. Untreated sewage from households: Dye, lotion, soap, hair oil, shampoo,
powder, deodorant, moisturizer and many other such products also contribute
in water pollution. These products go to the sewage without any
treatment. Untreated sewage from households can contaminate different water
bodies in the process. When sewage pipes break, there is a chance that the
wastes will contaminate drinking water. Sometimes, poorly treated sewage is
released into water bodies. Domestic cleaning products can be very dangerous
pollutants.
v. Garbage: Plastics are non-biodegradable. Mass plastics clog water bodies and
contaminate water.
vi. Urbanization: Urbanization is a key factor in increasing the amounts of water
pollution.
vii. Dumping solid waste: Humans often carelessly dump their trash in the sea or
near rivers.
viii. Oil spills: Accidental oil spills have a devastating effect on seas.
ix. Dissolved gases: Polluting gases in the air can dissolve into salt and fresh
water and pollute it.
x. Boat fuels: Fossil fuels used in the shipping industry are one of the largest
causes of both air and water pollution.
xi. Heated water from power plants: Some power plants release the heated
water into water bodies. This reduces the oxygen content in water. Power
plants normally use heated water to cool their machines.

4) Control measures of water pollution

i. Stop using harmful chemicals at home: opt for environmentally friendly
household cleaners.
ii. Prevent industrial waste reaching water: Dispose of industrial waste by
burying or neutralizing it instead.
iii. Sewage treatment: Household water should be properly treated to make it
environmentally safe. Raw sewage should never be pumped into water. This
may seem like a convenient way of disposing of it but it is highly dangerous
for health. Effective sewage treatment processes should be put in place.
iv. Treatment of industrial wastes before discharge: Factories should treat
wastes before discharge and toxic substances should be converted into
harmless materials.
v. Recycle: Recycle domestic and commercial waste safely rather than dumping
it in the sea or near rivers.
vi. Promote a love for waterways: That way, everyone in the community will be
motivated to stop pollution. When we all work together, we can achieve great
things.
vii. Go organic: Organic agriculture uses far fewer chemical pesticides and
fertilizers.
viii. Adherence to water laws: Laws and legislation regarding water pollution
should be strictly followed. There should be heavy penalties for those who fail
to adhere to the rules.
ix. Avoid using paper bags: Carry a shopping bag whenever you expect to go
shopping. This will minimize the chances of you using a paper bag. You can
also buy a portable shopping bag and always have it with you.
x. Improve oil tanker safety: Avoiding oil spills would remove a key cause of
environmental pollution.
xi. Routine cleaning: Wells, ands and lakes should be regularly cleaned and
treated to ensure that they remain safe for human use. There should also be
system of regularly testing pond and lake water.
xii. Qualified and experienced people must be consulted from time to time for
effective control of water pollution.
xiii. Public awareness must be initiated regarding adverse effects of water pollution
using the media.
xiv. Basic and applied research in public health engineering should be encouraged.

5) Treatment of Domestic Sewage:

Domestic sewage can be purified even to make it suitable for drinking; however, the
process is expensive. Usually, treatment of sewage to reduce its organic matter
content is adopted.
In this treatment, three steps are involved:
Step 1: Primary Treatment: In this step the following are affected:
(a) Large objects are trapped.
(b) Dust, grease, scum is removed.
(c) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is removed.
(d) Suspended matter is made to settle down by passing water through the gut
chamber.
Step 2: Secondary Treatment: In this step, following are affected:
(a) BOD is further reduced.
(b) By aeration using a trickling filter, aerobic organisms are grown to
decompose pollutants.
(c) The water at the end of this step can be used for irrigation and in industries.
Step 3: Tertiary Treatment: In this expensive step:
(a) Organic chemicals and nutrients are removed.
(b) The dissolved organic salts are removed using coagulation or distillation or
reverse osmosis.
(c) Pathogens are destroyed by disinfection.
The water after this treatment is fit for groundwater recharge. After chlorination and
proper check, it can be used for drinking.

1.3 SOIL POLLUTION AND CONTROL MEASURES

CHAPTER NUMBER 31, PARTS NO. 5.1LAND (SOIL) POLLUTION, CAUSES,
EFFECTS AND CONTROL OF LAND (SOIL) POLLUTION

1.4 PLASTIC POLLUTION AND CONTROL MEASURES

1) Plastic pollution is the introduction of plastic products into the environment which
then upset the existing ecosystems in different ways. These pollutants cause
environmental degradation and also affect different living organisms and their habitats
negatively.
2) When plastic products accumulate in the environment, they begin to cause problems
for wildlife, humans, and other living organisms. They create conditions that are not
favourable for healthy living and proper growth. This is what is essentially referred to
as plastic pollution.
3) PLASTIC: A material that is made from plastic can easily be shaped or deformed.
Plastics are synthetic materials that are made from synthetic resins or organic
polymers. Examples of these polymers include nylon, PVC, and polyethylene.
4) Plastics are categorized into two groups, those that go through a chemical change
process in their constituents when subjected to heat (thermosetting polymers) and
those that do not (thermoplastics)
5) Plastics are mainly composed of petrochemicals that when burnt or melted, cause
environmental pollution. Plastic pollutants can also be classified in terms of size. This
creates three categories of pollutants namely micro, meso, and macro debris
6) Process of plastic pollution
These pollutants can build up in water sources and make it difficult for marine life to
move around freely in their habitat. They can also reduce the flow of air within water
bodies, a factor that endangers the lives of organisms that reside in these habitats.
Some marine organisms ingest micro debris made of plastics and suffer from
poisoning because of the chemical components. On the other hand, plastics can be an
eyesore when they are strewn all over the place. They can also trap water and act as
breeding places for disease-causing organisms like mosquitoes. Plastics that degrade
in water sources can cause pollution by making the water obtained from such places
unfit for human consumption. The burning of materials made of plastic also causes
pollution. These are some of the ways in which plastic pollution occurs in the
environment.
7) Common Causes of Plastic Pollution
The biggest contributing factor has to be human activities because they are the ones
that manufacture plastics and then introduce them into the environment. Some of the
common causes of this type of pollution include:
i. Plastic bags from shopping: When you buy items from the retail store,
chances are that they’ll be packaged in plastic bags. Most of them are
thermoplastics that are produced in large quantities. When these plastics have
been used, they are usually thrown away or discarded because the next time
you go back to the store, your items will be packaged in new plastic bags.
Many people shop regularly and that means that the number of plastic bags
introduced into the environment also increase at a faster pace. Since most of
the plastics are also low cost and thin, they can only be used a couple of times
before they tear. These shopping bags are major polluters of the environment
and it’s common to see them thrown around.
ii. Plastic Toys: Most toys are usually made of plastic. This is usually taken as a
safety measure because kids can easily injure themselves with metallic toys.
As we all know, these young fellas are not very responsible people and the
toys are usually damaged almost immediately after they’ve been purchased. A
kid can go through many toys in a month unless the parent just decides to let
him or her play with the broken one. There are also companies that sell
products such as cereals and include free toys as part of marketing. Parents
then feel obliged to buy them because they come with gifts for the kids. When
all these are summed up, we have ecosystems full of plastic toys and with no
proper place or method to dispose of them. What happens next is
environmental pollution.
iii. Pet Bottles: Pet bottles are also common plastic pollutants. These bottles are
normally used for feeding or administering medication. They are changed
regularly or when the one being used is damaged. The damaged bottles are
then disposed of and they end up polluting the environment in one way or the
other. Apart from the feeding bottles, there are also feeding plates or troughs
made of plastic.
iv. Failure to recycle: Failure to recycle or reuse plastic materials is another
major cause of plastic pollution. As mentioned earlier, someone will use a
plastic bag once and then throw it away because he or she knows that she’ll
get a new one on the next shopping trip. This results in so many plastic papers
in the environment. It doesn’t help that garbage collection companies do not
also encourage their clients to put recyclable waste separately from those that
need to be disposed of. The failure to recycle is one of the main reasons why
plastic pollution is such a major concern the world over because it seems that
the more the world population increases, the bigger the problem becomes.
v. Using Plastic Disposables: People who host parties and use plastic disposable
cups, plates, forks and knives are the main culprits here. As much as they
make work easier because they eliminate the need to wash utensils after the
party, it’s also detrimental to the environment. These plastic disposables are
usually thrown away after the party and end up causing plastic pollution in
several ways.
vi. Plastic Fishing Nets: Commercial fishing is a very important economic
activity. This is because fish is a source of white meat with numerous health
benefits. Individuals, companies, and even nations engage in commercial
fishing because it is an important source of income and revenue. The only
problem is that in large scale fishing especially in trolling operations, the nets
are usually made of plastic materials. They remain submerged for long periods
and leak toxins into the ocean waters. They can also break apart and stay in the
water causing more pollution in the process.
vii. Poor Disposal of Plastic Waste: Plastics do not degrade easily because of the
type of materials that they are made of. That’s the reason why when you
dispose of a plastic bottle or paper bag in your compound, chances are that
even one year down the line it will still be there. We can use lots of materials
made of plastic but when we properly dispose of them, pollution is reduced.
Poor plastic waste disposal is, therefore, a major cause of pollution. Many
people are very careless with the way they dispose of their plastic wastes and
that has presented a big challenge as far as having a clean planet is concerned.

8) Effects of Plastic Pollution

Plastic pollution has so many negative effects on human, plant, and marine life
as well as other living organisms. Here are some of them:
i. Affects Human life and Health: Plastics are mainly made from
petrochemicals. It, therefore, goes without saying that they are not good for
human health and can cause problems in different ways. When plastics
degrade in water sources, they release toxins that can cause poising or
cancerous diseases. Several health practitioners have cautioned against using
plastics, especially when handling hot consumables. Plastic pollution can
cause diseases that are very costly to treat and difficult to manage. Children
can also ingest plastic materials that have been carelessly disposed of and this
can result in choking or even death. Plastic bottles can sometimes trap water
and provide ideal breeding places for germs and mosquitoes. This can result in
several health problems for people that live near such places.
i. Degrades Quality of Land and Affects Agriculture: Plastic papers strewn
all over the place are an eyesore. They make the surrounding appear untidy
and unpleasant. When they break down, they release chemicals into the
ground that make land unproductive and unconducive for plant growth. They
can also make the area unsuitable for habitation by microorganisms. Plastic
pollution, therefore, affects agriculture by degrading the quality of soil and, in
turn, affects the balance that is required for an ecosystem to thrive.
ii. Poses Threat to Animal Health: Cattle are very notorious when it comes to
eating plastic bags. Since these materials are not digestible by the stomach,
they can cause stomach upsets and poisoning due to the chemicals released
from the components of plastic. This is what happens when we fail to dispose
of plastics properly and scatter them all over the place. Unlike humans,
animals can eat anything, the issue of whether it’s edible or not
notwithstanding.
iii. Disrupts Marine life: Aquatic life is also not spared when it comes to the
effects of plastic pollution. Commercial fishing where plastic nets are used
introduce toxins into the ocean and pollutes the water. This is harmful to the
marine life. Organisms that live in water can also ingest plastic materials and
die because of the toxins contained in them. This would cause the loss of
biodiversity and upset the ecosystem due to the interdependence of the
different inhabitants.
iv. Air Pollution: Burning plastics causes air pollution. That’s because this action
introduces pollutants into the atmosphere through smoke and debris. When
inhaled, the smoke from burning plastics can cause breathing complications.
The pollutants can also affect the ozone layer and contribute to global
warming. Since plastics are mainly composed of petrochemicals, burning them
can also cause acid rain as the chemicals released ascend into the higher
atmosphere.
v. Blocks the Drainage System: Yes, plastics are a nuisance when it comes to
having a free-flowing drainage system. They can cause blockage and prevent
the flow of waste material. When this happens, the air can be polluted due to
the bad smell of decomposing materials. It would also cause a host of bacterial
diseases. Unblocking a drainage system is not that easy. You will have to part
with some money when the problem hits home just to get the system working
properly again. It’s much worse when it’s on a larger scale because that would
require the relevant authorities to come up with a proper plan to find a
solution. This could take time. Blocked drainage systems are also very risky
during the rainy season. They inhibit the easy flow and drainage of rain water.
This can cause flooding, especially in urban centres.
vi. Loss of Tourism: Tourists are mainly people who just want to have a good
time and gain new experiences. Nobody wants to travel to a foreign place just
to interact with dirty environments and probably contract infections and
diseases. Plastics around seashores make the beaches unsightly and
unattractive to tourists. This can lead to a fall in the number of them that visit
a place and subsequently loss of income for the locals. Dirty tourists’ places
basically kill tourism.
9) Preventive and Control Measures
The number one instigator of pollution has always been mankind. Our actions
introduce plastics into the ecosystem and cause pollution. That means that we
can also be proactive and enforce preventive and control measures so that we
do not have to deal with the bad effects. What then can we do so that we avoid
the negative effects of plastic pollution? Here are some of the preventive and
control measures that can help reduce this menace:
i. Find Alternatives to Plastics: We can reduce plastic pollution by using
alternatives to plastics. People can actually stop using plastic bags and
disposable utensils. Instead of going to the retail store and having your
purchases packaged in plastic bags, you can choose to carry your own bag that
is large enough and reusable. The business community can also play a vital
role by using other alternatives to plastics when packaging goods. Using bags
made of paper is a smart way to reduce plastic pollution. When we stop using
plastics and find alternatives, we reduce the risk of pollution and make the
environment cleaner. It’s all about everyone being proactive enough to do
what needs to be done to conserve the environment.
ii. Making use of Reusable Water Bottles: Using disposable water bottles is a
major cause of plastic pollution. They are thrown away after use and that just
adds dirt in the ecosystem because more bottles will have to be manufactured.
An ideal thing to do would be to make use of reusable water bottles. When the
water in the container has been used up, it is taken to the respective company
for a refill. In this way, a smaller number of plastics are manufactured and the
environment is conserved. There shouldn’t be much debate around this
because using these types of bottles also saves you a lot of money as opposed
to buying new ones from the store. With one move, you conserve the
environment and reduce your monthly expenses. That is a really smart way to
live.
iii. Proper Waste Disposal: We looked at one of the main causes of plastic
pollution as lack of proper waste disposal methods. People just throwing
around plastic materials without much thought about the consequences of their
actions. To stop this from happening, we can adopt proper waste disposal
methods. Individuals should strive to dispose of plastic materials only in
designated areas like dustbins. This prevents several problems like drainage
blockage and air pollution. Cultivating a culture of being responsible goes a
long way in reducing the effects of pollution.
iv. Recycling: Garbage processing is actually one of the best ways to ensure that
unnecessary waste materials are not loaded into the environment. Instead of
throwing away plastic bottles, we can collect them and give them to
companies that engage in the recycling of plastics. At home, people can have
separate bins for collecting wastes. One of those can be dedicated to the
collection of waste products for recycling. Companies can also offer
incentives by paying for these types of garbage so that people are motivated to
give them out for recycling.
v. Government Policies: Every business person’s major concern is to make
profits. What happens is that companies manufacture very thin plastic bags
that tear easily because they are low cost and are bought in bulk. This is the
type of business that gives them high profits. The government can play its role
by banning the manufacture of such plastic bags and putting in place policies
that promote a clean environment. Thick bags that do not tear easily are
expensive and that will encourage people to reuse them. Companies can be
compelled to adhere to certain standards failure to which there would be
penalties. This would also lead to retail stores opting for alternative packaging
methods like papers. Policies to encourage the recycling of wastes and
cleaning of the environment can also be helpful.
vi. Community Education: Knowledge is power. A person is more likely to
conserve the environment when he or she is made aware of the dangers of not
doing so. Educating people about the effects of plastic pollution and ways in
which it can be prevented or controlled is a step in the right direction because
it raises awareness. This can be done by community-based organizations or
government agencies tasked with environmental conservation. Another way in
which this can be achieved is by running ads in the media or campaigns that
aim at sensitizing people about the benefits of conserving the environment. At
the family level, parents and their children can educate one another about
plastic pollution. They can then do what is necessary to prevent or control it.
ECOSYSTEM AND COMPONENT OF ECOSYSTEM

Aquatic plant systems are engineered and constructed systems that use aquatic plants in
the treatment of industrial or domestic wastewater. They are designed to achieve a
specific wastewater treatment goal. Aquatic plant systems can be divided into two
categories:
• Systems with floating aquatic plants such as water hyacinth, duckweed, and
pennywort
• Systems with submerged aquatic plants such as waterweed, water milfoil, and
watercress
The use of aquaculture as a means of treating wastewater involves both natural and
artificial wetlands and the production of algae and higher plants (submersed and
immersed) to remove contaminants such as nitrogen compounds, BOD, hydrocarbons,
and heavy metals from the wastewater. Floating aquatic plants such as water hyacinth
(Eichhornia crassipes) and duckweed (Lemna spp.) appear to be some of the most
promising aquatic plants for the treatment of wastewater.
These systems are basically shallow ponds covered with floating plants that detain
wastewater at least one week. The main purpose of the plants in these systems is to
provide a suitable habitation for bacteria that remove the vast majority of dissolved
nutrients.

ADVANTAGES
 The cost of plant seeding and wetlands is very low, in most cases negligible.
 These technologies are traditional, rudimentary, and easy to implement— ideal for
rural areas.
 Wetland systems are easy to build, simple to operate, and require little or no
maintenance.
 Most small-scale wetland treatment systems require relatively small land areas.
 Wetland technologies reduce nutrient contamination of natural systems.
 Heavy metals absorbed by the plants in wetland treatment systems are not returned
to the water.
 Water-hyacinth-based and other wetland systems produce plant biomass that can be
used as a fertilizer, animal feed supplement, or source of methane.

DISADVANTAGES
 In some places, plant seeds may not be readily available.
 Temperature (climate) is a major limitation because effective treatment is linked to
the active growth phase of the immersed (surface and above) vegetation.
 Herbicides and other materials toxic to the plants can affect their health and lead to
a reduced level of treatment.
 Duckweed is prized as food by waterfowl and fish, and can be seriously depleted by
these species.
 Winds may blow duckweed to the windward shore unless windscreens or deep
trenches are employed.
 Plants die rapidly when the water temperature approaches the freezing point;
therefore, greenhouse structures may be necessary in cooler climates.
 Water hyacinth is sensitive to high salinity, which restricts the removal of
potassium and phosphorus to the active growth period of the plants.
 Metals such as arsenic, chromium, copper, mercury, lead, nickel, and zinc can
accumulate in water hyacinth plants and limit their suitability as fertilizer or feed
materials.
 Water hyacinth plants may create small pools of stagnant surface water that can
serve as mosquito breeding habitats; this problem can generally be avoided by
maintaining mosquitofish or similar fishes in the system.
 The spread of water hyacinth must be closely controlled by barriers because the
plant can spread rapidly and clog previously unaffected waterways.
 Water hyacinth treatment may prove impractical for large-scale treatment plants
because of the land area required.
 Evapotranspiration in wetland treatment systems can be 2 to 7 times greater than
evaporation alone.
 Harvesting the water hyacinth or duckweed plants is essential to maintain high
levels of system performance.

Components of Ecosystem
Biotic Components
They are the living components of an ecosystem. It includes biotic factors such as producers,
consumers, and decomposers.

 Producers include all autotrophs (plants), they produce their own food by utilizing the
source of energy obtained from the sunlight. All living beings are dependent on plants
for both oxygen and food.
 Consumers include primary consumers and secondary consumers. Top carnivores and
apex predators make up the tertiary consumers.
 Decomposers include saprophytes (fungi and bacteria), that converts the dead matter
into nitrogen and carbon dioxide. They are essential for recycling of nutrients to be
used again by the producers.
Abiotic Components
They are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It includes air, water, soil, minerals,
sunlight, temperature, nutrients, etc. Sunlight is the basic source of energy in the ecosystem.

Effluent Treatment Plant

Effluent Treatment Plant or ETP is one type of waste water treatment method which is
particularly designed to purify industrial waste water for its reuse and its aim is to release safe
water toenvironment from the harmful effect caused by the effluent.

Industrial effluents contain various materials, depending on the industry. Some effluents
contain oils and grease, and some contain toxic materials (e.g., cyanide). Effluents from food
and beverage factories contain degradable organic pollutants. Since industrial waste water
contains a diversity of impurities and therefore specific treatment technology called ETP is
required.

The ETP Plant works at various levels and involves various physical, chemical, biological
and membrane processes to treat waste water from different industrial sectors like chemicals,
drugs, pharmaceutical, refineries, dairy, ready mix plants & textile etc.
Benefits of ETP:
1. To clean industry effluent and recycle it for further use
2. To reduce the usage of fresh water in industries
3. To preserve natural environment against pollution
4. To meet the standards for emission of pollutants set by the Government & avoid heavy
penalty
5. To reduce expenditure on water acquisition

2. Industrial Effluent Treatment Process:

The treatment of different effluents varies with the type of effluent. Wastewater enters the
effluent or sewage treatment plant and goes through several processes before effluent goes
into the environment. Industrial effluent treatment plant process includes the following
stages:
a. Preliminary Treatment: Its objective is physical separation of large sized contaminants.
For example, cloth, paper, plastics, wood logs etc. This level/process include:

Screening: This is the first unit operation that occurs in waste water treatment plants. A
screen is a device with uniform openings and its purpose is to remove large floating solids.
Sedimentation: It is a physical water treatment process using gravity to remove suspended
solids from water.
Grit Chamber: The wastewater that moves into the grit chamber removes the dense
inorganic solids such as gravel, metal fragments and sand which have made their way into
the sewers. Removal of grit can prevent damaging of pumps & operational difficulties.
Clarifiers: These are tanks built with mechanical means for continuous removal of solids
being deposited by sedimentation before biological treatment.

b. Primary Treatment: Its aim is removal of floating and settleable materials such as
suspended solids and organic matter. In this treatment both physical and chemical methods
are used. It includes:

Flocculation: Flocculation is a physical process and does not involve the neutralization of
charge. It involves the addition of destabilized particles together into large aggregates so
that they can be easily separated from the water.
Coagulation: is a process in which coagulants are added for the purpose of rapid settlement
of minute solid particles in a liquid into larger mass. It permits particle removal by
sedimentation and for filtration.
Neutralization: The main purpose of this process helps in maintaining the pH range of 6-9
to meet the requirements of different processing units in ETP system.
Primary Clarifiers: These are used to slow the velocity of the water to a point where
organic solids will settle to the bottom of the tank and it contain an equipment that is used
to remove floating solids and greases from the surface.

c. Secondary or Biological Treatment: The objective of this treatment is the further

treatment of the effluent from primary treatment to remove the suspended solids and residual
organics. In this step biological and chemical processes are involved.
Activated Sludge Process: This is used for treating industrial waste water using air and a
biological floc composed of bacteria.
Aerated Lagoons: Is a treatment pond provided with artificial aeration to promote he
biological oxidation of waste water.
Trickling Filters: Trickling filters, also known as sprinkling filters, are commonly used for
the biological treatment of domestic sewage and industrial waste water.
Rotating Biological Contactor: It involves allowing the wastewater to come in contact with
a biological medium in order to remove pollutants in the wastewater before discharge of
the treated wastewater to the environment.

d. Tertiary/advanced/disinfection treatment: The purpose of tertiary treatment is to

provide a final treatment stage to raise the effluent quality to the desired level before it is
reused, recycled or discharged to the environment.

Chemical Coagulation and sedimentation: It is used to increase the removal of solids from
effluent after primary and secondary treatment.
Filtration: The clarified wastewater is first passed through the adjacent filtration plant
which contains large filter blocks to ensure high quality water.
Reverse Osmosis: In this process, pressure is used to force effluent through a membrane that
retains contaminants on one side and allows the clean water to pass to the other side.
UV Disinfection: It is considered as an ideal disinfectant for industrial waste water. It leaves
no residual disinfectant in the water by ensuring the water quality. It does not produce any
disinfection by-products.

3. Effluent Treatment Plant Design:

The design of ETP depends on quality and quantity of waste water discharged from the
different industries and land availability. If the availability of land in your industry is less,
then Common Effluent Treatment Plant (CETP) is preferred over Effluent Treatment Plant
(ETP).
Sludge Dying Bed:

Sludge Drying Bed is unit used for dewatering of sludge in sewage treatment plant. The
present SDB was made and developed in around 1950 (www. marysvilleohio.org ,2000) and
same design is working even in present era. At that time, the environmental conditions were
not like present conditions. As sewage treatment system was designed and commissioned far
away from locality or village. The area was not the important factor, so fumes and gases
were absorbed by flora and fauna surrounding the plant
From the survey and reports (www.neurope.eu, 2011), it was found that treatment work is
progressing well but the collection and treatment compliance rates could still be improved.
Same kind of data has been observed (www.sratx.org, 1999), in this survey which was
conducted in US, which indicates that water and wastewater treatment systems needs
improvement, particularly with regard to expanding local technical expertise on water
supply, treatment and quality issues. There are also problems in wastewater treatment system
designing as reported by Bielefeldt (2006).
According to CPCB (2005) there exists a large gap between sewage generation and its
treatment. To overcome this problem, we have to redesign or modify the conventional
designs
of sewage treatment plants.
The neural network is mainly used in this application to fill in data gaps. This is particularly
useful for input data in different models (Booty et. al., 2001).
A better control of WWTP can be achieved by developing a robust mathematical tool for
predicting the plant performance based on past observations of certain key parameters
(Hamed et. al., 2003).
In every sewage treatment plant, sludge drying bed is an important part as it reduces the
amount of sludge generated during treatment. The sludge drying bed usually emits a foul
smell which has very adverse impact over nearby surrounding or environment. In my newly
developed model, we have undergone a process of re- construction/ modification of sludge
drying bed.

2. Materials and methods

Keeping in mind the present condition and review of literature, following methodology has
been adopted:

2.1 Study of Problem associated with Sludge Drying Bed

The physical and physiological characters were studied during visit of the STP plant. It
includes topography, temperature round the year, seasonal factor and solar radiation around
the plant. This has helped in developing the fish bone Diagram of SDB

The sketch of hypothetical model was made with a mindset

of keeping it economy and suitability for environmental
conditions of studied area.

2.2.2 Computer Aided Design Model

Model has been developed for the best sketch after testing
through Poke - Yoke standard procedure tool of quality
control. Cad Model of proposed sketch had made for
simulating the data using the blender software in CAE
Linux.
2.3 Testing of Model
The Proposed model has undergone simulation process so
that the real condition could be tested under the lab
conditions. The De-novo Technique of artificial neural
networking along with Fish bone diagram has been used to
achieve the pop and corns of present SDB.

3. Results & Discussion

The analysis of the result also leads to the fact that the
present model is highly effective and can cope with the
present conditions.
The Fish bone diagram has helped in getting the real
condition of SDB of sewage treatment plant.

Fig 1: Fish Bone Diagram of Sludge Drying Bed

Fig 2: CAD Design for Present SDB (left) and Proposed SDB (right)

After testing of proposed model in the De Bono Technique

along with open foam software in Linux leads to following
results
1)The generated lab scale model is very useful in
controlling the odour of sludge drying bed.
2)The more amount of sludge can be dried in same time
as compared to drying bed.
3)Designing is economical and cheaper with almost no
adverse effect on environment.
4)There is no requirement for the re- construction of
sludge drying bed as the modification can be applied
over the present system.
5)Reduces the dew wetting of sludge during dusk and
dawn.
6)Reduces the wetting of sludge during rainy season.
7)Improve the overall efficiency of sewage treatment
plant.

CHAPTER 2: Environmental Important Regulations

THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION

STATEMENT OF OBJECTS AND REASONS OF ACT 47 OF 1987

1. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, was enacted under Art. 253 of the
Constitution to implement the decisions taken at the United Nations Conference on Human
Environment held at Stockholm in June 1972, in which India participated.
2. The Air Act is implemented by the Central and State Governments and the Central and
State Boards. Over the past few years, the implementing agencies have experienced some
administrative and practical difficulties in effectively implementing the provisions of this Act
and has brought these to the notice of Government. The ways and means to remove these
difficulties have been thoroughly examined in consultation with the concerned Central
Government departments, the State Government and the Central and State Boards.
Considering the views expressed. Government have decided to make certain amendments to
the Act in order to remove such difficulties.
3. The Bill, inter alia, seeks to make the following amendments in the Act, namely: (i) The
Central Board is proposed to be empowered to exercise the powers and perform the functions
of a State Board in specific situations, particularly when a State Board fails to act and comply
with the directions issued by the Central Board. It is also proposed to recover the cost of the
exercise of such powers and the performance of such functions by the Central Board from the
person or persons concerned, if the State Board is empowered to recover such costs under the
provisions of the Act, as arrears of land revenue or of public demand. (ii) It is proposed to
make it obligatory on the part of a person to obtain the consent of the relevant Board even
while establishing an industrial plant. (iii) It is proposed to empower the Boards to obtain
information regarding discharge of pollution in excess of specified standards by the industries
operating even outside the air pollution control areas. (iv) In order to prevent effectively air
pollution, the punishments provided in the Act are proposed to be made stricter. (v) In order
to elicit public co-operation, it is proposed that any person should be able to complain to the
Courts regarding violations of the provisions of the Act after giving a notice of sixty days to
the Board or the officer authorized in this behalf. (vi) It is proposed to omit the Schedule to
the Act so as to make the Act applicable to all the industries causing air pollution. (vii) It is
proposed to empower the Boards to give directions to any person, officer or authority
including the power to direct closure or regulation of offending establishment or stoppage or
regulation of supply of services such as, water and electricity. (viii) It is proposed to
empower the Boards to approach courts to pass orders restraining any person from causing air
pollution. (ix) For increasing the financial resources of the Boards, it is proposed to empower
them to raise money by means of obtaining loans and issue of decent.

Central Pollution Control Board – The Central Pollution Control Board constituted under
Sec. 3 of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974), shall,
without prejudice to the exercise and performance of its powers and functions under that Act,
exercise the powers and perform the functions of the Central Pollution Control Board for the
prevention and control of air pollution under this Act.

State Pollution Control Boards constituted under Sec.4 of Act 6 of 1974 to be State Boards
under this Act. –
In any State in which the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1974 (6 of 1974), is in force and the State Government has constituted for that State a State
Pollution Control Board under Sec. 4 of that Act, such State Board shall be deemed to be the
State Board for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution constituted under Sec. 5 of this
Act, and accordingly that State Pollution Control Board shall, without prejudice to the
exercise and performance of its powers and functions under that Act, exercise the powers and
perform the functions of the State Board for the prevention and control of air pollution under
this Act.]

Constitution of state boards. –

(1) In any State in which the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution), Act 1974 (6 of
1974), is not in force or that Act is in force but the State Government has not constituted a
[State Pollution Control Board] under that Act, the State Government shall, with effect from
such date as it may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint, constitute a State Board
for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution under such name as may be specified in the
notification, to exercise the powers conferred on, and perform the functions assigned to that
Board under this Act.
(2) A State Board constituted under this Act shall consist of the following members, namely;
(a) a Chairman, being a person having special knowledge or practical experience in respect of
matters relating to environmental protection to be nominated by the State Government:
provided that the Chairman may be either whole-time or part-time as the State Government
may think fit; (b) such number of officials, not exceeding five, as the State Government may
think fit, to be nominated by the State Government to represent that Government; (c) such
number of persons, not exceeding five, as the State Government may think fit, to be
nominated by the State Government from amongst the members of the local authorities
functioning within the State;
(d) such number of non-officials, not exceeding three, as the State Government may think fit
to be nominated by the State Government to represent the interests of agriculture, fishery or
industry or trade or labour or any other interest, which in the opinion of that Government,
ought to be represented; (e) two persons to represent the companies or corporations owned,
controlled or managed by the State Government, to be nominated by that Government; (f) a
full-time member-secretary having such qualifications, knowledge and experience of
scientific, engineering or management aspects of pollution control as may be prescribed, to
be appointed by the State Government:]
(3) Every State Board constituted under this Act shall be a body corporate with the name
specified by the State Government in the notification issued under sub-section (1), having
perpetual succession and a common seal with power, subject to the provisions of this Act, to
acquire and dispose of property and to contract, and may be the said name sue or be sued.

Functions of Central Board –

(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, and without prejudice to the performance of its
functions under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974), the
main functions of the Central Board shall be to improve the quality of air and to prevent,
control or abate air pollution in the country.
(2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing functions, the
Central Board may
(a) advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the improvement of the quality
of air and the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;
(b) plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control or
abatement of air pollution;
(c) co-ordination the activities of the State Board and resolve disputes among them;
(d) provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and sponsor
investigations and research relating to problems of air pollution and prevention, control or
abatement of air pollution;
(dd) perform such of the functions of any State Board as may be specified in an order made
under subsection (2) of Sec. 18;
(e) plan and organize the training of person engaged or to engaged in programmes for the
prevention, control or abatement of air pollution on such terms and conditions as the Central
Board may specify;
(f) organize through mass media a comprehensive programme regarding the prevention,
control or abatement of air pollution;
(g) collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to air pollution and the
measures devised for its effective prevention, control or abatement and prepare manuals,
codes or guides relating to prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;
(h) lay down standards for the quality of air;
(i) collect and disseminate information in respect of matters relating to air pollution;
(j) perform such other function as may be prescribed.
(3) The Central Board may establish or recognize a laboratory or laboratories to enable the
Central Board to perform its functions under this section efficiently.
(4) The Central Board may
(a) delegate any of its functions under this Act generally or specially to any of the
Committees appointed by it;
(b) do such other things and perform such other acts as it may think necessary for the proper
discharge of its functions and generally for the purpose of carrying into effect the purposes of
this Act.

Functions of State Boards –

(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, and without prejudice to the performance of its
functions, if any, under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of
1974), the functions of a State Board shall be:
(a) to plan a comprehensive programme for the prevention, control or abatement of air
pollution and to secure the execution thereof;
(b) to advise the State Government on any matter concerning the prevention, control or
abatement of air pollution;
(c) to collect and disseminate information relating to air pollution;
(d) to collaborate with the Central Board in organizing the training of persons engaged or to
be engaged in programmes relating to prevention, control or abatement of air pollution and to
organize mass-education programme relating thereto;
(e) to inspect, at all reasonable times, any control equipment, industrial plant or
manufacturing process and to give, by order, such directions to such persons as it may
consider necessary to take steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;
(f) to inspect air pollution control areas to such intervals as it may think necessary, assess the
quality of air therein and take steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution in
such areas;
(g) to lay down, in consultation with the Central Board and having regard to the standards for
the quality of air laid down by the Central Board, standards for the quality of air laid down by
the Central Board, standards for emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere from industrial
plants and automobiles or for the discharge of any air pollutant into the atmosphere from any
other source whatsoever not being a ship or an aircraft; Provided that different standards for
emission may be laid down under this clause for different industrial plants having regard to
the quality and composition of emission of air pollutions into the atmosphere from such
industrial plants;
(h) to advise the State Government with respect to the suitability of any premises or location
for carrying or any industry which is likely to cause air pollution;
(i) to perform such other functions as may be prescribed or as may, from time to time, be
entrusted to it by the Central Board or the State Government;
(j) to do such other things and to perform such other acts as it may think necessary for the
proper discharge of its functions and generally for the purpose of carrying into effect the
purpose of this Act.
(2) A State Board may establish or recognize a laboratory or laboratories to enable the State
Board to perform its functions under this section efficiently

WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1974

Constitution of Central Board

(1) The Central Government shall, with effect from such date (being a date not later than six
months of the commencement of this Act in the States of Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana,
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Tripura and West Bengal and in the Union Territories) as it may, by notification in the
Official Gazette, appoint, constitute a Central Board to be called the 4 [Central Pollution
Control Board] to exercise the powers conferred on and perform the functions assigned to
that Board under this Act. 3
(2) The Central Board shall consist of the following members, namely,- (a) a full-time
Chairman, being a person having special knowledge or practical experience in respect of 5
[matters relating to environmental protection] or a person having knowledge and experience
in administering institutions dealing with the matters aforesaid, to be nominated by the
Central Government; (b) 6 [such number of officials, not exceeding five], to be nominated by
the Central Government to represent that government; (c) such number of persons, not
exceeding five to be nominated by the Central Government, from amongst the members of
the State Boards, of whom not exceeding two shall be from those referred to in clause (c) of
sub-section (2) of section 4; (d) 7 [such number of non-officials, not exceeding three], to be
nominated by the Central Government, to represent the interests of agriculture, fishery or
industry or trade or any other interest which, in the opinion of the Central Government, ought
to be represented; (e) two persons to represent the companies or corporations owned,
controlled or managed by the Central Government, to be nominated by that government; 8
[(f) a full-time member-secretary, possessing qualifications, knowledge and experience of
scientific, engineering or management aspects of pollution control, to be appointed by the
Central Government.]
(3) The Central Board shall be a body corporate with the name aforesaid having perpetual
succession and a common seal with power, subject to the provisions of this Act, to acquire,
hold and dispose of property and to contract, and may, by the aforesaid name, sue or be sued.

4. Constitution of State Boards

(1) The State Government shall, with effect from such date 9 [***] as it may, by notification
in the Official Gazette, appoint, constitute a 10[State Pollution Control Board,] under such
name as may be specified in the notification, to exercise the powers conferred on and perform
the functions assigned to that Board under this Act.
(2) A State Board shall consist of the following members, namely,- (a) a 11[***] Chairman,
being, a person having special knowledge or practical experience in respect of 5 [matters
relating to environmental protection] or a person having knowledge and experience in
administering institutions dealing with the matters aforesaid, to be nominated by the State
Government: 2[PROVIDED that the Chairman may be either whole-time or part-time as the
State Government may think fit;] (b) 6 [such number of officials, not exceeding five,] to be
nominated by the State Government to represent that government; (c) 12[such number of
persons, not exceeding five,] to be nominated by the State Government from amongst the
members of the local authorities functioning within the State; (d) 7 [such number of non-
officials, not exceeding three] to be nominated by the State Government to represent the
interests of agriculture, fishery or industry or trade or any other interest which, in the opinion
of the State Government, ought to be represented; (e) two persons to represent the companies
or corporations owned, controlled or managed by the State Government, to be nominated by
that government; 4 8 [(f) a full-time member-secretary, possessing qualifications, knowledge
and experience of scientific, engineering or management aspects of pollution control, to be
appointed by the State Government.]
(3) Every State Board shall be a body corporate with the name specified by the State
Government in the notification under sub-section (1), having perpetual succession and a
common seal with power, subject to the provisions of this Act, to acquire hold and dispose of
property and to contract, and may, by the said name, sue or be sued.
(4) Notwithstanding anything contained in this section, no State Board shall be constituted for
a Union Territory and in relation to a Union Territory, the Central Board shall exercise the
powers and perform the functions of a State Board for that Union Territory: PROVIDED that
in relation to any Union Territory the Central Board may delegate all or any of its powers and
functions under this sub-section to such person or body of persons as the Central Government
may specify.

Functions of Central Board

(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, the main function of the Central Board shall be to
promote cleanliness of streams and wells in different areas of the States.
(2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing function, the Central
Board may perform all or any of the following functions, namely, -
(a) advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the prevention and control of
water pollution;
(b) co-ordinate the activities of the State Boards and resolve disputes among them;
(c) provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and sponsor
investigations and research relating to problems of water pollution and prevention, control or
abatement of water pollution;
(d) plan and organise the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in programmes for the
prevention, control or abatement of water pollution on such terms and conditions as the
Central Board may specify;
(e) organise through mass media a comprehensive programme regarding the prevention and
control of water pollution; 15[(ee) perform such of the functions of any State Board as may
be specified in an order made under sub-section (2) of section 18;] 10
(f) collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to water pollution and
the measures devised for its effective prevention and control and prepare manuals, codes or
guides relating to treatment and disposal of sewage and trade effluents and disseminate
information connected therewith;
(g) lay down, modify or annul, in consultation with the State Government concerned, the
standards for a stream or well: PROVIDED that different standards may be laid down for the
same stream or well or for different streams or wells, having regard to the quality of water,
flow characteristics of the stream or well and the nature of the use of the water in such stream
or well or streams or wells; (h) plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide programme for
the prevention, control or abatement of water pollution;
(i) perform such other functions as may be prescribed.

(3) The Board may establish or recognise a laboratory or laboratories to enable the Board to
perform its functions under this section efficiently, including the analysis of samples of water
from any stream or well or of samples of any sewage or trade effluents.

Functions of State Board

(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, the functions of a State Board shall be-
(a) to plan a comprehensive programme for the prevention, control or abatement of pollution
of streams and wells in the State and to secure the execution thereof;
(b) to advise the State Government on any matter concerning the prevention, control or
abatement of water pollution;
(c) to collect and disseminate information relating to water pollution and the prevention,
control or abatement thereof;
(d) to encourage, conduct and participate in investigations and research relating to problems
of water pollution and prevention, control or abatement of water pollution;
(e) to collaborate with the Central Board in organising the training of persons engaged or to
be engaged in programmes relating to prevention, control or abatement of water pollution and
to organise mass education programmes relating thereto;
(f) to inspect sewage or trade effluents, works and plants for the treatment of sewage and
trade effluents and to review plans, specifications or other data relating to plants set up for the
treatment of water, works for the purification thereof and the system for the disposal of
sewage or trade effluents or in connection with the grant of any consent as required by this
Act;
(g) to lay down, modify or annul effluent standards for the sewage and trade effluents and for
the quality of receiving waters (not being water in an interstate stream) resulting from the
discharge of effluents and to classify waters of the State;
(h) to evolve economical and reliable methods of treatment of sewage and trade effluents,
having regard to the peculiar conditions of soils, climate and water resources of different
regions and more especially the prevailing flow characteristics of water in streams and wells
which render it impossible to attain even the minimum degree of dilution;
(i) to evolve methods of utilisation of sewage and suitable trade effluents in agriculture; 11
(j) to evolve efficient methods of disposal of sewage and trade effluents on land, as are
necessary on account of the predominant conditions of scant stream flows that do not provide
for major part of the year the minimum degree of dilution;
(k) to lay down standards of treatment of sewage and trade effluents to be discharged into any
particular stream considering the minimum fair-weather dilution available in that stream and
the tolerance limits of pollution permissible in the water of the stream, after the discharge of
such effluents;
(l) to make, vary or revoke any order- (i) for the prevention, control or abatement of
discharges of waste into streams or wells; (ii) requiring any person concerned to construct
new systems for the disposal of sewage and trade effluents or to modify, alter or extend any
such existing system or to adopt such remedial measures as are necessary to prevent, control
or abate water pollution;
(m) to lay down effluent standards to be complied with by persons while causing discharge of
sewage or sullage or both and to lay down, modify or annul effluent standards for the sewage
and trade effluents;
(n) to advise the State Government with respect to the location of any industry the carrying
on of which is likely to pollute a stream or well;
(o) to perform such other functions as may be prescribed or as may, from time to time, be
entrusted to it by the Central Board or the State Government.

(2) The Board may establish or recognise a laboratory or laboratories to enable the Board to
perform its functions under this section efficiently, including the analysis of samples of water
from any stream or well or of samples of any sewage or trade effluents.

Environmental Protection Act:

GENERAL POWERS OF THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT

3. Power of Central Government to take measures to protect and improve environment –
(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, the Central Government, shall have the power to
take all such measures as it deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of protecting and
improving the quality of the environment and preventing controlling and abating
environmental pollution. (2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the
provisions of subsection (1), such measures may include measures with respect to all or any
of the following matters, namely:- (i) co-ordination of actions by the State Governments,
officers and other authorities- (a) under this Act, or the rules made thereunder, or (b) under
any other law for the time being in force which is relatable to the objects of this Act; (ii)
planning and execution of a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control and
abatement of environmental pollution; (iii) laying down standards for the quality of
environment in its various aspects; (iv) laying down standards for emission or discharge of
environmental pollutants from various sources whatsoever: Provided that different standards
for emission or discharge may be laid down under this clause from different sources having
regard to the quality or composition of the emission or discharge of environmental pollutants
from such sources; (v) restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or processes or
class of industries, operations or processes shall not be carried out or shall be carried out
subject to certain safeguards; (vi) laying down procedures and safeguards for the prevention
of accidents which may cause environmental pollution and remedial measures for such
accidents; (vii) laying down procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous
substances; (viii) examination of such manufacturing processes, materials and substances as
are likely to cause environmental pollution; (ix) carrying out and sponsoring investigations
and research relating to problems of environmental pollution; (x) inspection of any premises,
plant, equipment, machinery, manufacturing or other processes, materials or substances and
giving, by order, of such directions to such authorities, officers or persons as it may consider
necessary to take steps for the prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution;
(xi) establishment or recognition of environmental laboratories and institutes to carry out the
functions entrusted to such environmental laboratories and institutes under this Act; (xii)
collection and dissemination of information in respect of matters relating to environmental
pollution; (xiii) preparation of manuals, codes or guides relating to the prevention, control
and abatement of environmental pollution; (xiv) such other matters as the Central
Government deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of securing the effective
implementation of the provisions of this Act. (3) The Central Government may, if it considers
it necessary or expedient so to do for the purpose of this Act, by order, published in the
Official Gazette, constitute an authority or authorities by such name or names as may be
specified in the order for the purpose of exercising and performing such of the powers and
functions (including the power to issue directions under section 5) of the Central Government
under this Act and for taking measures with respect to such of the matters referred to in sub-
section (2) as may be mentioned in the order and subject to the supervision and control of the
Central Government and the provisions of such order, such authority or authorities may
exercise and powers or perform the functions or take the measures so mentioned in the order
as if such authority or authorities had been empowered by this Act to exercise those powers
or perform those functions or take such measures. 4. Appointment of officers and their
powers and functions - (1) Without prejudice to the provisions of sub-section (3) of section 3,
the Central Government may appoint officers with such designation as it thinks fit for the
purposes of this Act and may entrust to them such of the powers and functions under this Act
as it may deem fit. (2) The officers appointed under sub-section (1) shall be subject to the
general control and direction of the Central Government or, if so directed by that
Government, also of the authority or authorities, if any, constituted under subsection (3) of
section 3 or of any other authority or officer. 5. Power to give directions - Notwithstanding
anything contained in any other law but subject to the provisions of this Act, the Central
Government may, in the exercise of its powers and performance of its functions under this
Act, issue directions in writing to any person, officer or any authority and such person, officer
or authority shall be bound to comply with such directions. Explanation - For the avoidance
of doubts, it is hereby declared that the power to issue directions under this section includes
the power to direct- (a) the closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or
process; or (b) stoppage or regulation of the supply of electricity or water or any other
service. 6. Rules to regulate environmental pollution - (1) The Central Government may, by
notification in the Official Gazette, make rules in respect of all or any of the matters referred
to in section 3. (2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing
power, such rules may provide for all or any of the following matters, namely:- (a) the
standards of quality of air, water or soil for various areas and purposes; (b) the maximum
allowable limits of concentration of various environmental pollutants (including noise) for
different areas; (c) the procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances;
(d) the prohibition and restrictions on the handling of hazardous substances in different areas;
(e) the prohibition and restriction on the location of industries and the carrying on process
and operations in different areas; (f) the procedures and safeguards for the prevention of
accidents which may cause environmental pollution and for providing for remedial measures
for such accidents.

PREVENTION, CONTROL, AND ABATEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL

POLLUTION

Persons carrying on industry operation, etc., not to allow emission or discharge of

environmental pollutants in excess of the standards –
No person carrying on any industry, operation or process shall discharge or emit or permit to
be discharged or emitted any environmental pollutants in excess of such standards as may be
prescribed.

Persons handling hazardous substances to comply with procedural safeguards –

No person shall handle or cause to be handled any hazardous substance except in accordance
with such procedure and after complying with such safeguards as may be prescribed.

Furnishing of information to authorities and agencies in certain cases –

(1) Where the discharge of any environmental pollutant in excess of the prescribed standards
occurs or is apprehended to occur due to any accident or other unforeseen act or event, the
person responsible for such discharge and the person in charge of the place at which such
discharge occurs or is apprehended to occur shall be bound to prevent or mitigate the
environmental pollution caused as a result of such discharge and shall also forthwith- (a)
intimate the fact of such occurrence or apprehension of such occurrence; and (b) be bound, if
called upon, to render all assistance, to such authorities or agencies as may be prescribed.
(2) On receipt of information with respect to the fact or apprehension on any occurrence of
the nature referred to in sub-section (1), whether through intimation under that sub-section or
otherwise, the authorities or agencies referred to in sub-section (1) shall, as early as
practicable, cause such remedial measures to be taken as necessary to prevent or mitigate the
environmental pollution.
(3) The expenses, if any, incurred by any authority or agency with respect to the remedial
measures referred to in sub-section (2), together with interest (at such reasonable rate as the
Government may, by order, fix) from the date when a demand for the expenses is made until
it is paid, may be recovered by such authority or agency from the person concerned as arrears
of land revenue or of public demand.

Water Cess Act:

LEVY AND COLLECTION OF CESSES

1. There shall be levied and collected a cess for the purpose of the Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1974(6 of 1974) and utilisation there under, theCess under sub-
section (1) shall be payable by-

a. Every person carrying on any 2[industry]; and

b. Every local authority, and shall be calculated on the basis of water consumed by such person
or local authority, as the case may be, for any of the purpose specified in column (1) of
Schedule II, at such rate, not exceeding the rate specified in the corresponding entry in
column (2) thereof, as the Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette,
from time to time, specify.

2. [(2A) Where any person carrying on any 2[industry] or any local authority
consuming water for domestic purpose liable to pay cess fails to comply with any of
the provisions of section 25 of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1974 (6 of 1974) or any of the standards laid so down by the Central Government
under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, cess shall be notwithstanding anything
contained in sub-section 2 of this section calculated and payable at such rate, not
exceeding the rate specified in column (3) of Schedule II, as the Central Government
may, by notification in the Official Gazette, from time to time specify.]

3. Where any local authority supplies water to any person carrying on any 2[industry] or
to any other local authority and such person or other local authority is liable to pay
cess under sub-section (2) or sub-section (2A) in respect of the water so supplied,
then, notwithstanding anything contained in that sub-section, the local authority first
mentioned shall not be liable to pay such cess in respect of such water.
Explanation—For the purpose of this section and section 4, "consumption of water"
includes supply of water. Some important Provision of the Water (P & C.P.) Cess Act.1977
read with amendment of 1992 & 2003 are submitted as under.

AFFIXING OF METERS

1. For the purpose of measuring and recording the quantity of water consumed, every person
carrying on any [industry] and every local authority shall affix meters of such standards and
at such places as may be prescribed and it shall be presumed that the quantity indicated by the
meter has been consumed by such person or local authority, as the case may be, until the
contrary is proved.

2. Where any person or local authority fails to affix any meter as required by sub-section (1),
the Central Government shall after notice to such person or local authority, as the case may
be, cause such meter to be affixed and the cost of such meter together with the cost for
affixing the meter may be recovered from such person or local authority by the Central
Government in the same manner as an arrear of land revenue.
Section – 5: - FURNISHING OF RETURNS

3[(1)] Every person carrying on any 1[industry] and every local authority, liable to
pay the cess under section 3, shall furnish such returns, in such form at such intervals and
containing such particulars to such officer or authority, as may be prescribed.

[(2) If a person carrying on any 1[industry] or a local authority, liable to pay the cess
under section 3, fails to furnish any return under sub-section (1), the officer or the authority
shall give a notice requiring such person or local authority to furnish such return before such
date as may be specified in the notice.]

Section -7: - REBATE.

Where any person or local authority, liable to pay the cess under this Act, installs any
plant for the treatment of sewage or trade effluent, such person or local authority shall from
such date as may be prescribed, be entitled to a rebate of twenty-five per cent of the cess
payable by such person or, as the case may be, local authority.
1[Provided that a person or local authority shall not be entitled to a rebate, if he or it

c. Consumes water in excess of the maximum quantity as may be prescribed in

this behalf for any 2[Industry] or local authority; or

d. fails to comply with any of the provisions of section 25 of the Water

(Prevention and control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974) or any of the standards laid down
by the Central Government under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (29 of 1986).]

Section 10: - INTEREST PAYABLE FOR DELAY IN PAYMENT OF CESS.

If any person carrying on any 1[Industry] or any local authority fails to pay any
amount of cess payable under section 3 to the State Government within the date specified in
the order of assessment made under section 6, such person or local authority, as the case may
be, shall be liable to pay 2[interest on the amount to be paid at the rate of two per cent for
every month or part of a month comprised in the period from the date on which such payment
is due till such amount is actually paid.

Section 11: - PENALTY FOR NON-PAYMENT OF CESS WITHIN THE SPECIFIED

TIME.

If any amount of cess payable by any person carrying on any 1[industry] or any Local
authority under section 3 is not paid to the State Government within the date specified in the
order of assessment made under section 6, it shall be deemed to be in arrears and the
authority prescribed in this behalf may, after such inquiry as it deems fit, impose on such
person or, as the case may be, Local authority, a penalty not exceeding the amount of cess in
arrears:

Provided that before imposing any such penalty, such person or, as the case may be,
the local authority shall be given as reasonable opportunity of being heard and if after such
hearing the said authority is satisfied that the default was for any good and sufficient reason,
no penalty shall be imposed under this section.

Section 12: - RECOVERY OF AMOUNT DUE UNDER THE ACT.

Any amount due under this Act. (including any interest or penalty payable under
section 10 or section 11, as the case may be) from any person carrying on any 3[industry] or
from any local authority may be recovered by the Central Government in the same manner as
an arrear of land revenue.

Section 15: - OFFENCES BY COMPANIES.

1. Where an offence under this Act. has been committed by a company, every person who, at
the time the offence was committed, was in charge of and was responsible to, the company
for the conduct of the business of the company as well as the company, shall be deemed to be
guilty of the offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly:

Provided that nothing contained in this sub-section shall render any such person liable
to any punishment, if he proves that the offence was committed without his knowledge or that
he exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission of such offence.

2. Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), where an offence under this Act has
been committed by a company and it is proved that the offence has been committed with the
consent or connivance of , or is attributable to any neglect on the part of, any director,
manager, secretary or other officer of the company, such director, manager, secretary or other
officer shall also be deemed to be guilty of that offence and shall be liable to be proceeded
against and punished accordingly.

Explanation: - For the purpose of this section: -

a. "Company" means anybody corporate and includes a firm or other association of individuals;
and

b. "Director", unrelation to firm, means a partner in the firm.

Further in exercise of the powers conferred by sub section (i) of section 16 of the
water (P&C pollution) cess Act. 1977 (36 of 1977) the central Government herby exempts all
industries consuming water less than ten kilo litters per day from the levy of Cess specified in
this notification.

Provided that no such exemption shall be applicable in case of industries generation

"Hazardous wastes" as defined in clause (i) of rule 3 of the Hazardous waste (Management of
Handling) Rules, 1989, made under section 6,8 and 25 of the Environment (Protection) Act,
1986 (29 of 1986

THE PUBLIC LIABILITY INSURANCE ACT, 1991

Liability to give relief in certain cases on principle of no fault. —

(1) Where death or injury to any person (other than a workman) or damage to any property
has resulted from an accident, the owner shall be liable to give such relief as is specified in
the Schedule for such death, injury or damage.
(2) In any claim for relief under sub-section (1) (hereinafter referred to in this Act as claim
for relief), the claimant shall not be required to plead and establish that the death, injury or
damage in respect of which the claim has been made was due to any wrongful act, neglect or
default of any person. Explanation. —For the purposes of this section, — (i) “workman” has
the meaning assigned to it in the Workmen’s Compensation Act, 1923 (8 of 1923); (ii)
“injury” includes permanent total or permanent partial disability or sickness resulting out of
an accident.

Duty of owner to take out insurance policies. —

(1) Every owner shall take out, before he starts handling any hazardous substance, one or
more insurance policies providing for contracts of insurance whereby he is insured against
liability to give relief under sub-section (1) of section 3: Provided that any owner handling
any hazardous substance immediately before the commencement of this Act shall take out
such insurance policy or policies as soon as may be and in any case within a period of one
year from such commencement.
(2) Every owner shall get the insurance policy, referred to in sub-section (1), renewed from
time to time before the expiry of the period of validity thereof so that the insurance policies
may remain in force throughout the period during which such handling is continued. 1 [(2A)
No insurance policy taken out or renewed by an owner shall be for an amount less than the
amount of the paid-up capital of the undertaking handling any hazardous substance and
owned or controlled by that owner, and more than the amount, not exceeding fifty crore
rupees, as may be prescribed. Explanation. — For the purposes of this sub-section, “paid-up
capital” means, in the case of an owner not being a company, the market value of all assets
and stocks of the undertaking on the date of contract of insurance. (2B) The liability of the
insurer under one assurance policy shall not exceed the amount specified in the terms of the
contract of insurance in that insurance policy. (2C) Every owner shall also, together with the
amount of premium, pay to the insurer, for being credited to the Relief Fund established
under section 7A, such further amount, not exceeding the sum equivalent to the amount of
premium, as may be prescribed. (2D) The insurer shall remit to the authority specified in sub-
section (3) of section 7A the amount received from the owner under sub-section (2C) for
being credited to the Relief Fund in such manner and within such period as may be prescribed
and where the insurer fails to so remit the amount, it shall be recoverable from insurer as
arrears of land revenue or of public demand.]
(3) The Central Government may, by notification, exempt from the operation of sub-section
(1) any owner, namely: —
(a) the Central Government;
(b) any State Government;
(c) any corporation owned or controlled by the Central Government or a State Government;
or
(d) any local authority: Provided that no such order shall be made in relation to such owner
unless a fund has been established and is maintained by that owner in accordance with the
rules made in this behalf for meeting any liability under sub-section (1) of section 3.

5. Verification and publication of accident by Collector. —

Whenever it comes to the notice of the Collector that an accident has occurred at any place
within his jurisdiction, he shall verify the occurrence 1.Ins. by Act 11 of 1992, s. 3 (w.e.f. 31-
1-1992). 4 of such accident and cause publicity to be given in such manner as he deems fit for
inviting applications under sub-section (1) of section 6.

Provisions as to other right to claim compensation for death, etc.— (1) The right to claim
relief under sub-section (1) of section 3 in respect of death of, or injury to, any person or
damage to any property shall be in addition to any other right to claim compensation in
respect thereof under any other law for the time being in force. (2) Notwithstanding anything
contained in sub-section (1), where in respect of death of, or injury to, any person or damage
to any property, the owner, liable to give claim for relief, is also liable to pay compensation
under any other law, the amount of such compensation shall be reduced by the amount of
relief paid under this Act.
9.Power to call for information. —Any person authorised by the Central Government may,
for the purposes of ascertaining whether any requirements of this Act or of any rule or of any
direction given under this Act have been compiled with, require any owner to submit to that
person such information as that person may reasonably think necessary.
10. Power of entry and inspection.—Any person, authorised by the Central Government in
this behalf, shall have a right to enter, at all reasonable times with such assistance as he
considers necessary, any place, premises or vehicle, where hazardous substance is handled
for the purpose of determining whether any provisions of this Act or of any rule or of any
direction given under this Act is being or has been compiled with and such owner is bound to
render all assistance to such person.

Offences by companies. —
(1) Where any offence under this Act has been committed by a company, every person who,
at the time the offence was committed, was directly in charge of, and was responsible to, the
company for the conduct of the business of the company, as well as the company, shall be
deemed to be guilty of the offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished
accordingly: Provided that nothing contained in this sub-section shall render any such person
liable to any punishment provided in this Act, if he proves that the offence was committed
without his knowledge or that he exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission of
such offence.

(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section

(1), where an offence under this Act has been committed by a company and it is proved that
the offence has been committed with the consent or connivance of, or is attributable to any
neglect on the part of, any director, manager, secretary or other officer of the company, such
director, manager, secretary or other officer shall also be deemed to be guilty of that offence
and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly. Explanation. —For the
purposes of this section, —
(a) “company” means anybody corporate and includes a firm or other association of
individuals;
(b) “director,” in relation to a firm, means a partner in the firm.

Offences by Government Departments.—Where an offence under this Act has been

committed by any Department of Government, the Head of the Department shall be deemed
to be guilty of the offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished
accordingly: Provided that nothing contained in this section shall render such Head of the
Department liable to any punishment if he proves that the offence was committed without his
knowledge or that he exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission of such offence.

MANUFACTURE, STORAGE AND IMPORT OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICAL

RULES, 1989 (MSHIC Rule)

General responsibility of the occupier during industrial activity.

(1) This rule shall apply to, -

(a) an industrial activity in which a hazardous chemical, which satisfies any of the criteria
laid down in Part I of Schedule I and is listed in Column 2 of Part II of this Schedule is or
may be involved; and
(b) isolated storage in which there is involved a threshold quantity of a hazardous chemical
listed in Schedule 2 in Column 2 which is equal to or more than the threshold quantity
specified in the Schedule for that chemical in Column 3 thereof.
(2) An occupier who has control of an industrial activity in term of sub-rule (I) shall provide
evidence to show that he has, -
(a) identified the major accident hazards;
(b) taken adequate steps to –
(i) prevent such major accidents and o limit their consequences to persons and the
environment;
(ii) provide to the persons working on the site with the information, training and equipment
including antidotes necessary to ensure their safely.
5. Notification of Major accident.
(1) Where a major accident occurs on a site or in a pipe line, the occupier shall forthwith
notify the concerned authority as identified in Schedule S of that accident, and furnish
thereafter to the concerned authority a report relating to the accidents in instalments, if
necessary, in Schedule 6.
(2) The concerned authority shall on receipt of the report in accordance with sub-rule I of this
rule shall undertake a full analysis of the major accident and send the requisite information to
the Ministry of Environment and Forests through appropriate channel.
(3) Where an occupier has notified a major accident to the concerned authority under
respective legislation, he shall be deemed to have compiled with the requirements as per sub-
rule I of this rule.
6. Industrial activity to which rules 7 to 15 apply.
(1) Rules 7 to 15 shall apply to, -
(a) an industrial activity in which there is involved a quantity of hazardous chemical listed in
Column 2 of Schedule 3 which is equal to or more than the quantity specified in the entry for
that chemical in Columns 3 & 4 (Rules 10-12 only for Column 4) and
(b) isolated storage in which there is involved a quantity of a hazardous chemical listed in
Column 2 of Schedule 2 which is equate to or more than the quantity specified in the entry
for that chemical in Column 1
(2) For the purposes of rules 7 to 15, or
(a) "new industrial activity" means an industrial activity which-
(i) commences after the date of coming into operation of these rules; or
(ii) if commenced before that date is an industrial activity in which a modification has been
made which is likely to cover major accident hazards and that activity shall be deemed to
have commenced on the date on which the modification was made;
(b) an "existing industrial activity" means an industrial activity which is not a new industrial
activity
7. Notification of sites.
(1) An occupier shall not undertake any industrial activity unless he has submitted A written
report to the concerned authority containing the particulars specified in Schedule 7 at least 3
months before commencing that activity or before such shorter time as the concerned
authority may agree and for the purpose of this paragraph an activity in which subsequently
there is or is liable to be a threshold quantity or more of an additional hazardous chemical
shall be deemed to be a different activity and shall be notified accordingly
(2) No report under sub-rule (I) need to be submitted by the occupier if he submits a report
under rule 10(1)
8. Updating of the site notification following changes in the threshold quantity.
Where an activity has been reported in accordance with rule 7(1) and the occupier makes a
change in it (including an increase or decrease in the maximum threshold quantity of a
hazardous chemical to which this rule applies which is or is liable to be at the site or in the
pipeline or at the cessation of the activity, which affects the particulars specified in that report
or any subsequent report made under this rule the occupier shall forthwith furnish a further
report to the concerned authority.
9. Transitional provisions.
(a) at the date of coming into operation of these rules an occupier is in control of an existing
industrial activity which is required to be reported under rule 7(1); or
(b) within 6 months after that date an occupier commence any such new industrial activity; it
shall be a sufficient compliance with that rule if he reports to the concerned authority as per
the particulars in Schedule 7 within 3 months after the date of coming into operation of these
rules or within such longer time as the concerned authority may agree in writing.
10. Safety reports.
(1) Subjects to the following paragraphs of this rule, an occupier shall not undertake any
industrial activity to which this rule applies, unless he has prepared a safely report on that
industrial activity containing the information specified in Schedule 8 and has sent a copy of
that report to the concerned authority at least ninety days before commencing that activity.
(2) In the case of a new industrial activity which an occupier commences, or by virtue of sub-
rule (2) (a) (ii) of rule 6 is deemed to commence, within 6 months after coming into operation
of these rules, it shall be sufficient compliance with sub-rule (I) of this rule if the occupier
sends to the concerned authority a copy of the report required in accordance with that sub-
rule within ninety days after the date of coming into operation of these rules.
(3) In The case of an existing industrial activity, until five years from the date of coming into
operation of these rules, it shall be a sufficient compliance with sub-rule (I) of this rule in the
occupier on or before ninety days from the date of the coming into operation of 1hcse rules
sends to the concerned authority in information specified in Schedule 7 relating to that
activity.
Requirements for further information to be sent to the authority.

(1) Where, in accordance with rule 10, an occupier has sent a safely report relating to
an industrial activity to the concerned authority, the concerned authority may, by a
notice served on the occupier, requires him to provide such additional information as is
specified in the notice and the occupied shall send that information to the concerned
authority within such lime as is specified in The notice or within such extended time as
the authority may subsequently specify

Preparation of on-site emergency plan by the occupier.

(1) An occupier shall prepare and keep up-to-date an on-site emergency plan detailing
how major accidents will be dealt with on the site on which the industrial activity is
carried on and that plan shall include the name of the person who is responsible for
safety on the site and the names of those who are authorised to act in accordance with
the plan in case of an emergency

(2) The occupier shall ensure that the emergency plan prepared in accordance with sub-
rule (I) lakes into account any modification made in the industrial activity and that
every person on the site who is affected by the plan-is informed of its relevant
provisions.

(3) The occupier shall prepare the emergency plan required under sub-rule

(a) in the case of a new industrial activity before that activity is commenced;
(b) in the case of an existing industrial activity within 90 days of coming into operation
of these rules.

Preparation of off-site emergency plan by the authority.

(1) It shall be the duty of the concerned authority as identified in Column 2 of Schedule
5 to prepare and keep up-to-date an adequate off-site emergency plan detailing how
emergencies relating to a possible major accident on that site will be dealt with and in
preparing that plan the concerned authority shall consult the occupier, and such other
persons as it may deem necessary.

(2) For the purpose of enabling The concerned authority to prepare the emergency plan
required under sub-rule (1), the occupier shall provide the concerned authority with
such information relating to the industrial activity under his control as the concerned
authority may require, including the nature, extent and likely effects off-site of possible
major accidents and the authority shall provide the occupier with any information from
the off-site emergency plan which relates to his duties under rule 13.

(3) The concerned authority shall prepare its emergency plan required under sub-rule
(1), -

(a) in the case of a new industrial activity, before that activity is commenced;

(b) in the case of an existing industrial activity, within six months of coming into
operation of these rules.

Information to be given to persons liable to be affected by a major accident.

(1) The occupier shall take appropriate steps to inform persons outside the site either
directly or through District Emergency Authority who are likely to be in an area which
may be affected by a major accident about-

(a) the nature of the major accident hazard; and

(b) the safety measures and the "Do’s’ and ‘Don’ts" which should be adopted in the
event of a major accident

(2) The occupier shall take the steps required under sub-rule (I) to inform persons about
an industrial activity, before that activity is commenced, except, in the case of an
existing industrial activity in which case the occupier shall comply with the
requirements of sub-rule (I) within 90 days of coming into operation of these rules.

Disclosures of information.

(1) Where for the purpose of evaluating information notified under rule 5 or 7 to 15,
the concerned authority discloses that information to some other person that other
person shall not use that information for any purpose except for the purpose of the
concerned authority disclosing it, and before disclosing the information the concerned
authority shall inform that other person of his obligations under this paragraph.
Collection, Development and Dissemination of Information.

(1) This rule shall apply to an industrial activity in which a hazardous chemical which
satisfies any of the criteria laid down in part I of Schedule I and is listed in Column 2
of Part II of this Schedule is or may be involved.

(2) An occupier, who has control of an industrial activity in term of sub-rule 1 of this
rule, shall arrange to obtain or develop information in the form of safety data sheet as
specified in Schedule 9. The information shall be accessible upon request for reference.

(3) The occupier while obtaining or developing a safety data sheet as specified in
Schedule 9 in respect of a hazardous chemical handled by him shall ensure that the
information is recorded accurately and reflects the scientific evidence used in making
the hazard determination. In case, any significant information regarding hazard of a
chemical is available, it shall be added to the material safety data sheet as specified in
Schedule 9 as soon as practicable.

(4) Every container of a hazardous chemical shall be clearly labelled or marked to

identify, -

(a) the contents of the container,

(b) the name and address of manufacturer or importer of the hazardous chemical;

(c) the physical, chemical and toxicological data as per the criteria given at Part I of
Schedule 1.

(5) In terms of sub-rule 4 Of this rule where it is impracticable to label a chemical in

view of the size of the container or the nature of the package, provision should be made
for other effective means like tagging or accompanying documents.

Import of hazardous chemicals

(1) This rule shall apply to a chemical which satisfies any of the criteria laid down in
Part I of Schedule I and is listed in Column 2 of Part II of this Schedule.

(2) Any person responsible for importing hazardous chemicals in India shall provide at
the time of import or within thirty days from the date of import to the concerned
authorities as identified in Column 2 of Schedule 5 the information pertaining to-

(i) the name and address of the person receiving the consignment in India;

(ii) the port of entry in India;

(iii) mode of transport from the exporting country to India

(iv) The quantity of chemical(s) being imported; and

(v) complete product safety information.

(3) If the concerned authority at the State is satisfied that the chemical being imported
is likely to cause major accident, it may direct the importer to take such steps including
stoppage of such imports as the concerned authority at the State may deem it
appropriate.

(4) The concerned authority at the State shall simultaneously inform the concerned Port
Authority to take appropriate steps regarding safe handling and storage of hazardous
chemicals while off-loading the consignment with the port premises.

(5) Any person importing hazardous chemicals shall maintain the records of the
hazardous chemicals imported as specified in Schedule 10 and the records so
maintained shall be open for inspection by the concerned authority at the State or the
Ministry of Environment and Forests or any officer appointed by them in this behalf.

(6) The importer of the hazardous chemical of a person working on his behalf shall
ensure that transport of hazardous chemicals from port of entry to the ultimate
destination is in accordance with the Central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1989 framed under
the provisions of the Motor Vehicles Act, 198

ROLE OF CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD, STATE POLLUTION

CONTROL BOARDS

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 has been enacted for the purpose
of prevention and control of water pollution. “It came into being at a time when the country
had already prepared itself for industrialization and urbanization. The need was keenly felt
for the treatment of domestic and industrial effluents, before they were discharged into rivers
and streams.” The availability of clean drinking water was becoming a rare phenomenon due
to unrestricted and ever-growing pollution of streams, rivers and other water sources. It was
therefore, expedient to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and the
maintaining or restoring of the wholesomeness of water. In order to achieve this object, the
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 provides for the establishment of
Central and State Pollution Control Boards and enumerates the powers and functions of such
Boards.1 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 represents India’s first
real attempt to comprehensively deal with an environmental issue. Water is a subject
mentioned in Entry 17, List II of the Seventh Schedule, i.e. a State subject. Thus, the Union
Government had to enact the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 under
the provisions of article 252(1) of the Constitution, which permits the Central Government to
enact laws on subjects exclusively within state domain, if it can garner consent from two or
more states.
An act to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and the maintaining or
restoring of wholesomeness of water, for the establishment, with a view to carrying out the
purposes aforesaid, of Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution, for conferring
on and assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating thereto and for matters
connected therewith.

The statement of objects and reasons of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1974 states that the problem of pollution of rivers and streams has assumed considerable
importance and urgency and it seeks to ensure that the domestic and industrial effluents are
not allowed to be discharged into water courses without adequate treatment

FUNCTIONS OF CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD

The mandate of the Central Pollution Control Board is to set environmental standards in
India, lay down ambient standards and coordinate the activities of State Pollution Control
Boards.

FUNCTIONS OF CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD

The mandate of the Central Pollution Control Board is to set environmental standards in
India, lay down ambient standards and coordinate the activities of State Pollution Control
Boards.

According to section 16 of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, the
Central Board has been assigned to discharge the functions as follows:
(a) Advise the Central Government the Central Pollution Control Board can advise the
Central Government on any matter concerning the prevention and control of water pollution.
(b) Co-Ordination with State Board Central Pollution Control Board is to Co-ordinate the
activities of the State Boards and resolve dispute among them.
(c) Technical Assistance/Guidance to State Boards Central Pollution Control Board is to
provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and sponsor
investigations and research relating to problem of water pollution and prevention, control or
abatement of water pollution.
(d) Training Programme Central Pollution Control Board is to plan and organize the training
of persons engaged or to be engaged in programmes for the prevention, control or abatement
of water pollution.
(e) Organising Comprehensive Programme Central Pollution Control Board is to organise
through mass media a comprehensive programme regarding the prevention and control of
water pollution. Role of Central Pollution Control Board, State Pollution Control Board and
NGOs 115
(f) Functions as State Board by the Amending Act, 1988, the Central Board can perform such
of the functions of any State Board as may be specified in an order made under section 18(2)
of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 i.e., “power to give directions”-
“every State Board shall be bound by such directions in writing as the Central Government or
the State Government may give to it.
(g) Publication of Statistical/Technical Data Central Pollution Control Board is to Collect,
compile and publish technical and statistical relating to water pollution and the measures
devised for its effective prevention and control and prepare manuals, codes or guides relating
to treatment and disposal of sewage and trade effluents and disseminate information
connected therewith.
(h) Laying Down Standard for A Stream/Well Central Pollution Control Board is to lay
down, modify or annul, in consultation with the State Government concerned the standards
for a stream or well. (i) Execution of Programme at National Level Central Pollution Control
Board is to plan and cause to be executed by a nationwide programme for the prevention,
control or abatement of water pollution.

FUNCTIONS OF STATE POLLUTION CONTROL BOARDS

In terms of section 17 of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, the State
Board has to perform the following functions
(a) Planning Comprehensive Programme, The State Pollution Control Board is to plan a
comprehensive programme for the prevention, control or abatement of pollution of streams
and wells in the state and to secure the execution thereof.
(b) Advisory functions The State Pollution Control Board is to advise the state government
on any matter concerning the prevention, control or abatement of water pollution.
(c) Dissemination of Information the State Pollution Control Board is to collect and
disseminate information relating to water pollution and the prevention, control or abatement
thereof.
(d) Investigation and research The State Pollution Control Board is to encourage, conduct and
participate in investigation and research relating to problems of water pollution and
prevention, control or abatement of water pollution.
(e) Organising training programme The State Pollution Control Board is to collaborate with
the Central Board in organising the training of persons engaged in programmes relating to
prevention, control or abatement of water pollution and to organise mass education
programmes relating
(f) Inspection of sewage/trade effluents plants The State Pollution Control Board is to inspect
sewage or trade effluents works and plants for the treatment of sewage and trade effluents,
and to review plans, specifications or other data relating to plants setup for the treatment of
water, works for the purification thereof and the system of the disposal of sewage or trade
effluents or in connection with the grant of any consent as required by the Water (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
(g) Lay down Standards for Causing Discharge of Water the State Pollution Control Board is
to lay down, modify or annul effluents standards for the sewage and trade effluents and for
the quality of receiving waters resulting from the discharge of effluents and to classify water
of the state.
(h) Economical Methods of Treatment of Sewage the State Pollution Control Board is to
evolve economical and reliable methods of treatment of sewage and trade effluents, having
regard to the peculiar conditions of soil, climate and water resources in different regions. (i)
Methods Regarding Utilization of Sewage the State Pollution Control Board is to evolve
methods of utilization of sewage and suitable trade effluents in agriculture.
(j) Methods of Disposal of Sewage the State Pollution Control Board is to evolve efficient
methods of disposal of sewage and trade effluents on land, as are necessary on account of the
predominant scant stream flows that do not provide for major part of the year, the minimum
degree of dilution. (k) Laying Down Standards for Treatment of Sewage the State Pollution
Control Board is to lay down the standards of treatment of sewage and trade effluents to be
discharged into any particular stream considering the minimum fair-weather dilution
available in that stream and the tolerance limits of pollution permissible in the water of the
streams after the discharge of suit effluents. (l) Advisory Functions the State Pollution
Control Board is to advise the state government about the location of any industry the
carrying out of which is likely to pollute a stream or well Besides the aforesaid statutory
functions, the State Board is also to perform functions as may be prescribed from time to
time, or may be entrusted to it by the Central Pollution Control Board or the State
Government.1

POWERS OF THE CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD

The Central Pollution Control Board is vested with the following powers:
1. The Central Pollution Control Board is empowered by Section 18 of the Water (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 to give directions to the State Pollution Control Boards.
2. The Central Pollution Control Board has powers to perform any of the functions of the
State Pollution Control Board in case of non-compliance of any directions given by the
Central Pollution The Central Pollution Control Board is empowered to issue directions under
section 33A of Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 to direct the closure,
prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or process or the stoppage or regulation of
supply of electricity, water or any other service.

POWERS OF STATE POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD

The State Pollution Control Board has the following powers conferred on it by the Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974:
1. Power to obtain information (Section 20)
2. Power to take samples of effluents for analysis (Section 21)
3. Power of entry and inspection (Section 23)
4. Power to impose restriction on new outlets and new discharges (Section 25)
5. Power to refuse or withdraw consent for the establishment of any industry, etc. (Section
27)
6. Power to carry out certain works (Section 30)
7. Power to carry out emergency operations in case of pollution of stream or well (Section
32)
8. Power to make applications to the courts for restraining apprehended pollution of water in
streams or wells (Section 33)
9. Power to give directions (Section 33A)

Environmental Monitoring:

It involves the collection of one or more measurements that are used to assess the status of an
environment. However, the goals, sample collection strategies, and methods of analysis used
in monitoring must be well defined in advance to obtain robust results. In the preparation of a
sampling plan, goals, strategies, and methods must be considered in conjunction with an
understanding of the target environment, including the physical, chemical, and biological
variables and processes involved. Existing knowledge of the environment is used to help
develop the monitoring plan. Box 2.1 lists general definitions of the three components
associated with environmental monitoring. The reader may find these definitions self-evident,
but each component must be carefully considered in relation to the others, if environmental
monitoring efforts are to succeed.

Monitoring of atmosphere and water environment through air and wateranalysisto

manage,control andtreat thepollution issue in order to ensure the safety ofpeople
andtheenvironment.

Today, with the boomofthesocio-economic development, educational level, theneed for

agreen clean-living environment is increasing. However, thisis no longer aneedto
beeasilymet because the environmental pollution becomes an alerted global issue due to
the large amount of wastes discharged by the plants, factories, powerindustry, mining
industry, cement industry, shipbuilding and other industrial sectors. The wastes can be
biodegradable or cannot be destroyed within the next few hundred years. It is evident
that anthropogenicair pollution, both indoor air pollution and outdoor air pollution, is one
ofthe mostimportant issuesthat affectdevelopment in the world. The World
HealthOrganization (WHO) estimated that every year about 2.4 million people die
prematurelybecause of fine particles
when exposing to air pollution (WHO, 2002; WHO, 2006). The degradation of water
quality caused by human activities has harmful effects on human and ecosystemhealth. In
the developing countries every year threemillion people die from water-borne diseases
(IPCC, 2007).
The situation of global warming is evident due to theemission of airpollutants especially
the greenhouse gases such as CO2and CH4. These kinds of gasesare causingclimate
change because of their long atmospheric lifetime and trapping theheat in the atmosphere.
Global climate change affects human activities on land and the associated water run-of
caused bychange of precipitation patternscontributing to degraded water quality.

ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENTS OF MONITORING

The five spheres of the Earth System include the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere,
lithosphere, and cryosphere (De Blip et al., 2005). This concept is illustrated in Figure 1.
Environmental monitoring can be conducted on biotic and abiotic components of any of these
spheres, and can be helpful in detecting baseline patterns and patterns of change in the inter
and intra process relationships between and within these spheres. The interrelated processes
that occur between the five spheres are characterized as physical, chemical, and biological
processes. The sampling of air, water, and soil through environmental monitoring can
produce data that can be used to understand the state and composition of the environment and
its processes (Arriola et al., 2004; Wiersma, 2004). Environmental monitoring uses a variety
of equipment and techniques depending on the focus of the monitoring. For example, surface
water quality monitoring can be measured using remotely deployed instruments, handheld in-
situ instruments, or through the application of biomonitoring in assessing the benthic macro
invertebrate community (CBEMN, 2010). In addition to techniques and instruments that are
used during field work, remote sensing and satellite imagery can also be used to monitor
larger scale parameters such as air pollution plumes or global sea surface temperatures

Air Pollution:

Air pollution has significant influence on the concentration of constituents in the atmosphere
leading to effects like global warming and acid rains. To avoid such adverse imbalances in
the nature, an air pollution monitoring system is utmost important. This paper attempts to
develop an effective solution for pollution monitoring using wireless sensor networks (WSN)
on a real time basis namely real time wireless air pollution monitoring system. Commercially
available discrete gas sensors for sensing concentration of gases like CO and CO2 are
calibrated using appropriate calibration technologies. These pre-calibrated gas sensors are
then integrated with the wireless sensor motes for field deployment at the campus and the
Coimbatore city using multi hop data aggregation algorithm. A light weight middleware and
a web interface to view the live pollution data in the form of numbers and charts from the test
beds was developed and made available from anywhere on the internet Other parameters like
temperature and humidity were also sensed along with gas concentrations to enable data
analysis through data fusion techniques. Experimentation carried out using the developed
wireless air pollution monitoring system under different physical conditions show that the
system collects reliable source of real time fine-grain pollution data.

Existing Methods
Some of the existing instruments for air pollution monitoring are Fourier transform infrared
(FTIR) instruments, gas chromatographs and mass spectrometers. These instruments provide
fairly accurate and selective gas readings. A gas sensor that is compact, robust with versatile
applications and low cost could be an equally effective alternative. Some of the gases
monitoring technologies are electrochemical, infrared, catalytic bead, photo ionization and
solid-state. The existing monitoring system largely uses smart transducer interface module
(STIM) with semiconductor gas sensors which uses the 1451.2 standard. STIM was found to
an efficient monitoring system but for the power requirements and ability to expand for large
deployment. One of the large-scale sensor networks for monitoring and forecasting is
Environment Observation and Forecasting System (EOFS). Air pollution monitoring system
based on geo sensor network with control action and adaptive sampling rates proposed in also
cannot be vast deployment due to high cost.

Proposed Method:
Now in this project we are using locally available gas sensor for observing the polluted gases
like Carbon monoxide (CO), Carbon dioxide (CO2) and parameters like temperature,
humidity. By using this method people can view the level of pollution through wireless
system. It reduced cost, reliable and comfortable for any place where we are monitoring the
gases.

Carbon Monoxide (Co):

Nature and Sources of the Pollutant
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless and poisonous gas formed when carbon in fuels
is not burned completely. It is a by-product of highway vehicle exhaust, which contributes
about 60 percent of all CO emissions nationwide. In cities automobile exhaust can cause as
much as 95 percent of all CO emissions. These emissions can result in high concentrations of
CO particularly in local areas with heavy traffic congestion. Other sources of CO emissions
include industrial processes and fuel combustion in sources such as boilers and incinerators.
Despite an overall downward trend in concentrations and emissions of CO some metropolitan
areas still experience high levels of CO.

Health and Environmental Effects:

Carbon monoxide enters the bloodstream and reduces oxygen delivery to the body's organs
and tissues. The health threat from exposure to CO is most serious for those who suffer from
cardiovascular disease. Healthy individuals are also affected but only at higher levels of
exposure. Exposure to elevated CO levels is associated with visual impairment, reduced work
capacity, reduced manual dexterity, poor learning ability and difficulty in performing
complex tasks. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)'s health-based national air quality
standard for CO is 9 parts per million (ppm) measured as an annual second-maximum 8-hour
average concentration.

Trends in Carbon Monoxide Level:

Long-term improvements continued between 1986 and 1995. National average CO
concentrations decreased 37 percent while CO emissions decreased 16 percent. Long-term air
quality improvement in CO occurred despite a 31 percent increase in vehicle miles travelled
in the U.S. during the past 10 years. Between 1994 and 1995, national average CO
concentrations decreased 10 percent, while total CO emissions decreased 7 percent.
Transportation sources (includes highway and off-highway vehicles) now account for 81
percent of national total CO emissions

Water monitoring
Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological characteristics
of water.[1] It is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of one or
more biotic species and or to any human need or purpose.[2] It is most frequently used by
reference to a set of standards against which compliance, generally achieved
through treatment of the water, can be assessed. The most common standards used to assess
water quality relate to health of ecosystems, safety of human contact, and drinking water.
The water continuous automatic monitoring is mainly located in the river basin, major river
systems. There are 3 stations in operation in Vietnam for monitoring Hueriver, Red river and
Mekong river; and 6 stations ininstallation (EMC, 2012). By August 2011, there were118 of
total 174 industrial zones went into constructionand operation of central wastewater treatment
plants.

Industrial and domestic use

Dissolved minerals may affect suitability of water for a range of industrial and domestic
purposes. The most familiar of these is probably the presence of ions of calcium (Ca2+)
and magnesium (Mg2+) which interfere with the cleaning action of soap, and can form
hard sulphate and soft carbonate deposits in water heaters or boilers Hard water may be
softened to remove these ions. The softening process often substitutes sodium cations.[9] Hard
water may be preferable to soft water for human consumption, since health problems have
been associated with excess sodium and with calcium and magnesium deficiencies. Softening
decreases nutrition and may increase cleaning effectiveness. Various industries' wastes and
effluents can also pollute the water quality in receiving bodies of water
HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND WATER POLLUTION
Human activities can modify water quality in two ways. First, water quality is changed when
we add pollutants, including: • sediment from erosion; • nutrients from fertilizer and animal
waste; • heat from paved surfaces and industrial processes; • faecal bacteria from sewage,
farm animals, pets; • industrial chemicals; • heavy metals (includes lead, mercury, and
cadmium from industrial sources, mining, and smelting); • household cleaners; • oil and
gasoline; • litter and debris; • chemicals from the air; and • pesticides.
The second way we impact water quality is by changing ecological processes that naturally
purify water. Healthy aquatic ecosystems (wetlands, streams, bays, and oceans) all have
natural processes that purify water of wastes. For example, microorganisms decompose
organic wastes into nutrients that can be absorbed by plants. Wetlands act as natural filtering
systems as they trap sediment, thereby preventing sediment from reaching streams. Wetlands
also promote the decomposition of some toxic substances and waste. Healthy riparian
(streamside) areas also help naturally purify water. As long as streams and rivers are not
overloaded with wastes, they can use their natural recovery processes of dilution and bacterial
decay. But slowly degradable and nondegradable pollutants, like mercury, PCBs, and some
pesticides, cannot be eliminated by these natural processes. Mercury cannot ever be
degraded, even over thousands of years. Virginia's Department of Health advises people to
restrict or avoid eating fish from some rivers in Virginia due to mercury and PCB pollution.
FACTORS RELATED TO WATER POLLUTION
There are many factors related to water pollution, including the number of people living in a
watershed, how the land is used (agriculture, forested, urbanized, etc.), and the everyday
behaviour of the population. Many things we do every day can have an impact on water
quality. Human activities, such as urbanization, dam construction, forestry practices,
agricultural development, and roadbuilding, have a profound effect on the quality of our
water. When we fertilize our lawns, use pesticides, drive our cars, or use toxic chemicals we
have the potential to add pollution to surface water and groundwater. Whether we make our
living from mining,
WATER QUALITY MONITORING
5/9 forestry, farming, or construction, we have the capacity to add nutrients, sediments,
toxics, minerals, or acids to lakes and streams. Every land-use decision we make can either
improve water quality, or diminish it. Other pollutants enter water from atmospheric
deposition – when pollutants in the air fall on the land or water. Nitrogen is one of the most
common air deposition pollutants. In fact, according to the Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay,
it is estimated that roughly a quarter of the nitrogen entering the Chesapeake Bay is from air
sources. While there are some natural sources of emissions, most of these air-borne pollutants
come from fossil fuel burning, industrial processes, cars and other forms of transportation,
and fertilizer.

Environmental water quality, also called ambient water quality, relates to water bodies
such as lakes, rivers, and oceans. Water quality standards for surface waters vary significantly
due to different environmental conditions, ecosystems, and intended human uses. Toxic
substances and high populations of certain microorganisms can present a health hazard for
non-drinking purposes such as irrigation, swimming, fishing, rafting, boating, and industrial
uses. These conditions may also affect wildlife, which use the water for drinking or as a
habitat. Modern water quality laws generally specify protection of fisheries and recreational
use and require, as a minimum, retention of current quality standards.
There is some desire among the public to return water bodies to pristine, or pre-industrial
conditions. Most current environmental laws focus on the designation of particular uses of a
water body. In some countries these designations allow for some water contamination as long
as the particular type of contamination is not harmful to the designated uses. Given the
landscape changes (e.g., land development, urbanization, clearcutting in forested areas) in
the watersheds of many freshwater bodies, returning to pristine conditions would be a
significant challenge. In these cases, environmental scientists focus on achieving goals for
maintaining healthy ecosystems and may concentrate on the protection of populations
of endangered species and protecting human health.
Solid Waste Management:

Solid-waste management, the collecting, treating, and disposing of solid material that is
discarded because it has served its purpose or is no longer useful. Improper disposal of
municipal solid waste can create unsanitary conditions, and these conditions in turn can lead
to pollution of the environment and to outbreaks of vector-borne disease—that is, diseases
spread by rodents and insects. The tasks of solid-waste management present complex
technical challenges. They also pose a wide variety of administrative, economic, and social
problems that must be managed and solved.

Developments in waste management

A technological approach to solid-waste management began to develop in the latter part of

the 19th century. Watertight garbage cans were first introduced in the United States, and
sturdier vehicles were used to collect and transport wastes. A significant development in
solid-waste treatment and disposal practices was marked by the construction of the first
refuse incinerator in England in 1874. By the beginning of the 20th century, 15 percent of
major American cities were incinerating solid waste. Even then, however, most of the largest
cities were still using primitive disposal methods such as open dumping on land or in water.

Technological advances continued during the first half of the 20th century, including the
development of garbage grinders, compaction trucks, and pneumatic collection systems. By
mid-century, however, it had become evident that open dumping and improper incineration of
solid waste were causing problems of pollution and jeopardizing public health. As a
result, sanitary landfills were developed to replace the practice of open dumping and to
reduce the reliance on waste incineration. In many countries waste was divided into two
categories, hazardous and non-hazardous, and separate regulations were developed for their
disposal. Landfills were designed and operated in a manner that minimized risks to public
health and the environment. New refuse incinerators were designed to recover heat energy
from the waste and were provided with extensive air pollution control devices to satisfy
stringent standards of air quality. Modern solid-waste management plants in most developed
countries now emphasize the practice of recycling and waste reduction at the source rather
than incineration and land disposal.

Solid-Waste Collection

Collecting and transporting

Proper solid-waste collection is important for the protection of public health, safety, and
environmental quality. It is a labour-intensive activity, accounting for approximately three-
quarters of the total cost of solid-waste management. Public employees are often assigned to
the task, but sometimes it is more economical for private companies to do the work under
contract to the municipality or for private collectors to be paid by individual home owners. A
driver and one or two loaders serve each collection vehicle. These are typically trucking of
the enclosed, compacting type, with capacities up to 30 cubic metres (40 cubic yards).
Loading can be done from the front, rear, or side. Compaction reduces the volume of refuse
in the truck to less than half of its loose volume.

The task of selecting an optimal collection route is a complex problem, especially for large
and densely populated cities. An optimal route is one that results in the most efficient use of
labour and equipment, and selecting such a route requires the application of computer
analyses that account for all the many design variables in a large and complex network.
Variables include frequency of collection, haulage distance, type of service, and climate.
Collection of refuse in rural areas can present a special problem, since the population
densities are low, leading to high unit costs.

Refuse collection usually occurs at least once per week because of the rapid decomposition of
food waste. The amount of garbage in the refuse of an individual home can be reduced by
garbage grinders, or garbage disposals. Ground garbage puts an extra load on sewerage
systems, but this can usually be accommodated. Many communities now conduct source
separation and recycling programs, in which homeowners and businesses separate recyclable
materials from garbage and place them in separate containers for collection. In addition, some
communities have drop-off centres where residents can bring recyclables.

1.5 Transfer stations

If the final destination of the refuse is not near the community in which it is generated, one or
more transfer stations may be necessary. A transfer station is a central facility where refuse
from many collection vehicles is combined into a larger vehicle, such as a tractor-trailer unit.
Open-top trailers are designed to carry about 76 cubic metres (100 cubic yards) of
uncompacted waste to a regional processing or disposal location. Closed compactor-type
trailers are also available, but they must be equipped with ejector mechanisms. In a direct
discharge type of station, several collection trucks empty directly into the transport vehicle.
In a storage discharge type of station, refuse is first emptied into a storage pit or onto a
platform, and then machinery is used to hoist or push the solid waste into the transport
vehicle. Large transfer stations can handle more than 500 tons of refuse per day.

1.6 Solid-Waste Treatment and Disposal

Once collected, municipal solid waste may be treated in order to reduce the total volume and
weight of material that requires final disposal. Treatment changes the form of the waste and
makes it easier to handle. It can also serve to recover certain materials, as well as heat energy,
for recycling or reuse.
Importance in waste management

In communities where appropriate sites are available, sanitary landfills usually provide the
most economical option for disposal of nonrecyclable refuse. However, it is becoming
increasingly difficult to find sites that offer adequate capacity, accessibility, and
environmental conditions. Nevertheless, landfills will always play a key role in solid-waste
management. It is not possible to recycle all components of solid waste, and there will always
be residues from incineration and other treatment processes that will eventually require
disposal underground. In addition, landfills can actually improve poor-quality land. In some
communities properly completed landfills are converted into recreational parks, playgrounds,
or golf courses.

1.7 Recycling
Separating, recovering, and reusing components of solid waste that may still have economic
value is called recycling. One type of recycling is the recovery and reuse of heat energy, a
practice discussed separately in Incineration. Composting can also be considered a recycling
process, since it reclaims the organic parts of solid waste for reuse as mulch or soil
conditioner. Still other waste materials have potential for reuse. These include paper, metal,
glass, plastic, and rubber, and their recovery is discussed here.

Separation
Before any material can be recycled, it must be separated from the raw waste and sorted.
Separation can be accomplished at the source of the waste or at a central processing
facility. Source separation, also called curb side separation, is done by individual citizens
who collect newspapers, bottles, cans, and garbage separately and place them at the curb for
collection. Many communities allow “commingling” of nonpayer recyclables (glass, metal,
and plastic). In either case, municipal collection of source-separated refuse is more expensive
than ordinary refuse collection.
In lieu of source separation, recyclable materials can be separated from garbage at centralized
mechanical processing plants. Experience has shown that the quality of recyclables recovered
from such facilities is lowered by contamination with moist garbage and broken glass. The
best practice, as now recognized, is to have citizens separate refuse into a limited number of
categories, including newspaper; magazines and other wastepaper; commingled metals, glass,
and plastics; and garbage and other nonrecyclables. The newspaper, other paper wastes, and
commingled recyclables are collected separately from the other refuse and are processed at a
centralized material recycling facility, or MRF(pronounced “murf” in waste-management
jargon). A modern MRF can process about 300 tons of recyclable wastes per day.
At a typical MRF, commingled recyclables are loaded onto a conveyor. Steel cans (“tin” cans
are actually steel with only a thin coating of tin) are removed by an electromagnetic
separator, and the remaining material passes over a vibrating screen in order to remove
broken glass. Next, the conveyor passes through an air classifier, which separates aluminium
and plastic containers from heavier glass containers. Glass is manually sorted by colour, and
aluminium cans are separated from plastics by an eddy-current separator, which repels
the aluminium from the conveyor belt.
Reuse

Recovered broken glass can be crushed and used in asphalt pavement. Colour-sorted glass is
crushed and sold to glass manufacturers as cullet, an essential ingredient in
glassmaking. Steel cans are baled and shipped to steel mills as scrap, and aluminium is baled
or compacted for reuse by smelters. Aluminium is one of the smallest components of
municipal solid waste, but it has the highest value as a recyclable material. Recycling
of plastic is a challenge, mostly because of the many different polymeric materials used in its
production. Mixed thermoplastics can be used only to make lower-quality products, such as
“plastic lumber.”
In the paper stream, old newspapers are sorted by hand on a conveyor belt in order to remove
corrugated materials and mixed papers. They are then baled or loose-loaded into trailers for
shipment to paper mills, where they are reused in the making of more newspaper. Mixed
paper is separated from corrugated paper for sale to tissue mills. Although the processes of
pulping, de-inking, and screening wastepaper are generally more expensive than making
paper from virgin wood fibres, the market for recycled paper should improve as more
processing plants are established.
Rubber is sometimes reclaimed from solid waste and shredded, reformed, and remolded in a
process called devulcanization, but it is usually not as strong as the original material.
Shredded rubber can be used as an additive in asphalt pavements, and discarded tires may be
employed as swings and other recreational structures for use by children in “tire
playgrounds.” In general, the most difficult problem associated with the recycling of any
solid-waste material is finding applications and suitable markets. Recycling by itself will not
solve the growing problem of solid-waste management and disposal. There will always be
some unusable and completely valueless solid residue requiring final disposal.

2 ENVIRONMENT NOISE POLLUTION

1) Definition “Noise is defined as any undesirable human or machine created
noise which disturbs the activity or balance of human or animal life”.
2) Decibel: Decibel is defined as the logarithm to the base 10 to ratio of two
intensities
3) The Intensity of Sound is measured in terms of Sound pressure Level and
common unit is decibel Decibel (dB) = 10 log 10 (I/I0)
Thus, dB measures how much intense is the sound as compared to reference
intensity.
4) A weighing Scale (dB A)
• The sensitivity of human ears depends on the frequency or pitch of the sound.
We hear some frequency better than others. e.g. If a person hears two sounds of
same sound pressure but different intensity one sound may appear louder than
the other. This happens when we hear high frequency much better than lower
frequency noise.
5) Transport sector- aircraft, train, trucks, tractors, cars, three-wheeler and
motorcycle contribute to maximum noise
Industrial and construction machinery-Factory equipment, generators, Pile
drivers, Pneumatic drills, road roller, and similar machinery
Special events- High volume sound from loudspeaker during pop music
performances, marriage, reception, religious festival, public meetings
6) Effects of noise pollution
I. On physical health

The most direct harmful effect of excessive noise is physical damage to the ear
and the temporary or permanent hearing loss often called a temporary threshold
shift (TTS). People suffering from this condition are unable to detect weak
sounds. However, hearing ability is usually recovered within a month of
exposure. Permanent loss, usually called noise induced permanent threshold
shift (NIPTS) represents a loss of hearing ability from which there is no
recovery. Below a sound level of 80 dBA haring loss does not occur at all.
However temporary effects are noticed at sound levels between 80 and 130
dBA. A sound level of 150 dBA or more can physically rupture the human
eardrum. The degree of hearing loss depends on the duration as well as the
intensity of the noise. For example, 1hour of exposure to a 100-dBA sound level
can produce a TTS that may last for about one day. However, in factories with
noisy machinery workers are subjected to high sound levels for several hours a
day. Exposure to 95 dBA for 8 hours every day for over a period of 10 years
may cause about 15 dBA of NIPTS. In addition to hearing losses excessive
sound levels can cause harmful effects on the circulatory system by raising
blood pressure and altering pulse rates.
II. Effects of noise pollution on mental health

Noise can also cause emotional or psychological effects such as irritability,

anxiety and stress. Lack of concentration and mental fatigue are significant
health effects of noise. It has been observed that the performance of school
children is poor in comprehension tasks when schools are situated in busy areas
of a city and
suffer from noise pollution. As noise interferes with normal auditory
communication, it may mask auditory warning signals and hence increases the
rate of accidents especially in industries. It can also lead to lowered worker
efficiency and productivity and higher accident rates on the job. Thus, noise is
just more than a mere nuisance or annoyance. It definitely affects the quality of
life. It is thus important to ensure mitigation or control of noise pollution
III. Effects of Noise Pollution on Wildlife and Marine Life
Our oceans are no longer quiet. Thousands of oil drills, sonars, seismic
survey devices, coastal recreational watercraft and shipping vessels are
now populating our waters, and that is a serious cause of noise pollution
for marine life. Whales are among the most affected, as their hearing
helps them orient themselves, feed and communicate. Noise pollution
thus interferes with cetaceans’ (whales and dolphins) feeding habits,
reproductive patterns and migration routes, and can even cause
haemorrhage and death. Other than marine life, land animals are also
affected by noise pollution in the form of traffic, firecrackers etc., and
birds are especially affected by the increased air traffic.

7) Noise Control techniques

There are four fundamental ways in which noise can be controlled: Reduce
noise at the source, block the path of noise, increase the path length and protect
the recipient. In general, the best control method is to reduce noise levels at the
source.

Source reduction can be done by effectively muffling vehicles and machinery to

reduce the noise. In industries noise reduction can be done by using rigid sealed
enclosures around machinery lined with acoustic absorbing material. Isolating
machines and their enclosures from the floor using special spring mounts or
absorbent mounts and pads and using flexible couplings for interior pipelines
also contribute to reducing noise pollution at the source.
However one of the best methods of noise source reduction is regular and
thorough maintenance of operating machinery. Noise levels at construction sites
can be controlled using proper construction planning and scheduling techniques.
Locating noisy air compressors and other equipment away from the site
boundary along with creation of temporary barriers to physically block the noise
can help contribute to reducing noise pollution. Most of the vehicular noise
comes from movement of the vehicle tires on the pavement and wind resistance.
However,
poorly maintained vehicles can add to the noise levels. Traffic volume and
speed also have significant effects on the overall sound. For example, doubling
the speed increases the sound levels by about 9 dBA and doubling the traffic
volume (number of vehicles per hour) increases sound levels by about 3 dBA. A
smooth flow of traffic
also causes less noise than does a stop-and-go traffic pattern. Proper highway
planning and design are essential for controlling traffic noise. Establishing
lower speed limits for highways that pass through residential areas, limiting
traffic volume and providing alternative routes for truck traffic are effective
noise control measures. The
path of traffic noise can also be blocked by construction of vertical barriers
alongside the highway. Planting of trees around houses can also act as effective
noise barriers. In industries different types of absorptive material can be used to
control interior noise. Highly absorptive interior finish material for walls,
ceilings and floors
can decrease indoor noise levels significantly. Sound levels drop significantly
with increasing distance from the noise source. Increasing the path length
between the source and the recipient offers a passive means of control.
Municipal land-use ordinances pertaining to the location of airports make use of
the attenuating effect of distance on sound levels. Use of earplugs and earmuffs
can protect individuals effectively from excessive noise levels. Specially
designed earmuffs can reduce the sound level reaching the eardrum by as much
as 40 dBA.
However very often workers tend not to wear them on a regular basis despite
company requirements for their use.

Effluent Monitoring:

Effluent Monitoring Systems provide continuous monitoring of compliance

parameters for the purpose of effluent permit reporting purposes or simply self-monitoring
purposes. Our monitoring systems can provide hardcopy recording via strip chart
recorders, or provide electronic data-logging, or retransmit via a network connection. Any
analytical parameter can be monitored including:
 pH (0-14)
 Flow (instant and total)
 Temperature
 Conductivity / Turbidity
 TSS and / or TDS
 Heavy Metals via colorimetric determination including (Fe, Cu, Cd, Cr, Ni, Zn, etc.)

Recording Methods can include any conventional data recording device including:
 Circular Chart Recorders
 Strip Chart Recorders
 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems
 PLC retransmission to a Building Monitoring System (BMB).
Local and Remote Monitoring Options:
 Local SCADA system and automated report generation on a daily, weekly, and
monthly basis.
 Remote monitoring, control, and data logging via the Cloud (internet connection
required).
 Automated paging to cell phones of alerts or alarms.
 SCADA System Monitoring
Our final effluent monitoring systems are designed for permit compliance purposes but also
serve well for general system performance monitoring and alarming. For a typical pH
adjustment application most discharge permit requires continuous monitoring of effluent pH
and flow by a system that is independent of the primary pH control system. Our system meets
these requirements and more. Additionally, we can provide remote monitoring via an internet
connection (via the Cloud), electronic data logging, or conventional recording via a circular
chart paper recorder or a strip chart recorder.
In the example above final effluent pH, flow, and temperature are monitored from a pH
neutralization and bio-kill system for a Life Science lab. A SCADA system continuously
monitors the effluent monitoring system as well as the pH and bio-kill systems providing
continuous data monitoring, data logging, and supervisory control over the entire system.

Since the plant is not manned during off hours it is essential to be able to annunciate critical
alarms that directly impact system performance and safety. This is done by a remote paging
system that dials out via the cellular network and sends text messages and alerts to any
number of cell phones programmed into the system.

A composite sampler is provided as required by the discharge permit to collect a 24-hour

composite sample of the effluent stream once / month.

Many variations of the system depicted above are available including small systems that
monitor effluent pH only to systems that measure pH, flow, temperature, and heavy metals.

SCRUBBER SYSTEM

1) Scrubber systems (aka Chemical Scrubbers, Gas Scrubbers) are a diverse

group of air pollution control devices that can be used to remove some
particulates and/or gases from industrial exhaust streams.
2) Scrubber system injects a dry reagent or slurry into a dirty exhaust stream to
"wash out" acid gases. Scrubbers are one of the primary devices that control
gaseous emissions, especially acid gases.
3) Scrubbers can also be used for heat recovery from hot gases by flue-gas
condensation. They are also used for the high flows in solar, PV, or LED
processes.
4) There are several methods to remove toxic or corrosive compounds from
exhaust gas and neutralize it.
5) Combustion: Combustion is sometimes the cause of harmful exhausts, but, in
many cases, combustion may also be used for exhaust gas cleaning if the
temperature is high enough and enough oxygen is available.
6) Wet scrubbing
i. The exhaust gases of combustion may contain substances considered
harmful to the environment, and the scrubber may remove or neutralize
those. A wet scrubber is used for cleaning air, fuel gas or other gases of
various pollutants and dust particles.
ii. Wet scrubbing works via the contact of target compounds or particulate
matter with the scrubbing solution. Solutions may simply be water (for
dust) or solutions of reagents that specifically target certain compounds.
iii. Process exhaust gas can also contain water-soluble toxic and/or corrosive
gases like hydrochloric acid (HCl) or ammonia (NH3). These can be
removed very well by a wet scrubber.

iv. Removal efficiency of pollutants is improved by increasing residence time

in the scrubber or by the increase of surface area of the scrubber solution
by the use of a spray nozzle, packed towers or an aspirator. Wet scrubbers
may increase the proportion of water in the gas, resulting in a visible stack
plume, if the gas is sent to a stack.
v. Wet scrubbers can also be used for heat recovery from hot gases by flue-
gas condensation. In this mode, termed a condensing scrubber, water from
the scrubber drain is circulated through a cooler to the nozzles at the top of
the scrubber. The hot gas enters the scrubber at the bottom. If the gas
temperature is above the water dew point, it is initially cooled by
evaporation of water drops. Further cooling cause water vapours to
condense, adding to the amount of circulating water.
vi. The condensation of water releases significant amounts of low temperature
heat (more than 2 gigajoules (560 kWh) per ton of water that can be
recovered by the cooler for e.g. district heating purposes.
vii. Excess condensed water must continuously be removed from the
circulating water. The gas leaves the scrubber at its dew point, so even
though significant amounts of water may have been removed from the
cooled gas, it is likely to leave a visible stack plume of water vapour.
7) Wet Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD)
i. Scrubbers or flue gas desulfurization (FGD) systems use chemical and
mechanical processes to remove sulphur dioxide (SO2) from gas produced
by burning coal.
ii. Exhaust gas from a coal-fired unit’s steam generator is routed through
absorber vessels where chemical reactions take place, and SO2 is removed.
The illustration below depicts a limestone forced oxidation FGD system.
iii. In the absorbers flue gas passes through a mixture or slurry of pulverized
limestone and water, which is
sprayed into the flue gas stream.
iv. SO2 reacts with the slurry and
forms calcium sulphate or
gypsum, which is managed in a
landfill or used to produce
drywall.
v. Sulphur dioxide is a gas that
forms when the sulphur in coal is
burned. Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
dissolves easily in water and,
when limestone is present, forms
calcium sulphate or gypsum. SO2
is a precursor of acidic deposition
(acid rain) associated with the
acidification of soils, lakes and
streams.
vi. Current wet scrubber technology can consistently achieve 95% removal of
SO2 from flue gas
vii. An FGD system neither uses nor produces harmful chemicals, but it does
produce a significant amount of a solid waste product. This product is
gypsum, which can be used in drywall or it can be safely managed in a
landfill.
8) Capture Mechanisms
Particulates contact liquid droplets in wet scrubbers through several mechanisms.
Impaction is the primary capture mechanism. When waste gas approaches a water
droplet, it flows along streamlines around the droplet. Particles with sufficient inertial
force maintain their forward trajectory and impact the droplet. Due to their mass,
particles with diameters greater than 10 µm are generally collected using impaction.
Turbulent flow enhances capture by impaction.
Particles dominated by fluid drag forces follow the streamlines of the waste gas.
However, particles that pass sufficiently close to a water droplet are captured by
interception, capture due to the surface tension of the water droplet.
9) Venturi Scrubbers
i. A venturi scrubber has a “converging-diverging” flow channel. In this type of
system, the cross-sectional area of the channel decreases then increases along
the length of the channel.
Below Figure presents a
venturi scrubber. The
narrowest area is referred
to as the “throat”.
ii. In the converging section,
the decrease in area
causes the waste gas
velocity and turbulence to
increase. The scrubbing
liquid is injected into the
scrubber slightly upstream
of the throat or directly
into the throat section.
iii. The scrubbing liquid is
atomized by the
turbulence in the throat, improving gas-liquid contact.
iv. The gas-liquid mixture then decelerates as it moves through the diverging
section, causing additional particle-droplet impacts and agglomeration of the
droplets. The liquid droplets are then separated from the gas stream in an
entrainment section, usually consisting of a cyclonic separator and mist
eliminator.

10) Scrubberworking principles A scrubber generally consists of: 

The exhaust gas cleaning unit serves as a contact chamber that enables
the exhaust gas stream from an engine or boiler to be intimately mixed with
water, either seawater, freshwater, or both. In the contact chamber, SOx is
converted to sulphuric acid. Due to space and access limitations, the exhaust
gas cleaning units tend to be high up in the ship, in or around the funnel area.
The wash water treatment plant differs by scrubber type and design.
Generally, physical separation techniques are used to capture suspended
solids, if captured. The treatment process typically includes a multicyclone, or
a cyclonic separator similar to that used to separate water from residual fuel
prior to delivery to the engine. Heavier particles may also be trapped in a
settling or sludge tank for disposal.
Sludge handling to retain sludge removed by the wash water treatment process
for disposal shoreside.

11) Dry scrubbers do not use any liquids in process but exhaust gases are cleaned
with hydrated lime-treated granulates. There is not any discharge to the sea
from the system. As a result of the process a gypsum, which is used to
manufacture wallboard, is generated. An advantage of a dry scrubber is its
lower energy consumption compared to a wet scrubber.
12) SCRUBBER OPERATION Dry scrubbers use granulates with caustic lime
(Ca (OH)2) which reacts with sulphur dioxide (SO2) to form calcium sulphite:
SO2 + Ca (OH)2 → CaSO3 + H2O.
Calcium sulphite is then air-oxidized to form calcium sulphate dehydrate or
gypsum: CaSO3 + ½O2 → CaSO4.
Reaction with sulphur trioxide (SO3) is: SO3 + Ca (OH)2 → CaSO4 + H2O.
Which with water forms: CaSO4 • 2H2O (Gypsum).
A dry scrubber works by feeding dry pellets of hydrated lime treated granulates
through a packed bed absorber. The hydrated lime reacts with the hot exhaust gas
and absorbs the SOx components to form pellets of gypsum.

CHAPTER 3: WASTE MANAGEMENT

1. STATUTORY PROVISION FOR BIO MEDICAL WASTE (BMW)

1) This Bio-Medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2016 rules shall apply to
all persons who generate, collect, receive, store, transport, treat, dispose, or handle bio
medical waste in any form including hospitals, nursing homes, clinics, dispensaries,
veterinary institutions, animal houses, pathological laboratories, blood banks, ayush 2
hospitals, clinical establishments, research or educational institutions, health camps,
medical or surgical camps, vaccination camps, blood donation camps, first aid rooms
of schools, forensic laboratories and research labs.
2) These rules shall not apply to radioactive wastes, hazardous chemicals, solid wastes,
the lead acid batteries, hazardous waste, E-Waste.
3) "bio-medical waste" means any waste, which is generated during the diagnosis,
treatment or immunisation of human beings or animals or research activities
pertaining thereto or in the production or testing of biological or in health camps.
4) major accident means accident occurring while handling of bio-medical waste having
potential to affect large masses of public and includes toppling of the truck carrying
bio-medical waste, accidental release of bio-medical waste in any water body but
exclude accidents like needle prick injuries, mercury spills.
5) Duties of the Occupier
 safe, ventilated and secured location for storage of segregated biomedical
waste in coloured bags or containers in the manner as specified in Schedule I,
 pre-treat the laboratory waste, microbiological waste, blood samples and blood
bags through disinfection or sterilisation on-site in the manner as prescribed
by WHO or NACO
 dispose of solid waste other than bio-medical waste in accordance with the
provisions of respective waste management rules
 provide training to all its health care workers and others, involved in handling
of bio medical waste at the time of induction and thereafter at least once every
year.
 immunise all its health care workers and others, involved in handling of bio-
medical waste for protection against diseases including Hepatitis B and
Tetanus.
 report major accidents including accidents caused by fire hazards, blasts
during handling of biomedical waste.
 establish a system to review and monitor by forming a committee and the
Committee shall meet once in every six months and the record of the minutes
of the meetings of this committee shall be submitted along with the annual
report.
6) Treatment and disposal
 Bio-medical waste shall be treated and disposed of in accordance with
Schedule I, and in compliance with the standards provided in Schedule-II by
the health care facilities and common bio-medical waste treatment facility.
 Waste generated shall be pre-treated by equipment’s like autoclave or
microwave before handing over to common bio-medical waste treatment
facility for treatment, processing and final disposal.
 Treatment equipment’s viz. incinerator, autoclave or microwave, plasma
pyrolysis, shredder and effluent treatment plant.
 The chlorinated plastic bags shall not be used for storing and transporting of
bio-medical waste.
7) Segregation, packaging, transportation and storage
 The bio-medical waste shall be segregated into containers or bags at the point
of generation in accordance with Schedule I
 The vehicles used for transportation of bio-medical waste shall comply with
the conditions if any stipulated by the State Pollution Control Board or
Pollution Control Committee in addition to the requirement contained in the
Motor Vehicles Act, 1988
 Untreated human anatomical waste, animal anatomical waste, soiled waste
and, biotechnology waste shall not be stored beyond a period of forty –eight
hours.

2. E-WASTE MANAGEMENT
1) The e-waste (Management) Rules, 2015 rules shall apply to every manufacturer,
producer, consumer, bulk consumer, collection centres, dealers, e-retailer,
refurbished, dismantler and recycler involved in manufacture, sale, transfer, purchase,
collection, storage and processing of e-waste or electrical and electronic equipment
listed in Schedule I,
2) Collection of e-waste generated during the manufacturing of any electrical and
electronic equipment and channelizing it for recycling or disposal.
3) Obtain the authorization form from the concerned State Pollution Control. form-1
4) Maintain records of the e-waste generated, handled and disposed in Form-2 and make
such records available for scrutiny by the concerned State Pollution Control Board.
5) Fluorescent and other mercury containing lamps, where recyclers are not available,
channelization may be from collection centre to Treatment, Storage and Disposal
Facility.
6) A pre-treatment is necessary to immobilise the mercury and reduce the volume of
waste to be disposed of for disposal in Treatment, Storage and Disposal Facility
7) ensure that no damage is caused to the environment during storage and transportation
of e-waste
8) Every manufacturer, producer, bulk consumer, collection centre, dealer, refurbished,
dismantler and recycler may store the e-waste for a period not exceeding one hundred
and eighty days and shall maintain a record of collection, sale, transfer and storage of
wastes and make these records available for inspection [RULE: 15- procedure for
storage of e-waste]
9) The transportation of e-waste shall be carried out as per the manifest system whereby
the transporter shall be required to carry a document (three copies) prepared by the
sender, giving the details as per Form-6. [RULE: 19- Transportation of e-waste]
10) Provided that the transportation of waste generated from manufacturing or recycling
destined for final disposal to a treatment, storage and disposal facility shall follow the
provisions under Hazardous Wastes (Management, Handling and Transboundary
Movement) Rules, 2008.
11) Storing of E-Waste in landfills - environmental & health hazard
Incineration - environmental & health hazard
Reusing and recycling-limited life span, hazardous in unorganised sector
12) Government assist by encouraging setting up of integrated Transport, Storage and
Disposal Facilities (TSDF) for hazardous waste management on Public Private
Partnership (PPP) mode
13) The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has notified E-Waste
(Management) Rules, 2016. The rules - for the first time in India - introduced
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR).
14) The EPR is an environment protection strategy that makes the producer responsible
for the entire life cycle of the product, especially for take back, recycle and final
disposal of the product.
15) DISPOSING E-WASTE
 Donate working older equipment to schools’ colleges or government entities
in need.
 If PCs are out of order then return it to the manufacturers. (HCL and Wipro in
India have best take back service).
 Send waste goods to authorised recycling facility for proper disposal.
Fig1-WAYS OF TREATING E-
WASTE

Fig 2-FLOWSHEET OF RECYCLER OR RECYCLING UNITS

3. BATTERY WASTE MANAGEMENT

1) The Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules, 2001, shall apply to every
manufacturer, importer, re-conditioner, assembler, dealer, recycler, auctioneer,
consumer and bulk consumer.
2) ‘Battery'- means lead acid battery which is a source of electrical energy and contains
lead metal and 'used batteries' -means used, damaged and old lead acid batteries or
components.
3) Responsibilities of manufacturer, importer, assembler and re-conditioner:
 ensure that used batteries collected are sent only to the registered recyclers
 ensure that necessary arrangements are made with dealers for safe
transportation from collection centres to the premises of registered recyclers
 create public awareness through advertisements, publications, posters or by
other means
4) Responsibilities of consumer or bulk consumer:
 Responsibilities of consumer or bulk consumer to ensure that used batteries
are to disposed properly dealer, manufacturer, importer, assembler, registered
recycler, reconditioned or at the designated collection centres.
5) Duties of Central Pollution Control Board: - The Central Pollution Control Board
shall compile and publish the data received every year from the State Boards. It shall
review the compliance of the rules periodically to improve the collection and
recycling of used. lead batteries and apprise the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Government of India.
6) Improper handling and recycling of lead would cause risk health of the workers and
environmental impacts in surrounding area. It is therefore essential to ensure that
secondary production of lead is done in environmentally sound manner in the
facilities registered by Central or State Pollution Control Boards.
7) The various steps involved in recycling of Lead bearing Wastes are as follows;
A. Battery-Breaking Processes:
After draining the acid there are two modes of
dismantling/breaking of batteries before battery plates are processed for smelting.
The first mode is manual where the battery is cut from the top, plates are removed
and left-over acid is drained. The second mode is where the battery is mechanically
broken along with the casing.

a. The facilities required for manual dismantling include suction hood, connected to
the pollution control device, arrangement for washing of the plastics component
before being sent for recycling and acidic water neutralization facility. The capacity
for manual breaking of batteries should be restricted to 5000 MTA.

b. Facilities required for mechanical breaking include arrangements for noise control
and dust and fume extraction system and acidic collection / neutralization facilities.

B. Lead-Smelting Processes:
The smelting process to recycle lead scrap requires the use of
Mandir Bhattis and Rotary furnaces sweat furnace etc. The pollution control
system required for both types of furnaces include cooling chambers, cyclone
separators, bag filter, alkaline scrubber followed by exhaust blower and chimney of
30m height (minimum).
C. Lead Sweat Furnaces:
Small amounts of lead are recycled using lead sweat furnaces. Some
major materials that are recycled in sweat furnaces are lead-coated power and
communications cable, lead sheet and pipe, and other products, which contain lead
as a coating or as part of a complex part. The process is executed at relatively lower
temperatures and produces both metal for refining and dross; the dross is recycled to
smelters.
8) The overall process including the streams that are required to be connected to the
requisite Air Pollution Control Devices (APCD). Waste slag should be stored in
impervious pit under a shed and disposed at common HW disposal facilities at regular
intervals as per Hazardous and other Waste (Management, Handling, Transboundary
Movement) Rules 2008which is superseded by the hazardous and other wastes
(management and Transboundary Movement) rules 2016.

4. HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT

1) The Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement)
Rules, 2016, this rule shall apply to the management of hazardous and other wastes.
2) “Hazardous waste” means any waste which by reason of characteristics such as
physical, chemical, biological, reactive, toxic, flammable, explosive or corrosive,
causes danger or is likely to cause danger to health or environment.
3) “manifest” means transporting document prepared and signed by the sender
authorised in accordance with the provisions of these rules
4) “Recycling” means reclamation and processing of hazardous or other wastes in an
environmentally sound manner for the originally intended purpose or for other
purposes
“Reuse” means use of hazardous or other waste for the purpose of its original use or
other use
“Recovery” means any operation or activity wherein specific materials are recovered.
5) “Transboundary movement” means any movement of hazardous or other wastes from
an area under the jurisdiction of one country to or through an area under the
jurisdiction of another country or to or through an area not under the jurisdiction of
any country, provided that at least two countries are involved in the movement.
6) “Treatment” means a method, technique or process, designed to modify the physical,
chemical or biological characteristics or composition of any hazardous or other waste
so as to reduce its potential to cause harm.
7) management of hazardous and other wastes, an occupier shall follow the following
steps, namely
a) prevention;
b) minimization;
c) reuse;
d) recycling;
e) recovery;
f) utilisation including co-processing;
g) Safe disposal.
8) The hazardous and other wastes generated in the establishment of an occupier shall be
sent or sold to an authorised actual user or shall be disposed of in an authorised
disposal facility.
9) The hazardous and other wastes shall be transported from an occupier’s establishment
to an authorised actual user or to an authorised disposal facility in accordance with the
provisions of these rules.
10) Duties of occupier:
a) Contain contaminants and prevent accidents and limit their consequences on
human beings and the environment.
b) Provide persons working in the site with appropriate training, equipment and
the information necessary to ensure their safety.
11) Department of Industry in the State or any other government
agency authorised in this regard by the State Government, to ensure earmarking or
allocation of industrial space or shed for recycling, pre-processing and other
utilisation of hazardous.
12) The occupiers of facilities may store the hazardous and other wastes for a period not
exceeding ninety days and shall maintain a record of sale, transfer, storage, recycling,
recovery, pre-processing, co-processing and utilisation of such wastes.
13) The transport of the hazardous and other waste shall be in accordance with the
provisions of these rules and the rules made by the Central Government under the
Motor Vehicles Act, 1988 and the guidelines issued by the Central Pollution Control
Board from time to time in this regard.
14) Disposal of hazardous waste

Historically, some hazardous wastes were disposed of in regular landfills. This

resulted in unfavourable amounts of hazardous materials seeping into the ground.
These chemicals eventually entered to natural hydrologic systems. Many landfills
now require countermeasures against groundwater contamination. For example, a
barrier has to be installed along the foundation of the landfill to contain the hazardous
substances that may remain in the disposed waste. Currently, hazardous wastes must
often be stabilized and solidified in order to enter a landfill and must undergo
different treatments in order to stabilize and dispose them. Most flammable materials
can be recycled into industrial fuel. Some materials with hazardous constituents can
be recycled, such as lead acid batteries.
a) Recycling
Some hazardous wastes can be recycled into new products. Examples may include
lead-acid batteries or electronic circuit boards. When heavy metals in these types
of ashes go through the proper treatment, they could bind to other pollutants and
convert them into easier-to-dispose solids, or they could be used as pavement
filling. Such treatments reduce the level of threat of harmful chemicals, like fly
and bottom ash[citation needed], while also recycling the safe product.
b) Portland cement
Another commonly used treatment is cement based solidification and stabilization.
Cement is used because it can treat a range of hazardous wastes by improving
physical characteristics and decreasing the toxicity and transmission of
contaminants. The cement produced is categorized into 5 different divisions,
depending on its strength and components. This process of converting sludge into
cement might include the addition of pH adjustment agents, phosphates, or
sulphur reagents to reduce the settling or curing time, increase the compressive
strength, or reduce the leach ability of contaminants.
c) Hazardous waste landfill (sequestering, isolation, etc)
Hazardous waste may be sequestered in a hazardous waste landfill or permanent
disposal facility. "In terms of hazardous waste, a landfill is defined as a disposal
facility or part of a facility where hazardous waste is placed or on land and which
is not a pile, a land treatment facility, a surface impoundment, an underground
injection well, a salt dome formation, a salt bed formation, an underground mine,
a cave, or a corrective action management unit
d) Pyrolysis
Some hazardous waste types may be eliminated using pyrolysis in an ultra-high
temperature electrical arc, in inert conditions to avoid combustion. This treatment
method may be preferable to high temperature incineration in some circumstances
such as in the destruction of concentrated organic waste types, including PCBs,
pesticides and other persistent organic pollutants

5. HAZARDOUS WASTE

1) Hazardous waste is waste that has substantial or potential threats to public health or
the environment.
2) Characteristic hazardous wastes are materials that are known or tested to exhibit one
or more of the following four hazardous traits:
IgnitabilityReactivityCorrosivityToxicity.
3) Hazardous wastes may be found in different physical states such as gaseous, liquids,
or solids. A hazardous waste is a special type of waste because it cannot be disposed
of by common means like other by-products of our everyday lives. Depending on the
physical state of the waste, treatment and solidification processes might be required.
4) Ignitability Wastes that are hazardous due to the ignitability characteristic include
liquids with flash points below 60 °C, non-liquids that cause fire through specific
conditions, ignitable compressed gases and oxidizers
5) Corrosivity Wastes that are hazardous due to the corrosivity characteristic include
aqueous wastes with a pH of less than or equal to 2, a pH greater than or equal to 12.5
or based on the liquids ability to corrode steel.
6) Reactivity Wastes that are hazardous due to the reactivity characteristic may be
unstable under normal conditions, may react with water, may give off toxic gases and
may be capable of detonation or explosion under normal conditions or when heated.
7) Toxicity Wastes that are hazardous due to the toxicity characteristic are harmful when
ingested or absorbed.
8) Listed hazardous waste

F - Waste from nonspecific sources; Examples: Spent solvent wastes Electroplating

wastes

K - Waste from specific sources Examples: Wood Preservation Organic Chemical

Manufacturing

P, U – Commercial Chemical Products

6. TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

1) The transport of the hazardous and other waste shall be in accordance with the
provisions of these rules and the rules made by the Central Government under the
Motor Vehicles Act, 1988 and the guidelines issued by the Central Pollution Control
Board from time to time in this regard.
2) Transporters participate in manifest system. Vehicles must be properly marked.
Transporter cannot make decisions on where to deliver waste.
3)

7. MANIFEST SYSTEMS
1) Under rule 19 of The Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary
Movement) Rules, 2016, sender of the hazardous waste shall prepare seven copies of
the manifest in Form 10 comprising of colour code indicated below and all seven
copies shall be signed by the sender.
2) Copy 1 (White) To be forwarded by the sender to the State Pollution Control
Board after signing all the seven copies.
Copy 2 (Yellow) To be retained by the sender after taking signature on it from the
transporter and the rest of the five signed copies to be carried by the transporter.
Copy 3 (Pink) To be retained by the receiver (actual user or treatment storage
and disposal facility operator) after receiving the waste and the remaining four copies
are to be duly signed by the receiver.
Copy 4 (Orange) To be handed over to the transporter by the receiver after
accepting waste.
Copy 5 (Green) To be sent by the receiver to the State Pollution Control Board.
Copy 6 (Blue) To be sent by the receiver to the sender.
Copy 7 (Grey) To be sent by the receiver to the State Pollution Control Board
of the sender in case the sender is in another State
3) The key feature of regulations pertaining to waste transport is the “cradle-to
grave” manifest system, which monitors the journey of hazardous waste from its point
of origin to the point of final disposal. The manifest system helps to eliminate the
problem of midnight dumping.
4) It also provides a means for determining the type and quantity of hazardous waste
being generated, as well as the recommended emergency procedures in case of an
accidental spill.
5) A manifest is a record-keeping document that must be prepared by the generator of
the hazardous waste, such as a chemical manufacturer. The generator has primary
responsibility for the ultimate disposal of the waste and must give the manifest, along
with the waste itself, to a licensed waste transporter.
6) A copy of the manifest must be delivered by the transporter to the recipient of the
waste at an authorized TSDF. Each time the waste changes hands, a copy of the
manifest must be signed. Copies of the manifest are kept by each party involved, and
additional copies are sent to appropriate environmental agencies.
7) In the event of a leak or accidental spill of hazardous waste during its transport, the
transporter must take immediate and appropriate actions, including notifying local
authorities of the discharge.
8) An area may have to be diked to contain the wastes, and efforts must be undertaken to
remove the wastes and reduce environmental or public health hazards.

8. TREM CARD
1) A Tremcard is a Transport Emergency Card. It must be carried in the cab of the
vehicle that is transporting dangerous goods by road. It contains instructions and
information that the driver can refer to in the event of an incident involving the
hazardous load. TREM Cards list the nature of the carried substances, associated
hazard(s), and what actions should be taken in the event of an emergency. They also
include a contact name and telephone number for the relevant emergency services in
the event of an accident.
2) Transport Emergency Cards must be visible in the vehicle at all times during the
transportation of hazardous substances. Upon delivery, TREM Cards are removed
from view. The consignor is required under regulations to either supply the cards or
give enough information for the operator to obtain the correct ones. However, the
carrier also has a legal obligation to ensure that cards are appropriate to the load.
TRANSPORT EMERGENCY (TREM) CARD [Form 9]
[To be carried by the transporter during transportation of hazardous and other wastes,
provided
by the sender of waste]
1. Characteristics of hazardous and other wastes:
S. No. Type of Physical Chemical Exposure First Aid
waste properties constituents hazards requirements

2. Procedure to be followed in case of fire:

3. Procedure to be followed in case of spillage/accident/explosion:
4. For expert services, please contact:
(i) Name and Address:
(ii) Telephone No.:

(Name, contact number and signature of sender)

Date……………….
Place……………….

9. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

1) Solid waste is the unwanted or useless solid materials generated from combined
residential, industrial and commercial activities in a given area. It may be categorised
according to its origin (domestic, industrial, commercial, construction or
institutional); according to its contents (organic material, glass, metal, plastic paper
etc); or according to hazard potential (toxic, non-toxin, flammable, radioactive,
infectious etc).
2) Management of solid waste reduces or eliminates adverse impacts on the environment
and human health and supports economic development and improved quality of life.
A number of processes are involved in effectively managing waste for a municipality.
These include monitoring, collection, transport, processing, recycling and disposal.
3) Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
Methods of waste reduction, waste reuse and recycling are the preferred options when
managing waste. There are many environmental benefits that can be derived from the
use of these methods. They reduce or prevent greenhouse gas emissions, reduce the
release of pollutants, conserve resources, save energy and reduce the demand for
waste treatment technology and landfill space. Therefore, it is advisable that these
methods be adopted and incorporated as part of the waste management plan.
4) Waste reduction and reuse
Waste reduction and reuse of products are both methods of waste prevention. They
eliminate the production of waste at the source of usual generation and reduce the
demands for large scale treatment and disposal facilities. Methods of waste reduction
include manufacturing products with less packaging, encouraging customers to bring
their own reusable bags for packaging, encouraging the public to choose reusable
products such as cloth napkins and reusable plastic and glass containers, backyard
composting and sharing and donating any unwanted items rather than discarding
them. All of the methods of waste prevention mentioned require public participation.
In order to get the public onboard, training and educational programmes need to be
undertaken to educate the public about their role in the process. Also, the government
may need to regulate the types and amount of packaging used by manufacturers and
make the reuse of shopping bags mandatory.
5) Recycling refers to the removal of items from the waste stream to be used as raw
materials in the manufacture of new products. Thus, from this definition recycling
occurs in three phases: first the waste is sorted and recyclables collected, the
recyclables are used to create raw materials. These raw materials are then used in the
production of new products. The sorting of recyclables may be done at the source (i.e.
within the household or office) for selective collection by the municipality or to be
dropped off by the waste producer at a recycling centre. The pre-sorting at the source
requires public participation which may not be forthcoming if there are no benefits to
be derived. Also, a system of selective collection by the government can be costly. It
would require more frequent circulation of trucks within a neighbourhood or the
importation of more vehicles to facilitate the collection.
6) Waste Collection
Waste from our homes is generally collected by our local authorities through regular
waste collection, or by special collections for recycling. Within hot climates such as
that of the Caribbean the waste should be collected at least twice a week to control fly
breeding, and the harbouring of other pests in the community. Other factors to
consider when deciding on frequency of collection are the odours caused by
decomposition and the accumulated quantities. Descriptions of the main types of
collection systems are given in the table below.
7) Treatment & Disposal
Waste treatment techniques seek to transform the waste into a form that is more
manageable, reduce the volume or reduce the toxicity of the waste thus making the
waste easier to dispose of. Treatment methods are selected based on the composition,
quantity and form of the waste material. Some waste treatment methods being used
today include subjecting the waste to extremely high temperatures, dumping on land
or land filling and use of biological processes to treat the waste. It should be noted
that treatment and disposal options are chosen as a last resort to the previously
mentioned management strategies reducing, reusing and recycling of waste
8) Thermal treatment
This refers to processes that involve the use of heat to treat waste. Listed below are
descriptions of some commonly utilized thermal treatment processes.
Incineration
Incineration is the most common thermal treatment process. This is the combustion of
waste in the presence of oxygen. After incineration, the wastes are converted to
carbon dioxide, water vapour and ash.
This method may be used as a means of recovering energy to be used in heating or the
supply of electricity. In addition to supplying energy incineration technologies have
the advantage of reducing the volume of the waste, rendering it harmless, reducing
transportation costs and reducing the production of the greenhouse gas methane
Pyrolysis and Gasification
Pyrolysis and gasification are similar processes they both decompose organic waste
by exposing it to high temperatures and low amounts of oxygen. Gasification uses a
low oxygen environment while pyrolysis allows no oxygen. These techniques use heat
and an oxygen starved environment to convert biomass into other forms. A mixture of
combustible and non-combustible gases as well as pyrrolinones liquid is produced by
these processes. All of these products have a high heat value and can be utilised.
9) Dumps and Landfills
10) COMPOSTING
11) Integrated Solid Waste Management
Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) takes an overall approach to creating
sustainable systems that are economically affordable, socially acceptable and
environmentally effective. An integrated solid waste management system involves the
use of a range of different treatment methods, and key to the functioning of such a
system is the collection and sorting of the waste. It is important to note that no one
single treatment method can manage all the waste materials in an environmentally
effective way. Thus, all of the available treatment and disposal options must be
evaluated equally and the best combination of the available options suited to the
particular community chosen. Effective management schemes therefore need to
operate in ways which best meet current social, economic, and environmental
conditions of the municipality.
10. EFFLUENT TREATMENT PLANT
1) ETP (Effluent Treatment Plant) is a process design for treating the industrial waste
water for its reuse or safe disposal to the environment.
 Influent: Untreated industrial waste water.
 Effluent: Treated industrial waste water.
 Sludge: Solid part separated from waste water by ETP.
2) Need of ETP
 To clean industry effluent and recycle it for further use
 To reduce the usage of fresh/potable water in Industries.
 To cut expenditure on water procurement.
 To meet the Standards for emission or discharge
of environmental pollutants from various Industries set by
the Government and avoid hefty penalties.
 To safeguard environment against pollution and contribute in
sustainable development.

3) Design of ETP
 The design and size of the ETP depends upon:
 Quantity and quality of the industries discharge effluent.
 Land availability.
 Monetary considerations for construction, operation & maintenance.
 Area dimension depends on:
 Quality of wastewater to be treated,
 Flow rate
 Type of biological treatment to be used.
 In case of less available land CETP (Common Effluent Treatment
Plant) is preferred over ETP.
4) Treatment Levels & Mechanisms of ETP
 Treatment levels:
 Preliminary
 Primary
 Secondary
 Tertiary (or advanced)
 Treatment mechanisms
 Physical
 chemical
 biological
5) Preliminary Treatment level
Purpose: Physical separation of big sized impurities like cloth, plastics, wood logs,
paper, etc
Common physical unit operations at Preliminary level are:
 Screening: A screen with openings of uniform size is used to remove
large solids such as plastics, cloth etc. Generally maximum 10mm is
used.
 Sedimentation: Physical water treatment process using gravity to
remove suspended solids from water.
 Clarification: Used for separation of solids from fluids.

6) Primary Treatment Level

Purpose: Removal of floating and settleable materials such as suspended
solids and organic matter.
Methods: Both physical and chemical methods are used in this
treatment level.
Chemical unit processes:
Chemical unit processes are always used with physical operations and
may also be used with biological treatment processes.
Chemical processes use the addition of chemicals to the wastewater to
bring about changes in its quality.
Example: pH control, coagulation, chemical precipitation and oxidation.
pH Control:
To adjust the pH in the treatment process to make wastewater pH neutral.
For acidic wastes (low pH): NaOH, Na2CO3, CaCO3or Ca (OH)2.
For alkali wastes (high pH): H2SO4, HCl.
Chemical coagulation and Flocculation:
 Coagulation refers to collecting the minute solid particles dispersed in a liquid
into a larger mass.
 Chemical coagulants like Al2(SO4)3 {also called alum} or Fe2(SO4)3 are
added
to wastewater to improve the attraction among fine particles so that they come
together and form larger particles called flocs.
 A chemical flocculent (usually a polyelectrolyte) enhances the flocculation
process by bringing together particles to form larger flocs, which settle out
more quickly.
 Flocculation is aided by gentle mixing which causes the particles to collide
7) Secondary Treatment Level

Methods: Biological and chemical processes are involved in this level.

Biological unit process
To remove, or reduce the concentration of organic and inorganic compounds.
Biological treatment process can take many forms but all are based around
microorganisms, mainly bacteria.
Aerobic Processes
Aerobic treatment processes take place in the presence of air (oxygen).
Utilizes those microorganisms (aerobes), which use molecular/free oxygen to
assimilate organic impurities i.e. convert them in to carbon dioxide, water and
biomass.
Anaerobic Processes
The anaerobic treatment processes take place in the absence of air (oxygen).
Utilizes microorganisms (anaerobes) which do not require air (molecular/free
oxygen) to assimilate organic impurities.
The final products are methane and biomass.
8) Activated sludge process
9) Tertiary / Advanced Treatment
Purpose: Final cleaning process that improves wastewater quality before it
is reused, recycled or discharged to the environment.
Mechanism: Removes remaining inorganic compounds, and substances,
such as the nitrogen and phosphorus. Bacteria, viruses and parasites,
which are harmful to public health, are also removed at this stage.
Methods:
Alum: Used to help remove additional phosphorus particles and group
the remaining solids together for easy removal in the filters.
Chlorine contact tank disinfects the tertiary treated wastewater by
removing microorganisms in treated wastewater including bacteria,
viruses and parasites.
Remaining chlorine is removed by adding sodium bisulphate just before
it's discharged.
12) ETP Plant Operation
1. Screen chamber:
Remove relatively large solids to avoid abrasion of mechanical equipment’s and
clogging of hydraulic system.
2. Collection tank:
The collection tank collects the effluent water from the screening chamber,
stores and then pumps it to the equalization tank.
3. Equalization tank:
a. The effluents do not have similar concentrations at all the time; the pH will
vary time to time.
b. Effluents are stored from 8 to 12 hours in the equalization tank resulting in a
homogenous mixing of effluents and helping in neutralization.
It eliminates shock loading on the subsequent treatment system.
c. Continuous mixing also eliminates settling of solids within the equalization
tank.
d. Reduces SS, TSS.
4. Flash mixer:
Coagulants were added to the effluents:
 Lime: (800-1000 ppm) To correct the pH up to 8-9
 Alum: (200-300 ppm) To remove colour
 Poly electrolyte: (0.2 ppm) To settle the suspended matters & reduce SS,
TSS.
The addition of the above chemicals by efficient rapid mixing facilitates
homogeneous combination of flocculates to produce microflows.
5. Clarriflocculator:
In the clarriflocculator the water is circulated continuously by the stirrer.
 Overflowed water is taken out to the aeration tank.
 The solid particles are settled down, and collected separately and dried; this
reduces SS, TSS.
 Flocculation provides slow mixing that leads to the formation of macro flocs,
which then settles out in the clarifier zone.
 The settled solids i.e. primary sludge is pumped into sludge drying beds.
6. Aeration tank:
 The water is passed like a thin film over the different arrangements like
staircase shape.
 Dosing of Urea and DAP is done.
 Water gets direct contact with the air to dissolve the oxygen into water.
 BOD & COD values of water are reduced up to 90%.
7. Clarifier:
 The clarifier collects the biological sludge.
 The overflowed water is called as treated effluent and disposed out.
 The outlet water quality is checked to be within the accepted limit as
delineated in the norms of the Bureau of Indian standards.
 Through pipelines, the treated water is disposed into the environment river
water, barren land, etc.
8. Sludge thickener:
 The inlet water consists of 60% water + 40% solids.
 The effluent is passed through the centrifuge.
 Due to centrifugal action, the solids and liquids are separated.
 The sludge thickener reduces the water content in the effluent to 40% water +
60% solids.
 The effluent is then reprocessed and the sludge collected at the bottom.
9. Drying beds:
 Primary and secondary sludge is dried on the drying beds.

11. SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT

1) OBJECTIVE: The object of sewage treatment is to stabilize the organic matter
present in sewage so as to produce an effluent liquid and a sludge, both of which
can be disposed of into the environment without causing health hazard.
2) Types of contaminants in Sewage:
a) ORGANIC [Biological treatment]
i. Dissolved (For example Sugar, Milk)
ii. Suspended (For example Vegetable matter, Food residue)
b) INORGANIC [Primary treatment]
i. Dissolved (For example Salt)
ii. Suspended (For example Plastic bags, Cans, Fibre, clothes)
3) Pollutants in sewage
 BOD (Bio Chemical Oxygen demand)
The BOD is an important measure of water quality. It is measure of the
amount of oxygen needed by bacteria and other organisms to oxidize the
organic matter present in a water sample over a period of 5 days at 20-
degree C.
 COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand)
COD Measures all organic carbon with the exception of some aromatics
(BENZENE, TOLUENE, PHENOL etc.) which are not completely
oxidized in the reaction.
COD is a chemical oxidation reaction
Ammonia will not be oxidized.
 Total Suspended Solids
Total suspended solids (TSS) include all particles suspended in water
which will pass through a filter.
As levels of TSS increase, a water body begins to lose its ability to
support a diversity of aquatic life.
Suspended solids absorb heat from sunlight, which increases water
temperature and subsequently decreases levels of dissolved oxygen
(warmer water holds less oxygen than cooler water)
4) Waste water Characteristics for Disposal
PH : 6-9
TSS : <50 mg/l
BOD : <30 mg/l
COD : <250 mg/l
Residual chlorine : <1.0 mg/l
Coliform : <10^3 counts/100ml
Waste water Characteristics for Reuse
PH : 6.5-8.5
TSS : <10 mg/l
BOD : <10 mg/l
COD : <150 mg/l
Residual chlorine : <1.0 mg/l
Coliform : <100 counts/100ml (desired nil)

5) Components of Sewage Treatment Plants

1. Pumping of Sewage 3. Secondary treatment
2. Primary Treatment 4.Tertiary Treatment
6) Pumping Station
Receiving Chamber, Coarse Screening, Wet Well (Raw Sewage Sump), Pump
House, Raw Sewage Pumps
7) Primary Treatment
1. Fine Screening This removes large floating, suspended and settleable solids.
2. Grit Removal: process of removal of inorganic suspended solids using Gravity
separation
3. Primary Clarification

8) Secondary Treatment: -Biological treatment

Sewage Treatment
Method of Treatment- Aerobic, Anaerobic
a) Aerobic-Sewage treatment in the presence of Oxygen-MBBR, SBR-where
aerators/blowers are installed- generally no smell during treatment.
b) Anaerobic-Sewage treatment in the absence of Oxygen UASB No
aerators/blowers are required-foul smell during treatment.
9) VARIOUS SEWAGE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
1. Activated Sludge Process (ASP)
2. Up flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor (UASB)
3. Moving Bed Bio Film Reactor (MBBR)
4. Sequential Batch Reactor (SBR)
Activated Sludge Process (ASP)
10) Activated Sludge Process (ASP)

1. Raw Effluent In 4. Treated water out

2. Aeration 5.Sludge Recirculation
3. Sedimentation 6.Sludge withdrawal

11) Activated Sludge Process (ASP) Technology

An activated sludge plant essentially consists of the following:
a) Aeration tank containing microorganisms in suspension in which reaction
takes place.
b) Activated sludge recirculation system.
c) Excess sludge wasting and disposal facilities.
d) Aeration systems to transfer oxygen
e) Secondary sedimentation tank to separate and thicken activated sludge.
12) Advantages
 Can sustain seasonal variation
 Less land requirement than UASB
Disadvantages
 High energy consumption
 Foaming, particularly in winter season, may adversely
affect the oxygen transfer, and hence performance
 Requires elaborate sludge digestion /drying/disposal
arrangement
 More land requirement than SBR & MBBR
 Nitrogen and Phosphorous removal require additional anoxic tank and > 3
times internal recirculation

13) Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor (UASB)

 The Up flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket reactor (UASB) maintains a
high concentration of biomass through formation of highly settle able
microbial aggregates. The sewage flows upwards through a layer of
sludge.
 The sludge in the UASB is tested for pH, volatile fatty acids (VFA),
alkalinity, COD and SS. If the pH reduces while VFA increases, the
sewage should not be allowed into the UASB until the pH and VFA
stabilise.
 The reactor may need to be emptied completely once in five years,
while any floating material (scum) accumulated inside the gas
collector channels may have to be removed every two years to
ensure free flow of gas.
 All V-notches must be cleaned in order to maintain the uniform
withdrawal of UASB effluent coming out of each V-notch. The
irregular flow from each V-notch result in the escape of more solids
washout. Similarly, blocking of the V-notches of the effluent gutters
will lead to uneven distribution of sewage in the reactor
14) Advantages
Requires less power than aerobic processes
Biogas generated can be used as fuel or electricity.
Disadvantages
UASB alone does not treat the sewage to desirable limits, therefore downstream
aerobic treatment is compulsory
Requires very large space due to post treatment Recovery of biogas is not
sufficient to produce substantial electricity in case of municipal

15) MOVING BED BIO REACTOR (MBBR) PROCESS

Moving Bed Bio Reactor (MBBR) process is based on the bio-film of
organisms developed on carrier elements.
This media is floating in the Aeration tank and kept floating by air
from diffusers which are placed at the bottom of tank.
The process is intended to enhance the activated sludge process by
providing greater biomass in aeration tank and thus by reducing
volume of the tank
After aeration tank sedimentation tank is provided for settlement of
sloughed biomass Clear water clarifier overflows from weir and is further
subjected to
disinfection.
16) Sludge Handling
A. Sludge Drying Beds
Objective: Dewatering of sludge
Important Features
Conventional method of sludge drying; No power requirement; Substantial area is
required; Difficult to operate in monsoon; Labour intensive; Manual scrapping
and loading of dried sludge
B. Centrifuge
Objective: Dewatering of sludge @ 95% of the BOD removed in Kg.
Important Features
Advanced method of solid-liquid separation; less area; Power required for
pumping the sludge and operation of centrifuge; less time; efficient dewatering
17) Tertiary Treatment
It is supplementary to primary and secondary treatment for the purpose of
removing the residual organic and inorganic substances for reuse of effluent
for the purposes of cooling systems, boiler feed, process water etc.

18) Chlorination
Objective: Disinfection of wastewater to kill pathogens
Important Features
- Simple & widely used method of disinfection
- Used for wastewater treatment
19) Other options for disinfection
• Chlorine produces carcinogenic disinfection by-products that are harmful to
human and aquatic life.
• It is banned in developed countries.
• Still used in India as it is cheap
• Other options are;
• Ultra Violet (UV) - like Aqua guard
• Ozone

12. Six R concept

1) Many consumers are trying to think of the environment and sustainability when
they buy things; they are thinking of ‘green’ issues. Designers and manufacturers
are required by law to try to reduce the environmental impact of the products they
create. Six keywords summarise approaches that can be taken by the consumer,
the designer, the manufacturer and the retailer:
 Rethink
 Refuse
 Reduce
 Reuse
 Recycle
 Repair, reprocess,
2) The 6 Rs include: reinvent/rethink, refuse, reduce, reuse/repair, recycle,
replace/rebuy. When we apply the 6 Rs to their lives we promote sustainable
practices. But we must make the conscious effort to do so.
1. Rethink/Reinvent: consider and question consumption habits

To make a difference, people must make a conscious effort to do so. That begins
by questioning our actions. We must ask ourselves, do we really need these
things? Is there another use for this? Can this be recycled? (Green Triangle Blog,
2012). These are just some of the basic questions that we should consider every
day. By investing more time in understanding personal consumption habits,
people will become increasingly self-aware of their effect on the environment.
This self-awareness may influence their behaviours, values and consumption
habits.

2. Refuse: make the choice to not generate waste

The most direct method of reducing the amount of trash is by refusing to

consume. This does not mean to stop generating trash altogether but rather to stop
consuming particular products. A person may decide not to buy certain items that
generate more waste than benefit. For example, a person may feel the need to buy
apples every time he goes to the store. However, he may not eat them and often
they go to waste. Knowing this, one may decide to quit purchasing apples which
will result reduces the amount of waste they produce.

Of course, there are other reasons why people may choose to make a conscious
effort to refrain from buying certain products. A person may decide to refuse a
product either because of the quality, a short shelf life or it cannot be easily
repaired, the company’s ethics, the chemicals involved, and so on. Whatever the
rationale behind declining product purchases the result is less trash. This lifestyle
operates from the value of learning to do without, to make do with what you have.

3. Reduce: make decisions that decrease the amount of waste produced

To cut trash, simply consume less. It is the idea that less is more. We can reduce
the amount of material, toxins and waste sent to landfills through various means:

 Buy only what we need, by avoiding impulse shopping or purchasing too much of
an item.
 Buy reusable or refillable items. An example of this is using a shopping bag rather
than plastic bag, a coffee mug and not wax paper cup.
 Buy in bulk or economy-size. An example of this is by purchasing economy size
cereal bags and not several smaller bags of cereal which would result in more
waste.
 Avoid single-serving sizes. An example of this is by making pudding in a large
bowl rather than purchasing single serving plastic cups of pudding.
 Products with less packaging. An example of this is by selecting a product in a
smaller cardboard box and not a product enclosed in plastic.

4. Re-Use/Repair: expand the shelf-lives of products

 By reusing what you already have or by reinventing new uses for the item, you
can extend the item’s product life. Before rushing out to the store to buy an item
make the decision to buy as a last recourse. For example, we can use pickle
jars for storage rather than buying a brand-new container. It’s the idea of being
creative with the things you have, to extend the life of a product. Even perishable
items can be reused through compost.
 If I no longer have a use for the item I can give away the item instead of throwing
it away. I can donate unwanted equipment, furniture, supplies, clothes to a non-
profit organization, schools, a shelter or charity. Also, I may able to reclaim some
of the value of my items through consignment stores or pawn shops. If there is no
other use for the product, then recycle.

5. Recycle: reclaim the raw materials

By separating items such as aluminium cans and plastic, we can reclaim the raw
materials from these items which would have otherwise been thrown away. While
recycling takes added effort compared to simply throwing the item in the garbage,
there are many benefits in doing so. Recycled materials typically require less
energy to process compared to developing new materials altogether. These items
are not left in the landfill to rot and decompose resulting in reduced air and water
pollution. Helps conserve natural resources and sustain the environment for future
generations. What can be recycled, though? There is an array of items, including
paper, aluminium, yard trimmings, glass, and plastic, used motor oil, steel and
batteries. Consumers can recycle these materials by disposing of them in separate
trash bins at home, work and school. These items can then be dropped off at local
recycling collection sites and processing plants. Many cities, through their
municipality waste management programs, offer curb side recycling option as
well. By taking the time to separate these items, diverting them away from
landfills through recycling, we can cut our impact on the environment.

6. Replace/Rebuy: next time consider recycled and green content

Consumers can promote recycled products by purchasing items that incorporate

recycled materials. We make these items in whole or in part from material
recovered from the waste stream. Consumers can look for labels on packages that
include a percentage of recovered materials. If the demand for these products is
present, businesses have an incentive to continue producing items that are more
environmentally friendly. In addition, consumers can choose to replace a majority
of their goods with green products. These products often contain fewer harmful
chemicals, reduced emissions in production and/or incorporate renewable
materials into their production. By reviewing green certifications and recovered
material percentage labels, consumers can make better informed buying decisions
that promote sustainable practices.
In order for any change to take place, people must first make a conscious effort to
do so. The final five Rs are dependent on the first, rethinking. It is that moment of
pause, that hesitation to throw out something that still has value; it’s the
recognition of that value that creates change. While it may take practice, as most
habits don’t develop overnight, over time an individual’s conscious efforts may
become part of her character. Living a life that supports sustainable practices may
influence others to do the same as there are many long-term benefits in doing so.
In order to reap the benefits though, it takes the willingness to change for the
better.

CHAPTER 4: GLOBAL WARMING

1. Carbon Emission Atmospheric Gases:

 There are a number of atmospheric gases which make up air. The main gases
are nitrogen and oxygen, which make up 78% and 21% of the volume of air
respectively. Oxygen is utilized primarily by animals, including humans, but also to a
small degree by plants, in the process of respiration (the metabolism of food products
to generate energy). The remaining 1% of the atmospheric gases is made up of trace
gases. These include the noble gases, very inert or non-reactive gases, of which the
most abundant is argon. Other noble gases include neon, helium, krypton and xenon.
 There are both natural and human sources of carbon dioxide emissions. Natural
sources include decomposition, ocean release and respiration. Human sources come
from activities like cement production, deforestation as well as the burning of fossil
fuels like coal, oil and natural gas.
 Due to human activities, the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide has been
rising extensively since the Industrial Revolution and has now reached dangerous
levels not seen in the last 3 million years. Human sources of carbon dioxide emissions
are much smaller than natural emissions but they have upset the natural balance that
existed for many thousands of years before the influence of humans.
 This is because natural sinks remove around the same quantity of carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere than are produced by natural sources. This had kept carbon dioxide
levels balanced and in a safe range. But human sources of emissions have upset the
natural balance by adding extra carbon dioxide to the atmosphere without removing
any.
 Since the Industrial Revolution, human sources of carbon dioxide emissions have
been growing. Human activities such as the burning of oil, coal and gas, as well as
deforestation are the primary cause of the increased carbon dioxide concentrations in
the atmosphere.
 87 percent of all human-produced carbon dioxide emissions come from the burning of
fossil fuels like coal, natural gas and oil. The remainder results from the clearing of
forests and other land use changes (9%), as well as some industrial processes such as
cement manufacturing (4%).
 The 3 types of fossil fuels that are used the most are coal, natural gas and oil. Coal is
responsible for 43% of carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion, 36% is
produced by oil and 20% from natural gas.
 Coal is the most carbon intensive fossil fuel. For every tone of coal burned,
approximately 2.5 tons of CO2e are produced. Of all the different types of fossil fuels,
coal produces the most carbon dioxide. Because of this and its high rate of use, coal is
the largest fossil fuel source of carbon dioxide emissions. Coal represents one-third of
fossil fuels' share of world total primary energy supply but is responsible for 43% of
carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel use.
 The three main economic sectors that use fossil fuels are: electricity/heat,
transportation and industry. The first two sectors, electricity/heat and transportation,
produced nearly two-thirds of global carbon dioxide emissions in 2010.
 Apart from being created by human activities, carbon dioxide is also released into the
atmosphere by natural processes. The Earth's oceans, soil, plants, animals and
volcanoes are all-natural sources of carbon dioxide emissions.
 Human sources of carbon dioxide are much smaller than natural emissions but they
upset the balance in the carbon cycle that existed before the Industrial Revolution.
The amount of carbon dioxide produced by natural sources is completely offset by
natural carbon sinks and has been for thousands of years. Before the influence of
humans, carbon dioxide levels were quite steady because of this natural balance.

 42.84% of all naturally produced carbon dioxide emissions come from ocean-
atmosphere exchange. Other important natural sources include plant and animal
respiration (28.56%) as well as soil respiration and decomposition (28.56%). A minor
amount is also created by volcanic eruptions (0.03%).
Effects of Carbon Emission:
1) Carbon dioxide in its gas form is an asphyxiate, which cuts off the oxygen supply for
breathing, especially in confined spaces. Exposure to concentrations of 10 percent or more
of carbon dioxide can cause death, unconsciousness, or convulsions.
2) The extra carbon dioxide increases the greenhouse effect. More heat is trapped by the
atmosphere, causing the planet to become warmer than it would be naturally. The increase in
global temperature this causes is called global warming.
3) About a quarter to a third of all carbon dioxide emissions from our cars and factories are
absorbed by the Earth's oceans. Ocean plants absorb carbon just like forests and field
grasses do. But, any of the CO2 that is not fixed dissolves into the seawater, altering the
chemistry of the waters.
4) For each 1-degree Celsius increase in temperature caused by carbon dioxide emissions, the
resulting air pollution could lead to more than 20,000 deaths a year worldwide and many
more cases of respiratory illness and asthma.
5) Shrinking Water Supplies: Climate change is expected to increase rainfall in some areas,
thereby causing an increase in the sediment and pollutants washed into drinking water
supplies. Rising sea levels will cause saltwater to infiltrate some freshwater systems,
increasing the need for desalination and drinking water treatment.
6) Changes in Food Supply: Changing weather affects the agricultural industry and the
human food supply. Carbon emissions contribute to increasing temperatures and decreasing
precipitation, changing the growing conditions for food crops in many areas.

2. Greenhouse Gases:

 A greenhouse gas is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within
the thermal infrared range. This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse
effect. The primary greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor, carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Without greenhouse gases, the average
temperature of Earth's surface would be about −18 °C rather than the present average of
14 °C.

 Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution (taken as sometime
between the years 1740 and 1754) have produced a 40% increase in the atmospheric
concentration of carbon dioxide, from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017. This
increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various
natural "sinks" involved in the carbon cycle. The vast majority of Anthropogenic carbon
dioxide (CO2) emissions (i.e., emissions produced by human activities) come
from combustion of fossil fuels, principally coal, oil, and natural gas, with comparatively
modest additional contributions coming from deforestation, changes in land use, soil
erosion, and agriculture (including animal agriculture), though some of the emissions of
this sector are offset by carbon sequestration.
 It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate, Earth's
surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047, with potentially
harmful effects on ecosystems, biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide.

 Greenhouse gases are those that absorb and emit infrared radiation in the wavelength
range emitted by Earth.In order, the most abundant greenhouse gases in Earth's
atmosphere are: 1.Water vapor (H2O), 2.Carbon dioxide (CO2), 3.Methane (CH4),
4.Nitrous oxide (N2O), 5.Ozone (O3), 6.Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
7.Hydrofluorocarbons (incl. HCFCs and HFCs).

Greenhouse effect:
The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the
Earth’s surface. When the Sun’s energy reaches the Earth’s
atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and the rest is
absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse gases.

Step 1: Solar radiation reaches the Earth's atmosphere - some of

this is reflected back into space.
Step 2: The rest of the sun's energy is absorbed by the land and
the oceans, heating the Earth.
Step 3: Heat radiates from Earth towards space.
Step 4: Some of this heat is trapped by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, keeping the
Earth warm enough to sustain life.
Step 5: Human activities such as burning fossil fuels, agriculture and land clearing are
increasing the amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere.
Step 6: This is trapping extra heat, and causing the Earth's temperature to rise.

3. Kyoto Protocol:

 The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits State Parties to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions, based on the scientific consensus that (a) global
warming is occurring and (b) it is extremely likely that human-made CO2 emissions have
predominantly caused it. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on December
11, 1997 and entered into force on February 16, 2005. There are currently 192 parties
(Canada withdrew effective December 2012) to the Protocol.
 The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global
warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to "a level that
would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system". The
Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities: it puts the
obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are
historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
 The Protocol's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. A second
commitment period was agreed on in 2012, known as the Doha Amendment to the
protocol, in which 37 countries have binding targets. Negotiations were held in the
framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken
after the second commitment period ends in 2020. This resulted in the 2015 adoption of
the Paris Agreement, which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an
amendment of the Kyoto protocol.

Objective:

 The main goal of the Kyoto Protocol is to control emissions of the main anthropogenic
(i.e., human-emitted) greenhouse gases (GHGs) in ways that reflect underlying national
differences in GHG emissions, wealth, and capacity to make the reductions.
 The treaty follows the main principles agreed in the original 1992 UN Framework
Convention. According to the treaty, in 2012, Annex I Parties who have ratified the treaty
must have fulfilled their obligations of greenhouse gas emissions limitations established
for the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period (2008–2012).
 The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is the “stabilization of greenhouse gas
concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would stop dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system.
Some of the principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:
 Binding commitments for the Annex I Parties. The main feature of the Protocol is that it
established legally binding commitments to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases for
Annex I Parties. The commitments were based on the Berlin Mandate, which was a part
of UNFCCC negotiations leading up to the Protocol.
 Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Annex I Parties are
required to prepare policies and measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their
respective countries. In addition, they are required to increase the absorption of these
gases and utilize all mechanisms available, such as joint implementation, the clean
development mechanism and emissions trading, in order to be rewarded with credits that
would allow more greenhouse gas emissions at home.
 Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for
climate change.
 Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.
 Compliance: Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with the
commitments under the Protocol.
4. Acid Rain:

 Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form of precipitation with
acidic components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the
atmosphere in wet or dry forms. This can include rain, snow, fog, hail or even dust that is
acidic.
 Acid rain results when sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into
the atmosphere and transported by wind and air currents. The SO2 and NOX react with
water, oxygen and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. These then mix with
water and other materials before falling to the ground.
 While a small portion of the SO2 and NOX that cause acid, rain is from natural sources
such as volcanoes, most of it comes from the burning of fossil fuels.
 Acid rain is produced by the releases of Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) and Nitrogen Oxides
(NOx). These two gases once realised into the atmosphere combine and react with water,
oxygen and oxidant compounds in the atmosphere. The reaction can take hours or even
days, during which the polluted air can travel far from the original source of pollution.
The mixture of these gases creates a mild solution of pH 5.6 or less, and then falls to the
earth in rain, snow, fog or even as dry forms such as gas and particles.

The major sources of SO2 and NOX in the atmosphere are:

 Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity. Two thirds of SO2 and one fourth of
NOX in the atmosphere come from electric power generators.
 Vehicles and heavy equipment.
 Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.

Winds can blow SO2 and NOX over long distances and across borders making acid rain a
problem for everyone and not just those who live close to these sources.

Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it
has elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic
animals and infrastructure.
 Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which react with
the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids. Some governments have made
efforts since the 1970s to reduce the release of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide into the
atmosphere with positive results.
 Nitrogen oxides can also be produced naturally by lightning strikes, and sulphur dioxide
is produced by volcanic eruptions. Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on
forests, freshwaters and soils, killing insect and aquatic life-forms, causing paint to
peel, corrosion of steel structures such as bridges, and weathering of stone buildings and
statues as well as having impacts on human health.
 The principal cause of acid rain is sulphur and nitrogen compounds from human sources,
such as electricity generation, factories, and motor vehicles. Electrical power generation
using coal is among the greatest contributors to gaseous pollutions that are responsible for
acidic rain.
 The gases can be carried hundreds of kilometres in the atmosphere before they are
converted to acids and deposited. In the past, factories had short funnels to let out smoke
but this caused many problems locally; thus, factories now have taller smoke funnels.
However, dispersal from these taller stacks causes pollutants to be carried farther, causing
widespread ecological damage.

3.1.1 Effects of Acid Rain on Human Health:

Acid rain looks, feels, and tastes just like clean rain. The harm to people from acid rain is not
direct. Walking in acid rain, or even swimming in an acid lake, is no more dangerous than
walking or swimming in clean water. However, the pollutants that cause acid rain also
damage human health.
 Effects of Sulphur Dioxide (SO2): These gases interact in the atmosphere to form fine
sulphate and nitrate particles that can be transported long distances by winds and inhaled
deep into people's lungs. Fine particles can also penetrate indoors. Many scientific studies
have identified a relationship between elevated levels of fine particles and increased
illness and premature death from heart and lung disorders, such as asthma and bronchitis.
 Effects of Nitrogen Oxide (NOx): Decrease in nitrogen oxide emissions are also
expected to have a beneficial impact on human health by reducing the nitrogen oxides
available to react with volatile organic compounds and form ozone. Ozone impacts on
human health include a number of morbidity and mortality risks associated with lung
inflammation, including asthma and emphysema.

3.1.2 The Effects of Acid Rain on the Environment:

 Acid rain has brought ecological imbalance affecting plants, animals, soil, infrastructures
and humans. As acid rains fell, scientists and foresters noted that tree leaves and needles
turned from green to brown. Forest growth was not only stunted but also resulted to
extreme cases of entire forest areas dying with unexplainable reason.
 Lakes and streams in several US regions were assessed as having chronic acidity wherein
water conditions manifested low pH level but with increased aluminium content. This
subsequently resulted in stunting the growth of aquatic life and deformity in some fishes.
 In recent years, ocean acidification likewise became an issue as marine lives have also
been disrupted especially with the acid's bleaching effects on the coral reefs.
 Acid rain affects forests and surface water as well as the living organisms that rely on
them for food and habitat. This article will strive to provide further information that can
satisfy queries as to what are the effects of acid rain on animals.

3.1.3 The Effects of Acid Rain on Animals

On Aquatic Organisms
 The effects of acidity vary and will depend on the living organism’s sensitivity to acid
depositions of acid rain on surface water. Some aquatic organisms if sensitive to
acidic waters cannot survive even if there is only moderate level of acidity.
 It is not so much as the high concentration of acid that is taking its toll on some
aquatic species but the high levels of aluminium present in the water once acidic
conditions set in. The aluminium in silicate minerals found in the rocks and soil in
surface waters, leached as a result of prolonged contact with highly acidic waters.
 According to scientists the higher the acidity level, the greater the aluminium content
in surface water which could cause red blood vessels to burst or cause increased
viscosity in fish blood. As blood circulation gets affected by blood that is too viscose,
it causes strenuous pressures in the heart of the aquatic creatures and eventually leads
to heart attack.
 Acid rain and its acidification of surface water resulted to increased aluminium
content that affected not only the animal’s habitats and their food but also their ability
to propagate.

 Other aquatic organisms including the small aquatic animals without backbones
known as macro-invertebrates have decreased in population since their ability to
reproduce has also been affected.
 Examples of these macro invertebrates are the molluscs such as clams and snails,
crayfish, aquatic worms and aquatic insects such as mayfly nymphs and stonefly.
They are greatly affected because most of them find refuge or shelter in the shallow
parts of surface water where the effects of acidification are most evident in aluminium
leaching rocks and sediments.
 Amphibian animals whose existence is greatly related to aquatic environments have
also been distressed by water acidity.

3.1.4 On Bird Population

 Acidification has affected bird population in terms of food availability and the
presence of aluminium content in the quality of fish that piscivorous or fish-eating
birds subsist on.
 Studies are being made regarding the effect of aluminium content in the reproductive
systems of these fish-eating birds.
 In addition, the poor quality of fish as source of calcium supplement needed for egg
shells and bone growth could possibly result to the piscivorous birds’ decline. Some
examples of these types of birds are the double-crested cormorants, herons, terns and
gulls.

On Forest Animals
 The rabbits as forest dwellers are under observation as to how the acidified forest
vegetation has affected their existence. The occurrence of Net Acid Flux in their
structure shows indications that these animals are manifesting bile salt induced injury
in their digestive systems. The high concentration of aluminium from the soil as a
result of acid rain contributions are feared to be causing malnutrition and starvation in
some forest animals.
 Plant vegetation growing in acid damaged soil and dependent on acid rain for survival
can possibly speed up the deterioration of some animal’s living condition. Animal
food coming from acidic sources which lacked sufficient amounts of nutrients like
calcium, magnesium and potassium yet contained great levels of aluminium, could
result to poor health, stunted growth and decreased rate of reproduction.
On Marine Life
 Deep sea observations have presented images of sea grass and coral reefs severely
affected by ocean water acidification. Marine creatures living in these corals are
starting to diminish since their coral breeding grounds are slowly being pushed into
dissolution.
 The entire food chain in marine ecology will be disrupted if these animals whose main
purpose is to provide food for the larger marine animals cannot find safe and suitable
breeding sites.
 The impact of acid rain damage dwells mostly in conditions that resulted to food with
aluminium contamination, to habitat loss and to unsuitable sites for breeding their
eggs and nurturing their young ones.
 These are the same basic needs of human beings which we call as food and shelter.
Since we are all part of natural ecology that has been disrupted, we are also
susceptible to the effects of acid rain in the environment.
 As one living organism’s source of food is cut-off, higher creatures that rely on it for
subsistence can be affected and suffer from starvation, poor reproduction and
eventually extinction. The whole food chain becomes affected until it reaches the user
at the highest end of the series, the humans.

5. Deforestation:
Deforestation, clearance or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where
the land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use. Examples of deforestation include
conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use. Deforestation occurs for multiple
reasons: trees are cut down to be used for building or sold as fuel, (sometimes in the form of
charcoal or timber), while cleared land is used as pasture for livestock and plantation. The
removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage
to habitat, biodiversity loss and aridity. It has adverse impacts on bio sequestration of
atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Trees are cut down (deforestation) for many reasons including

 To be used, sold or exported as timber, wood or fuel (charcoal). This is called
logging.
 To be used for farming purposes (grazing fields for livestock, or large-scale farming
activities)
 To make room for human settlement and urbanization (these include making space for
shelter, industries, and roads)
Causes:
There are many causes of deforestation. The WWF reports that half of the trees illegally
removed from forests are used as fuel.
Some other common reasons are:
1) To make more land available for housing and urbanization
2) To harvest timber to create commercial items such as paper, furniture and homes
3) To create ingredients that are highly prized consumer items, such as the oil from palm trees.
4) To create room for cattle ranching

 The deforestation of trees not only lessens the amount of carbon stored, it also releases
carbon dioxide into the air. This is because when trees die, they release the stored carbon.
 According to the 2010 Global Forest Resources Assessment, deforestation releases nearly
a billion tons of carbon into the atmosphere per year, though the numbers are not as high
as the ones recorded in the previous decade.
 Deforestation is the second largest anthropogenic (human-caused) source of carbon
dioxide to the atmosphere, ranging between 6 percent and 17 percent.
 Deforestation has decreased global vapor flows from land by 4 percent, according to a
study published by the National Academy of Sciences. Even this slight change in vapor
flows can disrupt natural weather patterns and change current climate models.

3.2 Other effects of deforestation:

 Loss of species: 70% of the world’s plants and animals live in forests and are losing
their habitats to deforestation, according to National Geographic. Loss of habitat can
lead to species extinction. It also has negative consequences for medicinal research
and local populations who rely on the animals and plants in the forests for hunting
and medicine.
 Water cycle: Trees are important to the water cycle. They absorb rain fall and
produce water vapor that is released into the atmosphere. Trees also lessen the
pollution in water, according to the North Carolina State University, by stopping
polluted runoff. In the Amazon, more than half the water in the ecosystem is held
within the plants, according to the National Geographic Society.
 Soil erosion: Tree roots anchor the soil. Without trees, the soil is free to wash or blow
away, which can lead to vegetation growth problems. The WWF states that scientists
estimate that a third of the world’s arable land has been lost to deforestation since
1960. After a clear cutting, cash crops like coffee, soy and palm oil are planted.
Planting these types of trees can cause further soil erosion because their roots cannot
hold onto the soil.
 Life quality: Soil erosion can also lead to silt entering the lakes, streams and other
water sources. This can decrease local water quality and contribute to poor health in
populations in the area.
6. Tree Plantation:

1) Tree plantation is a biological practice where large number of trees or plants have been
planted in a given area. Most tree plantations are monoculture, which means that the trees
are of the same species and there is no diversity like a natural forest would have.
2) Plantations usually consist of fast growing trees which help reduce the time for their
growth. They are planted either to replace logged forests or to substitute for their absence.
3) A plantation is usually made up of fast-growing trees planted either to replace already-
logged forests or to substitute for their absence.

Plantations differ from natural forests in several ways:

 Plantations are usually monocultures. That is, the same species of tree is planted in rows
across a given area, whereas a conventional forest would contain far more diverse tree
species.
 Plantations may include introduced trees not native to the area, including (in a few cases)
unconventional types such as hybrid trees and genetically modified trees. Since the
primary interest in plantations is to produce wood or pulp, the types of trees found in
plantations are those that are best-suited to industrial applications. For example, pines,
spruces and eucalyptus are widely used because of their fast growth rate, and are good for
paper and timber production.
 Plantations are always young forests. Typically, trees grown in plantations are harvested
after 10 to 60 years, rarely up to 120 years. This means that the forests produced by
plantations do not contain the type of growth, soil or wildlife typical of old-growth
natural forest ecosystems. Most conspicuous is the absence of decaying dead wood, a
very important part of natural forest ecosystems.

There are 3 different types of uses of tree plantation:

1. Industrial Plantations: –

Industrial plantations are actively directed for the commercial production of forest products.
1) They are used to produce high amounts of wood in the minimum time needed.
2) Some of the uses of the wood are to make paper, timber, pulp and chips.
3) The type of trees that are found in tree plantations are those that are best-suited to
industrial applications.
4) Some of the tree examples are pines, and eucalyptus.
5) These are commonly used because of their fast growth rate, also they are more suitable for
the industrial applications, and are good for paper and timber production.
2. Farm /Home Plantations: -

Farm or home plantations are mainly used for home purposes like production of timber
and fire wood. They can also be used to beautify property, provide shade in summer, wind
protection in winter and enhance privacy, all while increasing real estate values at the same
time. Farms sometime do sell their wood that they harvest.
3. Environmental tree plantations: -

This are mainly used to help protect the environment from watershed, as soil protection and
from the counter effects of deforestation.
1) They also help promote re-plantation of trees and save many different species.
2) Tree Plantations can help with erosion control, landslide stabilization and windbreak
3) Tree plantations are a great thing for the environment and for us because they give out
oxygen that we need to live and survive.
Benefits of Tree plantations:
Most trees and shrubs in cities or communities are planted to provide beauty or shade, but
they also serve many other purposes. The benefits of planting trees can be grouped into
social, communal, and environmental categories.
Apart from their beauty, trees provide us with many benefits. Most of us respond to the
presence of trees by simply observing their beauty. It has been proven that hospital patients
have been shown to recover from surgery more quickly when their hospital room offered a
view of trees. Also, children have been shown to concentrate more in school and their studies
if they spend time outdoors in green spaces. The strong ties between people and trees are very
evident.
Social Benefits:
Trees are very beneficial to the environment we live in by providing us with moderate
climate, improving air quality, conserving water, and harbouring wildlife.
Environmental Benefits - Climate is controlled by moderating the effects of the rain, sun
and wind.
 Radiant energy from the sun is absorbed or deflected by leaves on deciduous trees in
the summer and is only filtered by branches of deciduous trees in winter.
 We are cooler when we stand in the shade of trees and are not exposed to direct
sunlight. In winter, we value the sun’s radiant energy
 By using trees in the cities, we are able to moderate the heat-island effect caused by
pavement and buildings in commercial areas. Overall by planting trees we return to a
more natural, less artificial environment.
 Birds and other wildlife are attracted to the area. They provide species with wildlife
habitat, food and protection. The natural cycles of plant growth, reproduction, and
decomposition remain present, and natural melody is restored to the urban
environment.

7. Bio-Diversity:
Biodiversity, a "bio" (life) and "diversity", generally refers to
the variety and variability of life on Earth. According to the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP), biodiversity typically measures variation at the genetic, the species, and
the ecosystem level.
 Biodiversity is defined as “the variability among living organisms from all sources
including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the
ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species,
between species and of ecosystems.”
 Biodiversity forms the foundation of the vast array of services that critically
contribute to human well-being.
 Biodiversity is important in human-managed as well as natural ecosystems.
Decisions humans make that influence biodiversity affect the well-being of
themselves and others.

Biodiversity is divided into different components based on the level of variation:

3.2.1 Types of Biodiversity

1) Genetic diversity – It can be defined as the variety expressed at the genetic level by each
individual in a species. No two individuals of the same species are exactly similar. For
example, humans show a lot of biodiversity’s among themselves. People living in different
regions show a great level of variation.
2) Species diversity – It is the biodiversity observed within a community. It denotes the
number and distribution of species. The number of species in a region varies widely
according to the environmental conditions. For example, it is usually observed that
civilizations residing beside water bodies show more species than the one compared to the
areas away from water bodies.
3) Ecological diversity – It defines the diversity observed among the ecosystems in a region.
Different ecosystems like mangroves, rainforests, deserts, etc., show a great variety of life
forms residing in them.
Eight major causes of biodiversity are as follows:

1. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation

2. Over-exploitation for Commercialization
3. Invasive Species
4. Pollution
5. Global Climate Change
6. Population Growth and Over-consumption
7. Illegal Wildlife Trade
8. Species extinction.

3.2.1.1 1. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation:

A habitat is the place where a plant or animal naturally lives. Habitat loss is identified as
main threat to 85% of all species described as threatened or endangered. Factors responsible
for this are deforestation, fire and over-use and urbanization.
3.2.1.2 2. Over-exploitation for Commercialization:
Over-exploitation of resources has coasted more environmental degradation than earning. For
example; shrimp farming in India, Thailand, Ecuador and Indonesia results in Wetland
destruction, pollution of coastal waters and degradation of coastal fisheries. Scientific studies
have concluded that cost of environmental degradation resulting from shrimp farming was
costing more than the earning through shrimp exports.

3.2.1.3 3. Invasive Species:

Invasive species are ‘alien’ or ‘exotic’ species which are introduced accidentally or
intentionally by human. These species become established in their new environment and
spread unchecked, threatening the local biodiversity. These invasive alien species have been
identified as the second greatest threat to biodiversity after habitat loss.

3.2.1.4 4. Pollution:
Pollution is a major threat to biodiversity, and one of the most difficult problems to
overcome; Pollutants do not recognize international boundaries. For example, agricultural
run-off, which contains a variety of fertilizers and pesticides, may seep into ground water and
rivers before ending up in the ocean. Atmospheric pollutants drift with prevailing air currents
and are deposited far from their original source.

3.2.1.5 5. Global Climate Change:

Many climatologists believe that the greenhouse effect is likely to raise world temperatures
by about 2°C by 2030, meaning that sea levels will rise by around 30-50 cm by this time.
Global warming, coupled with human population growth and accelerating rates of resource
use will bring further losses in biological diversity. Vast areas of the world will be inundated
causing loss of human life as well as ecosystems.

3.2.1.6 6. Population Growth and Over-consumption:

From a population of one billion at the beginning of the 19th century, our species now
numbers more than six billion people. Such rapid population growth has meant a rapid
growth in the exploitation of natural resources— water, foods and minerals. Although there is
evidence that our population growth rate is beginning to slow down, it is clear that the
exploitation of natural resources is currently not sustainable. Added to this is the fact that 25
per cent of the population consumes about 75 per cent of the world’s natural resources. This
problem of over-consumption is one part of the broader issue of unsustainable use.

3.2.1.7 7. Illegal Wildlife Trade:

The international trade in wild plants and animals is enormous. Live animals are taken for the
pet trade, or their parts exported for medicines or food. Plants are also taken from the wild for
their horticultural or medicinal value.

3.2.1.8 8. Species extinction:

Extinction is a natural process. The geological record indicates that many hundreds of
thousands of plant and animal species have disappeared over the eras as they have failed to
adapt to changing conditions. Recent findings however indicate that the current rate of
species extinction is at least a hundred to a thousand times higher than the natural rate.

8. Carbon Credit:
 A carbon credit is a generic term for any tradable certificate or permit representing the
right to emit one ton of carbon dioxide or the mass of another greenhouse gas with
a carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e) equivalent to one ton of carbon dioxide.
 Carbon credits and carbon markets are a component of national and international attempts
to mitigate the growth in concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs).
 One carbon credit is equal to one tonne of carbon dioxide, or in some markets, carbon
dioxide equivalent gases. Carbon trading is an application of an emissions
trading approach. Greenhouse gas emissions are capped and then markets are used to
allocate the emissions among the group of regulated sources.
 The goal is to allow market mechanisms to drive industrial and commercial processes in
the direction of low emissions or less carbon intensive approaches than those used when
there is no cost to emitting carbon dioxide and other GHGs into the atmosphere. Since
GHG mitigation projects generate credits, this approach can be used to finance carbon
reduction schemes between trading partners and around the world.
 There are also many companies that sell carbon credits to commercial and individual
customers who are interested in lowering their carbon footprint on a voluntary basis.
These carbon off setters purchase the credits from an investment fund or a carbon
development company that has aggregated the credits from individual projects.
 Buyers and sellers can also use an exchange platform to trade, which is like a stock
exchange for carbon credits. The quality of the credits is based in part on the validation
process and sophistication of the fund or development company that acted as the sponsor
to the carbon project. This is reflected in their price; voluntary units typically have less
value than the units sold through the rigorously validated Clean Development
Mechanism.
 The burning of fossil fuels is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions, especially for
power, cement, steel, textile, fertilizer and many other industries which rely on fossil
fuels (coal, electricity derived from coal, natural gas and oil).
 The major greenhouse gases emitted by these industries are carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons(HFCs), etc., all of which increase
the atmosphere's ability to trap infrared energy and thus affect the climate.
 The concept of carbon credits came into existence as a result of increasing awareness of
the need for controlling emissions. The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change) has observed that:
 Policies that provide a real or implicit price of carbon could create incentives for
producers and consumers to significantly invest in low-GHG products, technologies and
processes. Such policies could include economic instruments, government funding and
regulation, while noting that a tradable permit system is one of the policy instruments that
has been shown to be environmentally effective in the industrial sector, as long as there
are reasonable levels of predictability over the initial allocation mechanism and long-term
price.

Benefits of Carbon Credit:

1-Individual benefits – Domestic users can also gain by trading in carbon credits while
helping them adopt a more concerted and disciplined approach to reducing their carbon
footprints.

2-Buying greenhouse gasses – According to most sources, the purchase of carbon credits
remains a lucrative enterprise. Each carbon credit that is purchased is channelled to a
company which is specifically tasked to bring down emissions or provide more sustainable
and environmentally-friendly alternatives to these emitters.

3-Business and job opportunities – Trading in carbon credits using the capitalist principle,
if applied fairly, allows private investors to generate profits from their purchases and
diversify them towards the creation of environmentally-sustainable businesses which either
emits very low or no carbons. And as new businesses are started up, more employment
opportunities arise.

9. Ozone Depletion:

 The ozone layer is the Earth's natural sunscreen, filtering out harmful ultraviolet (UV)
rays from the sun. UV rays can cause damage to humans and other forms of life.
 Although the ozone layer is high up in the atmosphere, chemical substances used at the
surface of the planet can damage it. If the ozone layer is damaged, UV rays can get
through and cause damage to humans and other forms of life.
Ozone depletion describes two related phenomena observed since the late 1970s: a steady
decline of about four percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth's stratosphere (the ozone
layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth's polar
regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. There are also springtime
polar tropospheric ozone depletion events in addition to these stratospheric phenomena.

Advantages of the Ozone Layer

1. Protection against cancer and cataracts

Ozone is very efficient at absorbing the sun’s ultraviolet (UV) radiation even in very small
amounts. For this reason, the ozone layer protects the earth by blocking the harmful
ultraviolet (UV) radiation that can cause skin cancer and cataracts in humans.

2. Protection of the environment and ecosystems

The ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun is very harmful and can be destructive to
our natural ecosystems and the environment. UV radiation has an effect upon the fertility of
some animals and affects the survival of their offspring. Plants are as well affected by UV
radiation as it negatively impacts their ability to develop and grow properly.
3.3 Ozone Depleting Substances:
Ozone depleting substances (ODSs) are those substances which deplete the ozone layer and
are widely used in refrigerators, air conditioners, fire extinguishers, in dry cleaning, as
solvents for cleaning, electronic equipment and as agricultural fumigants.
Ozone depleting substances controlled by Montreal Protocol include:
1. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
2. Halon
3. Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), Methyl chloroform (CH3CCl3)
4. Hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs)
5. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
6. Methyl bromide (CH3Br)
7. Bromochloromethane (CH2BrCl)
There are other ozone depleting substances, but their ozone depleting effects are very small in
comparison to these controlled substances.

3.4 Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion

Ozone layer depletion can have some serious consequences on effects of human health,
plants, marine ecosystems, biogeochemical cycles and earth’s environment. Let us see each
one of these in detail.

3.4.1.1 1)Effect on health of humans

 With depletion in ozone’s layer, we humans are more prone to UV rays that reaches the
Earth’s surface. Studies suggests that high levels of UV Rays cause non-melanoma skin
cancer and plays a major role in malignant melanoma development. Direct exposure to
UV rays can lead to development of cataracts which clouds the eye’s lens.
 Permanent exposure to UV rays can also lead to weakening of the response of immune
system and even permanent damage to immune system in some cases.
 Aging of skin is yet another problem that will make you look older than what you really
are. Extensive exposure to UV rays can lead to acceleration of the aging process of your
skin.

3.4.1.2 2)Effect on plants

Plants become another casualty by radiation effects of UV rays. The physiological and
developmental processes of plants are also severely affected apart from the growth. Some
other changes that are caused by UV include the way plants form, timing of development and
growth, how nutrients are distributed within the plant and metabolism, etc.
3.4.1.3 3)Effect on marine ecosystems

 UV rays also have adverse effect on the marine ecosystems. It badly affects the planktons
that form the foundation of aquatic food webs. Phytoplankton grow close to the surface of
the water and plays vital role in the food chain and oceanic carbon cycle. Changes in UV
levels is known to affect both orientation and motility in phytoplankton. This reduces the
survival and growth rate of these organisms.
 UV rays are also known to affect the development stages of fish, shrimp, crab,
amphibians, and other marine animals. When this happens it affects whole marine food
chain as animals in the upper food chain that feed on these fishes are also affected.

3.4.1.4 4)Effect on biogeochemical cycles

An increase in UV radiation alters both sources and sinks of greenhouse gasses in the
biosphere e.g.: e.g., carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, carbonyl sulphide, ozone, and possibly
other gases. Changes in UV levels would contribute to biosphere-atmosphere feedbacks that
mitigate or amplify the atmospheric concentrations of these gases.

10. Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ).:

Under the Environment Protection Act, 1986 of India, notification was issued in February
1991, for regulation of activities in the coastal area by the Ministry of Environment and
Forests (MoEF). As per the notification, the coastal land up to 500m from the High Tide
Line (HTL) and a stage of 100m along banks of creeks, estuaries, backwater and rivers
subject to tidal fluctuations, is called the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ).
Coastal areas have been classified as CRZ-1, CRZ-2, CRZ-3, CRZ-4.

CRZ-1:

 These are ecologically sensitive areas these are essential in maintaining the ecosystem of
the coast. They lie between low and high tide line. Exploration of natural gas and
extraction of salt are permitted.
 Areas that are ecologically sensitive and important, such as national parks/marine parks,
sanctuaries, reserve forests, wildlife habitats, mangroves, corals/coral reefs, areas close to
breeding and spawning grounds of fish and other marine life, areas of outstanding natural
beauty/historically/heritage areas, areas rich in genetic diversity, areas likely to be
inundated due to rise in sea level consequent upon global warming and such other areas
as may be declared by the Central Government or the concerned authorities at the
State/Union Territory level from time to time.
 Area between Low Tide Line and the high Tide Line.

CRZ-2:
 These areas form up to the shoreline of the coast. Unauthorised structures are not allowed
to construct in this zone.
 The areas that have already been developed up to or close to the shoreline. For this
purpose, "developed area" is referred to as that area within the municipal limits or in other
legally designated urban areas which is already substantially built up and which has been
provided with drainage and approach roads and other infrastructural facilities, such as
water supply and sewerage mains.

CRZ-3:
 Rural and urban localities which fall outside the 1 and 2. Only certain activities related to
agriculture even some public facilities are allowed in this zone.
 Areas that are relatively undisturbed and those which do not belong to either Category-I
or II. These will include coastal zone in the rural areas (developed and undeveloped) and
also areas within Municipal limits or in other legally designated urban areas which are not
substantially built up.
CRZ-4:
 This lies in the aquatic area up to territorial limits. Fishing and allied activities are
permitted in this zone. Solid waste should be let off in this zone.
 Coastal stretches in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep and small islands,
except those designated as CRZ I, CRZ II and CRZ III.

Regulations
Andaman and Nicobar Islands:
1. No new construction of buildings shall be permitted within 200m of HTL.
2. The buildings between 200m and 500m from the HTL shall not more than 2 floors, the
total area covered on all floors shall not be more than 50% of the plot size and total height of
construction shall not exceed 9m.
3. The design and construction of buildings shall be consistent with the surrounding
landscape and local architectural style.
4. Corals and sand from the beaches and coastal waters shall not be used for construction and
purposes.
5. Dredging and underwater blasting in and around coral formations shall not be permitted
6. However, in some of the islands, coastal stretches may also be classified into categories of
CRZ-I or II or III with the prior approval of the MoEF and in such designated structures.

Activities prohibited within the CRZ

The following activities are declared as prohibited within the CRZ
1. Setting up of new industries and expansion of existing industries, except those directly
related to water front or directly needing foreshore facilities.
2. Manufacture or handling or disposal of hazardous substances.
3. Setting up and expansion of fish processing units including warehousing (excluding
hatchery and natural fish drying in permitted areas)
4. Setting up and expansion of units/mechanism for disposal of waste and effluents into the
water course.
5. Discharging of city untreated waters and effluents from industries, cities or towns and
other human settlements.
6. Dumping of city or town waste for the purposes of land filling or otherwise; the existing
practice, if any, shall be phased out within a reasonable time not exceeding three years from
the date of notification.
7. Dumping of ash or any wastes from the date of notification.
8. Land reclamation, building or disturbing the natural course of sea water with similar
observations, except those required for control of coastal erosion and maintenance or
sandbars except tidal regulators, storm water recharge.
9. Mining of sand, rocks and other substrata materials not available outside CRZ areas.
10. Harvesting or drawl of groundwater and construction of transfer within 200m of HTL; in
the 200m to 500m zone it shall be permitted only when done manually through ordinary
wells for drinking, horticulture, agriculture and fisheries.
11. Construction activities in ecologically sensitive areas
12. Any construction between LTL and HTL except facilities for carrying treated effluents
and waste discharges, oil, gas and similar pipelines and dressing or altering of sand dunes,
hills natural features including landscape changes for beautification, recreational and other
such purposes.

CHAPTER 5:ENERGY CONSERVATION

Energy Management System: ISO 50001

An energy management system helps organizations to better manage their energy use. It
involves developing and implementing an energy policy, setting targets for energy use and
designing action plans to reach them. This might include implementing new energy-efficient
technologies, reducing energy waste or improving current processes to cut energy costs. ISO
50001, Energy management systems – Requirements with guidance for use, gives
organizations a recognized framework for developing an effective energy management
system. Like other ISO management system standards, it follows the “Plan-Do-Check-Act”
process for continual improvement.
ISO 50001 provides a set of requirements that enable organizations to:
 Develop a policy for more efficient use of energy
 Fix targets and objectives to meet that policy
 Gather data to better understand and make decisions concerning energy use and
consumption
 Measure the results obtained
 Review the effectiveness of the policy
 Continually improve energy management
Key Elements of Energy Management System:

1. Make a commitment. A common element of successful energy-management programs is

commitment. Allocate appropriate staff and funding to achieve continuous improvement.
Leading organizations form dedicated energy teams and institute energy policies.
2. Assess performance. Understanding past and current energy use is vital in identifying
opportunities to improve performance. Periodically examine your energy bills or collect
more specific energy-use data with submetering or other monitoring tools. Compare your
energy consumption over time and benchmark against similar facilities.
3. Set goals. Setting clear and measurable goals is critical for developing effective strategies
and reaping financial gains. In addition to guiding daily decisions, well-stated goals
provide the basis for tracking and measuring progress while promoting continuous
improvement.
4. Create an action plan. With goals in place, your organization is poised to develop a road
map for improving energy performance. A detailed action plan provides a systematic
process for implementing energy-performance measures. Start by defining technical steps
and targets, as well as individual roles and resources; update regularly to reflect
performance changes and shifting priorities.
5. Implement the action plan. Successfully implementing the projects defined in the action
plan will require the support and cooperation of people across your entire organization.
Communicate energy-performance goals and initiatives to all staff, making sure they
understand their responsibilities. Training and incentives raise awareness and motivate
employees to improve energy performance.
6. Evaluate progress. Evaluating progress includes a formal review of both energy-use data
and the activities carried out as part of the action plan. Many organizations use evaluation
results, and information gathered during the review process, to identify best practices and
set new performance goals.
7. Recognize achievements. Recognition helps sustain momentum and support for your
program. Motivate staff and employees by recognizing those who have helped the
organization achieve results. Recognition from outside sources also validates the
importance of the program and provides positive exposure for the organization as a
whole.

 Use of Clean Technologies:

 Clean technology refers to any process, product, or service that reduces negative
environmental impacts through significant energy efficiency improvements, the
sustainable use of resources, or environmental protection activities.
 Clean technology includes a broad range of technology related to recycling, renewable
energy (wind power, solar power, biomass, hydropower, biofuels, etc.) information
technology, green transportation, electric motors, green chemistry, lighting, Greywater,
and more.
Energy Conservation Measures:

 An Energy conservation measure (ECM) is any type of project conducted, or

technology implemented, to reduce the consumption of energy in a building. The types of
projects implemented can be in a variety of forms but usually are designed to reduce
utility costs: water, electricity and gas being the main three for industrial and commercial
enterprises. The aim of an ECM should be to achieve a savings, reducing the amount
of energy used by a particular process, technology or facility.
 An ECM is to improve the energy efficiency of An ECM is to improve the energy
efficiency of building infrastructure, including building infrastructure, including
heating/cooling/ventilation systems, utility heating/cooling/ventilation systems, utility
systems, roof, and windows.
 This is achieved systems, roof, and windows. This is achieved by an engineering
investigation to identify by an engineering investigation to identify potential replacements
of, or upgrades to, potential replacements of, or upgrades to, existing systems that
enhance energy existing systems that enhance energy efficiency in a cost efficiency in a
cost-effective manner.

Types of energy conservation measures

1. Energy Dashboards
Energy Dashboards combine smart metering and Internet technologies to provide real-time
data on energy use. Their success is based on the premise that real-time feedback drives
behaviours change and improves operational efficiency. Energy Dashboards are used to
enable energy reduction competitions, showcase real-time building performance and green
building features, and empower occupants to become active participants in energy
management.

 Building automation
 Gas meter
 Home Automation
 Smart grid and Smart meter
 Water metering
2. Insulation
Insulation decreases thermal losses in cold climates and thermal gains in hot climates thus
reducing HVAC loads.
 House insulation
 Thermal insulation
 Cotton insulation
 Natural wool insulation
3. Lighting
One of the simplest ways consumers save a copious amount of energy is
switching incandescent light bulb to a compact fluorescent lamp (CFL). A 15W CFL is
capable of providing just as much light as a 60W incandescent, while consuming just one
fourth of the amount of energy.
 Compact fluorescent lamp
 Fluorescent bulbs
 LED lighting
 Linear fluorescent retrofit
 Sky lights
 Smart windows
 Solar charged flashlight
 Solar lights
4. Water
The average US homes wastes thousands of gallons of water a year. There are many water
saving solutions that also save energy.
 less low flow showerheads
 Ultra-low
 Composting toilets
 Faucet aerator

5. Windows

Windows may be one of the biggest contributing factors to energy loss and uncomfortable
spaces. Individuals might find some ECMs related to windows more cost effective than
others such as thermal curtains, films, or Smart windows.
Water Conservation
Water conservation encompasses the policies, strategies and activities to manage fresh water
as a sustainable resource to protect the water environment and to meet current and future
human demand. Climatic Changes, Population, household size and growth and affluence all
affect how much water is used.
The goals of water conservation efforts include as follows:
 To ensure availability for future generations, the withdrawal of fresh water from an
ecosystem should not exceed its natural replacement rate.
 Energy conservation. Water pumping, delivery and waste water treatment facilities
consume a significant amount of energy. In some regions of the world over 15% of total
electricity consumption is devoted to water management.
 Habitat conservation. Minimizing human water use helps to preserve fresh water habitats
for local wildlife and migrating waterfowl, as well as reducing the need to build new
dams and other water diversion infrastructures.
 Today the earth is in the need of water conservation as the quantity of water is going
down day by day
 Though we say that the Earth is a Blue Planet, the reality is that only 3% of the total water
available is fit for drinking.
 Out of that 3% also, 2.997% is locked up in polar ice caps, and only 0.003 % is there in
form of surface & ground water

The key activities that benefit water conservation (save water) are as follows:

1. Any beneficial reduction in water loss, use and waste of resources.

2. Avoiding any damage to water quality.
3. Improving water management practices that reduce the use or enhance the beneficial use
of water.
 One strategy in water conservation is rain water harvesting. Digging ponds, lakes, canals,
expanding the water reservoir, and installing rain water catching ducts and filtration
systems on homes are different methods of harvesting rain water. Harvested and filtered
rain water could be used for toilets, home gardening, lawn irrigation, and small scale
agriculture.
 Another strategy in water conservation is protecting groundwater resources.
When precipitation occurs, some infiltrates the soil and goes underground. Water in this
saturation zone is called groundwater. Contamination of groundwater causes the
groundwater water supply to not be able to be used as resource of fresh drinking water and
the natural regeneration of contaminated groundwater can takes years to replenish. Some
examples of potential sources of groundwater contamination include storage
tanks, septic systems, uncontrolled hazardous waste, landfills, atmospheric contaminants,
chemicals, and road salts. Contamination of groundwater decreases the replenishment of
available freshwater so taking preventative measures by protecting groundwater resources
form contamination is an important aspect of water conservation.

 An additional strategy to water conservation is practicing sustainable methods of utilizing

groundwater resources. Groundwater flows due to gravity and eventually discharges into
streams. Excess pumping of groundwater leads to a decrease in groundwater levels and if
continued it can exhaust the resource. Ground and surface waters are connected and
overuse of groundwater can reduce and, in extreme examples, diminish the water supply
of lakes, rivers, and streams. In coastal regions, over pumping groundwater can increase
saltwater intrusion which results in the contamination of groundwater water
supply. Sustainable use of groundwater is essential in water conservation.
Water Recycling:

 Treatment of wastewater is actually a remarkably simple process that utilizes very basic
physical, biological, and chemical principles to remove contaminants from water.
 Use of mechanical or physical systems to treat wastewater is generally referred to as
primary treatment, and use of biological processes to provide further treatment is referred
to as secondary treatment.
 Advanced secondary treatment usually involves applying chemical systems in addition to
biological ones, such as injecting chlorine to disinfect the water.
 In most of the United States, wastewater receives both primary and secondary treatment.
 Tertiary treatment methods are sometimes used after primary and secondary treatment to
remove traces of chemicals and dissolved solids.
 Tertiary treatment is expensive and not widely practiced except where necessary to
remove industrial contaminants.

Physical Systems
Physical processes are the first step in the water recycling process. Raw sewage passes
through bar screens which are simply metal rods immersed in the influent flow to separate
large objects such as sticks and rags from the water. They are used to protect pumps and
other rotating mechanisms further in the treatment process. After the water passes through
bar screens, it enters a grit chamber. Here the influent flow is slowed so that sand and gravel
simply fall to the bottom of the chamber.

Biological Systems
Biological processes remove most of the rest of the contaminants. Water flows into aeration
basins where oxygen is mixed with the water. Microorganisms consume the organic material
as food, greatly reducing the BOD in the water. They convert non-settleable solids to
settleable solids and are later themselves captured in final clarifiers, ending up in wastewater
biosolids. Many operators of WRC's consider themselves "bug farmers", since they are in the
business of growing and harvesting a healthy population of microorganisms. Since the
process is biological, any chemical or substance harmful to life can interfere with the
operation of a water recycling plant.

Chemical Systems
After the bugs do their work, chemical systems such as chlorine contact chambers are used to
kill the remaining microorganisms not captured in final clarifiers. It is not desirable to have
residual chlorine in the rivers and lakes, however, so often chlorine is then removed using
sulfur dioxide (SO2). This protects the aquatic life in the receiving stream. Using and
storing highly toxic chlorine gas poses risks, so many facilities are beginning to use
ultraviolet radiation instead of chlorine to provide final disinfection of water. The point
where treated water is discharged into a stream or body of water is called the outfall.

Rain Water Harvesting: (For details refer pdf)

 Rainwater harvesting is the accumulation and storage of rainwater for reuse on-site,
rather than allowing it to run off.
 Rainwater can be collected from rivers or roofs, and in many places, the water collected is
redirected to a deep pit (well, shaft, or borehole), a reservoir with percolation, or collected
from dew or fog with nets or other tools.
 Its uses include water for gardens, livestock, irrigation, domestic use with proper
treatment, indoor heating for houses, etc. The harvested water can also be used
as drinking water, longer-term storage, and for other purposes such as groundwater
recharge.
 A rainwater harvesting system comprises components of various stages - transporting
rainwater through pipes or drains, filtration, and storage in tanks for reuse or recharge.

3.5 Methods of Rainwater Harvesting

There are many ways in which rainwater can be harvested. Some of these methods are very
effective and can aid in the collection of a lot of water even for commercial activities while
others are only suitable for harvesting water meant for domestic use. Every system has its
merits and demerits. These are the common methods of rainwater harvesting:

1. Surface Water Collection Systems: Surface water is simply water that accumulates on
the ground’s surface. When rainwater falls on the surface of the earth, it usually flows down
slopes as it moves towards a point of depression where the moving water can collect. Surface
water collection systems enable the collection of ground surface rainwater before it flows to
other locations. Examples of such systems include rivers, ponds, and wells. Drainage pipes
can be used to direct water into these systems. Water can then be fetched from these sources
and then used for other purposes.

2. Rooftop system: These can also be used to harvest rainwater. They can be used to direct
rainwater that falls on the roof of a building into containers or tanks. These tanks are usually
elevated so that when the tap is opened, water flows at a high pressure. This method of
rainwater harvesting is good because the accumulated water is mostly clean and usually
requires no further treatment to make it fit for human use.

3. Dams: These are barriers that are designed to trap water. Rainwater can accumulate
directly in them or drainage systems can be created to direct water into them. Water collected
in dams is mostly used for irrigation purposes or treated and then distributed for domestic
use. They can also be used to harvest a lot of water because of the way in which they are
modelled. Unlike ponds, measures are put in place to reduce the amount of water draining
into the ground.

4. Underground Tanks: These are also ideal for collecting rainwater. They are constructed
by digging into the ground and creating a space which is then cemented to reduce water
infiltration. The top is also sealed and water is obtained through pipes directed into the tank.
To get water out, pumps are used. Underground tanks are wonderful for harvesting rainwater
because the rate of evaporation is reduced since they are located underground where sunlight
does not really penetrate.

5. Rain saucer: Sometimes one can decide to collect rainwater directly as it falls from the
sky by using a rain-saucer. These look like upside down umbrellas or big funnels. Some are
usually attached to a pipe so that the collected water is directed elsewhere. Some people also
do a little improvisation by placing the collecting container underground with only the rain-
saucer above the ground. It is a simple method yet effective.

6. Water Collection Reservoirs: Water collected through this method is not really clean and
may be contaminated. However, it can still be used for crop irrigation. such rainwater is
harvested from roads and pavements.

7. Barrage: A barrage is a dam that has several openings which can be closed or opened to
control the quantity of water that passes through it. It is usually large and can be used to
collect a lot of water.

8. Slopes: Rainwater tends to collect at the bottom of slopes when it flows on the ground.
When it rains heavily, water levels can rise to the hill top. This is a simple and natural way to
harvest rainwater.

9. Trenches: This is another great way to harvest rainwater for irrigation. When it rains, the
water is directed to the farm using trenches. It is one of the traditional methods of rainwater
harvesting that is still very much in use today.

10. Rain Barrels: These are also used for rainwater harvesting. They are specifically
designed for this purpose and can be purchased from retail stores. Rain barrels are used for
harvesting rainwater that falls on rooftops.
3.5.1 Need for water Harvesting:
i. To overcome the inadequacy of surface water to meet our demands.
ii. To arrest decline in ground water levels.
iii. To enhance availability of ground water at specific place and time and utilize rain water
for sustainable development.
iv. To increase infiltration of rain water in the subsoil this has decreased drastically in urban
areas due to paving of open area.
v. To improve ground water quality by dilution.
vi. To increase agriculture production.

Advantages:
i. The cost of recharge to sub-surface reservoir is lower than surface reservoirs.
ii. The aquifer serves as a distribution system also.
iii. No land is wasted for storage purpose and no population displacement is involved.
iv. Ground water is not directly exposed to evaporation and pollution.
v. Storing water under ground is environment friendly.
vi. It increases the productivity of aquifer.
vii. It reduces flood hazards.
viii. Effects rise in ground water levels.
ix. Mitigates effects of drought.
x. Reduces soil erosion.

Paper Saving Measures:

Trees are an important part of the planet’s ecosystem, they provide oxygen, clean the air,
provide shade and food, and they're used as homes by many different creatures. To create
paper and other wood products, millions of new trees must be planted each year. Even so,
logging can be very destructive to the environment if it pollutes nearby water, leads to soil
erosion, contributes to habitat loss, and uses a great deal of energy. To help reduce logging,
there are many things you can do at home, school, and work to cut down on paper
consumption.
Don’t use products that come with excessive packaging. One of the biggest culprits for
creating paper waste is consumer packaging that’s used to wrap and label food, toys, clothes,
and other goods. To help save paper, buy products that have been made with minimal or no
packaging.
Encourage your favourite companies to save paper. Unless consumers like you tell
companies what you do and don’t like about their products and practices, they may not get
the message. If it bothers you that certain companies waste too much paper, write them an
email or call them to say you want them to join the fight to save the trees.
Be selective about what you print. At home, at school, and at work, you can save paper by
cutting down on the amount of material you print off. Before you print anything, ask yourself
if you really need a paper copy, and only print something if you must.
 If teachers and employers require that you hand in paper copies of projects and
assignments, ask if you can instead submit them electronically.
Send, receive, and store electronic records instead of paper copies. Most documents these
days can be shared and stored electronically, meaning you don’t have to print off paper
copies for your records. For instance, if you need a copy of an electronic document, request
that it be sent to you by email.
opt for paperless communications. Many companies and organizations offer electronic
correspondences that can replace paper copies they traditionally send in the mail. Whenever
possible, sign up for paperless communications for items like:
 Bills
 Newsletters
 Monthly mailings
 Flyers and coupons
 Newspaper and magazine subscriptions
Use electronic calendars and day timers. There are plenty of free calendars and schedulers
available online that you can use to plan your days, keep track of dates and assignments, and
schedule meetings and interviews. By using an electronic calendar, you can save the paper
that would have been used on a calendar, organizer, journal, or other type of scheduler.
Encourage others to save paper. In order to have an even bigger impact, you can also
encourage friends, family, classmates, and co-workers to save paper as well. One of the best
ways to reach the most people is to put up signs around the house, school, or office that
inform people how they can help.
Finding Paper Substitutes
Use reusable cloths instead of paper products. Around the house, a lot of paper is wasted
every year on things like paper towels and napkins. And if you're using lots of paper products
for cleaning, drying, and wiping your nose, you can save plenty of trees by switching to
reusable versions.
 To replace paper towels in the kitchen and bathroom, use tea towels to dry dishes, old
rags to clean, and sponges to wipe up spills.
Use real dinnerware instead of paper. Paper plates and dishes may be convenient, but they
aren't good for the environment. Most paper plates just end up in the trash, meaning the paper
isn't even recycled properly. When you have a party or any time the paper plates come out,
ask to use the real dinnerware instead.
Use paper from other plant sources. There are times when it’s simply not possible to avoid
paper-like products. Luckily, there are tree-free paper products available that are made from
alternative plant sources, and many of these have a lower impact on the environment.
Use reusable grocery and lunch bags. Many grocery stores provide paper bags to pack
groceries. You can help your family save paper by investing in reusable grocery bags.
Similarly, if your lunches are normally packed in paper bags, ask about switching to a
reusable lunch bag instead.
Send e-cards. Lots of people like to send greeting cards for birthdays, holidays, and other
events, and this leads to plenty of paper waste. Not only is the card itself paper, but it’s also
sent in a paper envelope. Instead of sending paper greeting cards to all your friends and
family in the mail, send electronic greeting cards for future celebrations.
Read e-books or library books. Books are great resources for school and work projects, and
they're great to read as a leisure activity. But printed books are still made with paper, so you
can save paper by using public versions of books that are available at the library, or by
reading electronic copies instead.
 Buying used books is also a good idea, because you're reusing something that’s
already been printed.
Recycling and Reusing Paper
Buy recycled paper products. There are paper products available that are made with
recycled paper, which means that no new trees were cut down to make those products. When
you do need to buy paper products, look for things that were made with “post-consumer
waste,” including:[7]
 Bathroom tissues
 Printing paper
 Greeting cards
 Paper bags
Use both sides of a piece of paper. When you do have to print or write things down on
paper, make sure you get the most out of that paper by writing on both sides. If you currently
only use one side of each piece, you can cut down on paper use by half just by using the other
side too.
Reuse gift bags, wrapping paper, newspaper, and tissue. Everybody loves a well-wrapped
gift, but that doesn’t mean you have to use brand new wrapping paper for every gift you give.
Instead, when you get a gift, keep the bag or wrapping paper it came in so that you can use it
again for another gift.
 Newspaper can also be repurposed as an eco-friendly wrapping paper or tissue paper to
stuff a gift bag.
Turn old paper products into crafts. There are plenty of crafts that require paper, so instead
of using fresh sheets, why not reuse old paper that was already bound for the recycler. You
can use old newspapers, notes, cards, etc.
Recycle paper you can't reuse. When you do have paper that you can't reuse or repurpose,
make sure you recycle it instead of throwing it in the trash. Paper that goes in the garbage just
ends up in a landfill. But paper that goes into the recycling bin can be sent to a special facility
and turned into something new.
Raw Material Saving:
Basic substance in its natural, modified, or semi-processed state, used as an input to a
production process for subsequent modification or transformation into a finished good.
Reducing material waste means greater resource efficiency, less pollution and more profits.
Each dollar saved on raw materials costs goes straight to the bottom line.
Before you can eliminate raw material waste, you need to be able to identify it. To do this,
every aspect of the production process should be addressed and tracked.
"The lifecycle flow of materials (e.g., end-use material efficiency improvement and
cascading through reuse, recycling, and recovery) and their storage in the economy
(stockpiling) are not well understood, and as a consequence, important options for efficiency
improvements might be overlooked as attention is focused instead on energy efficiency in
materials production,"
Reuse/Reprocess
"Reusing items is another way to stop waste at the source because it delays or avoids that
item's entry in the waste collection and disposal system,
Product Design
Formulate for disposal or recycling," Envirowise advises. "Avoiding the problem of
obsolescence should start at the earliest possible stage — when formulating new products."
"In tracking waste, you should understand how many good parts you're getting to how many
bad parts," says private-equity firm. "This could be applied to raw materials or finished
products. If you're constructing metal chairs and you have a good deal of scrapped steel, you
should be aware of what percentage of your order is being utilized."
Where possible, use materials that have already been recycled or can be reused, recycled or
recovered.
Inventory
The true cost of excess inventory levels should be analysed carefully before a business orders
excess raw materials. Just-in-time inventory and lean manufacturing can eliminate such
unnecessary costs by matching production to demand in real time to eliminate the need for
excessive inventory, warehouse and equipment space, etc.
"Check how you handle and store raw materials,". "Even failing to empty all bags and
containers properly could lead to significant amounts of waste."
New technology
Employing new technology by changing the old production lines saves the large amount of
raw material.

Product Stewardship

Product Stewardship is an environmental management strategy that means whoever designs,

produces, sells, or uses a product takes responsibility for minimizing the product's
environmental impact throughout all stages of the products' life cycle, including end of life
management. The greatest responsibility lies with whoever has the most ability to affect the
full life cycle environmental impacts of the product. This is most often the producer of the
product, though all within the product chain of commerce have roles.

Product Stewardship (PS) and Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) are terms that are
often used interchangeably to describe a long-term solution to manage waste products by
shifting the responsibility for collection, transportation, and management of products away
from local governments to the manufacturers.
The following principles to guide the development of product stewardship policies and
legislation

1. Producer Responsibility
 All producers selling a covered product into the State are responsible for designing,
managing, and financing a stewardship program that addresses the lifecycle impacts of
their products including end-of-life management.
 Producers have flexibility to meet these responsibilities by offering their own plan or
participating in a plan with others.
 In addressing end-of-life management, all stewardship programs must finance the
collection, transportation, and responsible reuse, recycling or disposition of covered
products. Stewardship programs must:
 Cover the costs of new, historic and orphan covered products.
 Provide convenient collection for consumers throughout the State.
Costs for product waste management are shifted from taxpayers and ratepayers to producers
and users.

Programs are operated by producers with minimum government involvement.

2. Shared Responsibilities
 Retailers only sell covered products from producers who follow stewardship
requirements.
 State and local governments work with producers and retailers on educating the public
about the stewardship programs.
 Consumers are responsible for using return systems set up by producers or their agents.

3. Governance
 Government sets goals and performance standards following consultation with
stakeholders. All programs within a product category are accountable to the same goals
and performance standards.
 Government allows producers the flexibility to determine the most cost-effective means
of achieving the goals and performance standards.
 Government is responsible for ensuring a level playing field by enforcing requirements
that all producers in a product category participate in a stewardship program as a
condition for selling their product in the jurisdiction.
 Product categories required to have stewardship programs are selected using the process
and priorities set out in framework legislation.
 Government is responsible for ensuring transparency and accountability of stewardship
programs. Producers are accountable to both government and consumers for disclosing
environmental outcomes.
4. Financing
Producers finance their stewardship programs as a general cost of doing business, through
cost internalization or by recovering costs through arrangements with their distributors and
retailers. End of life fees are not allowed.

5. Environmental Protection
 Framework legislation should address environmental product design, including source
reduction, recyclability and reducing toxicity of covered products.
 Framework legislation requires that stewardship programs ensure that all products
covered by the stewardship program are managed in an environmentally sound manner.
 Stewardship programs must be consistent with other State sustainability legislation,
including those that address greenhouse gas reduction and the waste management
hierarchy.
 Stewardship programs include reporting on the final disposition, (i.e., reuse, recycling,
disposal) of products handled by the stewardship program, including any products or
materials exported for processing.

Depletion of Natural Resources

 Resource depletion is the consumption of a resource faster than it can be
replenished. Natural resources are commonly divided between renewable
resources and non-renewable resources (see also mineral resource classification). Use of
either of these forms of resources beyond their rate of replacement is considered to be
resource depletion. Resource depletion is most commonly used in reference
to farming, fishing, mining, water usage, and consumption of fossil fuels.
 If natural resources are misused or overused, they may not be available in the future.
Non-renewable resources such as oil, minerals and coal, once exhausted, cannot be
replenished. This is called depletion of Resources. This is called Depletion of Resources.
Unfortunately, our technological society is consuming natural resources at a very fast
speed and in an unchecked manner. So, the natural resources are being depleted at a great
speed at the earth

CAUSES OF RESOURCES DEPLETION:

The main causes identified for depletion of resources are:
 Overuse/Irrational use
 Non-equitable distribution of resources
 Technological and industrial development
 Population growth

OVERUSE/IRRATIONAL USE: Man is exploiting non-renewable resources at a very fast

speed to meet the increasing demands for economic and industrial growth, while the supply
of various resources like water, and fuel etc. supply of various resources like water, fuel etc.
is limited. This is called overuse of resources. Irrational use means resources are being used
in an illogical manner, for example indiscriminate use of water for washing vehicles.

How overuse of resources is causing depletion of resources:

For example, of the total water in the world, about 97% is salty water which is found in
oceans which cannot be used for domestic, industrial or agriculture purpose. The glaciers and
ice-caps make up 2% less than 1% is fresh and usable water of lakes, ponds, rivers and
groundwater. But there is shortage of water for drinking and irrigation purposes also. This is
due to overuse of freshwater.
UNEQUAL DISTRIBUTION OF RESOURCES: Natural resources are unequally
distributed over the world. In India, water is unequally distributed as all states do not have
sufficient water resources, similarly, there is a lack of coal reserves in other states while in
Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh coal reserves are being over mined to meet the requirement
of coal in other states. This is called unequal distribution of resources.

How unequal distribution of resources causes depletion or resources:

a) Confinement of petroleum reserves: Petroleum reserves are mainly confined to Middle
East countries which have led to serious depletion of resources for worldwide needs because
extra resources like transportation, infrastructure, energy etc. are required to carry the
resources in areas of need. A pipeline has been proposed to be laid between Turkmenistan
and India through Afghanistan and Pakistan for petroleum supply.
b) Natural gas: It has acquired the status of an essential commodity for domestic use in
modern times. Without natural gas, auto-rickshaws, buses, two-wheelers, etc. cannot work.
The places full of oil reserves have good supply of natural gas which needs to be distributed
in whole country.
c) Water: In India water is unequally distributed. There is an increasing demand for more
water supplies in water-scarce areas. As all states of India do not have sufficient water
resources, interstate disputes over water are common.

TECHNOLOGICAL AND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT:

1. Fast technological development and industrialization causes depletion of fossil fuels.
2. Coal is used as a source of energy fir industry. It is also converted into coal gas, electricity
and oil (synthetic oil) for industrial and technological purpose. As such, the coal stock is
rapidly depleting.
3. Depletion of some other natural resources like forest and land is caused by the mining
industries, energy generating plants, automobile industry, urbanization etc. it also causes bad
impact directly or indirectly on the hydrological resources.
NEGATIVE IMPACT OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT: Soil and water
pollution are caused by indiscriminate use of fertilizers and pesticides. This is the major
negative impact of technological developments in agriculture field. Continuous use and
consumption of resources is bound to deplete the resources if they cannot be renewed.
POPULATION GROWTH: Due to the ever-increasing population, the consumption of
resources is increasing at a fast rate. Urban population is growing thrice the growth rate of
national population of India. This is an overall population growth scene in India.
How population growth is causing depletion of resources:
1. To feed more and more people, more land is being brought under agriculture by cutting
forests. This has serious environmental repercussions, including destruction of wildlife. So,
forests and wildlife are getting depleted due to population growth.
2. Population growth is causing a strain on resources like land, electricity, transport etc. To
meet the increasing consumption of electricity in homes, industries and markets, thermal
power plants are using up the coal reserves. So, there is depletion of resources.

IMPACT OF DEPLETION OF RESOURCES: We all know that our natural resources are
limited. Over the years, because of a thoughtful unplanned action such as misuse and overuse
of resources have caused serious problems for the mankind. So, the depletion of these
resources is causing serious adverse effects on us as well as on nature itself.
The following are the ill effects or impacts caused by their depletion on us and the
nature:
 Imbalance in nature
 Shortage of materials
 Struggle for existence
 Slackening of economic growth
Imbalance in nature: Our natural resources are our assets. They bring a balance in the
environment and make it stable. Increasing deforestation for bringing more and more land
under cultivation has greatly affected the balance in nature.
Shortage of material: Indiscriminate use of resources has caused shortage of material. Many
materials that we used to get from forest are in short supply because forests have been
cleaned for making cities, roads, dams etc. This causes irreversible effect on the atmosphere
as well as on nature.
Struggle for existence: Because of shortage of reassures whole world has accentuated the
struggle for existence. It has involved men and animals. A struggle for existence is taking
place between different countries, between the neighbouring states of one country, for the
sole purpose of taking control of natural resources of that country.
Slackening of economic growth: The economic growth of a country depends upon the
availability of resources. Because of the depletion of resources, it causes adverse effects on
economic growth. Decreased supply of petroleum in the 1970s because of rising international
process of the commodity slackened economic growth.

Renewable Energy:
 Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources, which are
naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves,
and geothermal heat.[2] Renewable energy often provides energy in four important
areas: electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation, and rural (off-
grid) energy services.
 Renewable energy sources are energy supplies that are refilled by natural processes at
least as fast as we use them. All renewable energy comes, ultimately, from the sun. We
can use the sun directly (as in solar heating systems) or indirectly (as in hydroelectric
power, wind power, and power from biomass fuels). Renewable energy supplies can
become exhausted if we use them faster than they become replenished: most of England’s
forests were cut down for fuel before the English started using coal. If used wisely,
however, renewable energy supplies can last forever.

Types of Renewable Energy

Hydropower:
Hydropower represents one of the oldest and largest renewable power sources and accounts
for close to 10% of our nation’s electricity. Existing hydropower capacity is about 80,000
megawatts (MW – one million watts or one thousand kilowatts). Hydropower plants convert
the energy of flowing water into electricity. This is primarily done by damming rivers to
create large reservoirs and then releasing water through turbines to produce electricity.
Hydropower results in no emissions into the atmosphere but the process of damming a river
can create significant ecological problems for water quality and for fish and wildlife habitat.
Biomass
Biomass is second to hydropower as a leader in renewable energy production. Biomass has
an existing capacity of over 7,000 MW. Biomass as a fuel consists of organic matter such as
industrial waste, agricultural waste, wood, and bark. Biomass can be burned directly in
specially designed power plants, or used to replace up to15% of coal as a fuel in ordinary
power plants. Biomass burns cleaner than coal because it has less sulphur, which means less
sulphur dioxide will be emitted into the atmosphere. Biomass can also be used indirectly,
since it produces methane gas as it decays or through a modern process called gasification.
Methane can produce power by burning in a boiler to create steam to drive steam turbines or
through internal combustion in gas turbines and reciprocating engines. The largest use of
biomass energy in Virginia is the forest products industry. Furniture plants, sawmills, and
paper mills usually burn their wood waste to produce heat and electricity. Many homeowners
use firewood or pellets for winter heat.

Geothermal
Geothermal power plants use high temperatures deep underground to produce steam, which
then powers turbines that produce electricity. Geothermal power plants can draw from
underground reservoirs of hot water or can heat water by pumping it into hot, dry rock. High
underground high temperatures are accessed by drilling wells, sometimes more than a mile
deep. In one sense, this geothermal energy is not renewable, since sometime in the future the
core of the earth will cool. That time is so far off (hundreds of millions of years) that that we
think of it as renewable. Geothermal heat pumps use compressors to pump heat out of the
earth (for winter heating) or into the earth (when running as air conditioners in summer). The
energy they pump into and out of the earth is renewable, since it is replaced by the cycle of
the seasons. The energy that runs the compressor can either be renewable or conventional.
Solar Energy
Solar energy comes directly from the power of the sun and is used to produce electricity, to
produce heat, and for light. Solar represents a small share of the electric market in the United
States – about ½ of one percent of electrical capacity. Solar's contribution to heating and
lighting is much larger. Solar-electric power can be produced either by power plants using the
sun’s heat or by photovoltaic (PV) technology, which converts sunlight directly to electricity
using solar cells. PV technology is more practical for residential use. Systems to use the heat
of the sun directly can be either active or passive. In active systems, air or liquid circulate
through solar collectors and bring heat to where it is used. In passive systems, buildings are
built with windows and heat-absorbing surfaces set up to maximize solar heating in winter.
Either technology is suitable for residential use. Systems to directly use the light of the sun
are most common. The most usual device for using sunlight is the window, but skylights and
skylight tubes are also used.
Wind Power
Wind has been the fastest growing energy source in the world. over the last decade mainly
due to very significant improvements in wind energy technology. This is enough to power 1.5
million homes. Wind power is produced by the energy of the wind turning aerodynamic
blades mounted to a hub. The hub is connected to a shaft that turns a generator. Large utility-
scale wind turbines range in size from 50 kilowatts to over four megawatts. Smaller wind
towers (under 50 kW) are suitable for residential and agricultural use.

LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT (LCA)

 Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) – also called Life-Cycle Analysis – is a tool for
examining the total environmental impact of a product through every step of its life –
from obtaining raw materials all the way through making it in a factory, selling it in a
store, using it in the workplace or at home, and disposing of it.
 Life-Cycle Assessment is an objective procedure used to evaluate the environmental
impacts associated with a product’s entire life cycle, through the quantitative
determination of all exchange flows between the product system and the ecosphere in all
the transformation processes involved, from the extraction of raw materials to their return
into the ecosphere in the form of waste.
 The life cycle consists of the technical system of processes and transport routes used at, or
needed for, raw materials extraction, production, use and after use (waste management or
recycling). LCA is sometimes called a "cradle-to-grave" assessment. LCA approaches are
generally guided by standards but a professional code of practice has also been
developed.

There are four linked components of LCA:

1. Goal definition and scoping: identifying the LCA's purpose and the expected products of
the study, and determining the boundaries (what is and is not included in the study) and
assumptions based upon the goal definition;
2. Life-cycle inventory: quantifying the energy and raw material inputs and environmental
releases associated with each stage of production;
3. Impact analysis: assessing the impacts on human health and the environment associated
with energy and raw material inputs and environmental releases quantified by the inventory;
4. Improvement analysis: evaluating opportunities to reduce energy, material inputs, or
environmental impacts at each stage of the product life-cycle

Stages in LCA:
1. Extraction of raw materials
This stage in the life cycle includes the extraction of all materials involved in the entire life
cycle of the product. Typical examples of activities included in this stage are forest logging
and crop harvesting, fishing and mining of ores and minerals. The inventory for the extraction
of raw materials should include raw materials for the production of the machinery (i.e.,
capital equipment) involved in manufacturing the product and other stages of the product life
cycle. Often, the most serious environmental problems of the product life cycle associated
with this first stage. It is a common error to leave out parts of the raw materials stage from the
LCA. Essentially, the decision of what to include or exclude in the LCA should be based on a
sensitivity analysis.
2. Manufacture of a product
The manufacturing stage encompasses all the processes involved in the conversion of raw
materials into the products considered in the LCA. Apart from the manufacturing processes at
the plant where the product is made, this stage considers production of ancillary materials,
chemicals and specific or general components at other plants, no matter where they are.
3. Transportation
Transportation is really not a single life stage in itself. Rather, it is an integral part of all
stages of the life cycle. Transportation could be characterized as conveyance of materials or
energy between different operations at various locations. Included in this stage, apart from
the transport process itself, is the production of packaging materials for the transportation of
the product. The transport stage would possibly also include an appropriate share of the
environmental loadings and consumptions associated with the construction and maintenance
of the transport system, whether this is road, rail, water or air transportation.
4. Use of product
The use-stage of the product occurs when it is put in service and operated over its useful life.
This begins after the distribution of the product and ends when the product is used up or
discarded to the waste management system. Included in the use-stage are releases and
resource consumptions created by the use or maintenance of the product.

5. Waste management
Wastes are generated in each phase of the life cycle, and they need to be properly managed to
protect the environment. The management of wastes may involve alternative processes such
as the following:
(i) Reuse: This means the use of the product or parts thereof in new units of the same product
or in different products.
(ii) Recycling: This means the use of materials in the product for manufacture of the same or
other products.
(iii)Incineration: This refers to the combustion of the product, generating heat that may be
used for electricity production or heating.
(iv) Composting: This refers to the microbial degradation of biological materials yielding
compost for improvement of agricultural soils.
(v) Waste water treatment: This refers to the organic matter degradation and nutrients
removal from sewage water, creating sludge that is deposited on agricultural land.
(vi) Land filling: This means the deposition of the product in landfills.

Life cycle assessment process:

Green supply chain
Definition: -
Green supply chain management can be defined as integrating environmental thinking
into supply-chain management, including product design, material sourcing and selection,
manufacturing processes, delivery of the final product as well as end-of-life management of
the product after its useful life.
What is Green Supply Chain Management: Green Supply Chain Management is all about
delivering products and services from suppliers, manufacturers to end customers through
material flow, information flow and cash flow in the context of environment. Traditional
Supply Chain Management focuses on Total Quality, optimum Cost and best service which in
some way contributed to environment. Today's Green Supply chain management mandates to
incorporate the environmental idea in each and every stage of the product and service in a
Supply Chain. Hence Supply chain managers have a great role in developing innovative
environmental technologies to tackle the problems faced by the economy on environmental
problems and communicate this to every stake holder in the chain.
Ways to build Green Supply Chain
Product Selection: Designing the product in such a way that it should be safe for use,
creating least pollution and consumes less energy. It should not be hazardous during storage,
transportation and also while disposing once it reaches end of its product life cycle. DFE
(Design for Environment) is about developing products that has no negative side effect for
human and environment, cost effective and environment friendly. This practice has to be
implemented in product design stage.

Process and production: Process has to be designed so that it conforms to the Green Supply
Chain Management initiatives to reduce environmental negative impact. Efficient and
effective production strategy to reduce energy consumption which includes reducing waste
material, air and water emissions. This contributes to lean manufacturing. All possibilities
have to be checked for recycling the Scrap materials.

Business Partners selection: Selecting suppliers who have proven track records on
practicing lean manufacturing and using environment friendly material. Involving vendors
during product conception and design so that they can share their best practices to best align
your strategy with the customer strategy on going greener supply chain. Ultimately it results
in customer delight and satisfaction.

Logistics Design: Efforts should be practiced to reduce fuel consumption. This we can
achieve by setting up suppliers near to the OEMs (Original Equipment Manufacturers) and its
Hubs. Less use of air freight, increased use of rail and sea transport. Logistics partners have
to be included while product designs so that it improves cubic space utilization and effective
fleet management. Back hauling should be practiced where the empty vehicle should be used
to collect the goods from other sources once after delivering finished goods.

Packaging Material: Replacing package materials which are eco-friendly. Fumigation

certificate should be obtained for international shipments for wooden pallets and crates.
Packaging material has to be designed in such a way it can be re-used and re-cycled.
Packaging should be robust so that any hazardous material inside it doesn't spill over and
cause environmental hazard.

Reverse logistics Design: Materials after consuming should be effectively used for re-use,
repair, recycle, remanufacture and redistribution. It calls for reusing containers and pallets,
redesigning and recycling package materials etc. Reducing pollution during transportation are
important activities of reverse logistics. Proper design of Reverse logistics contributes greater
towards Green Supply Chain Management.

Information Technology: A Green approach to IT has to be achieved through various

automatic processes thereby reducing carbon foot prints. Paper usage has to be minimized
through automatic invoice/payment processing. Using EDI for creating/transmitting orders.

Green Building: Deploying greener practices in Design, construction and maintaining the
buildings. Using energy efficient bulbs, natural lightning saves considerable energy. Water
has to be recycled for day to day use. LEED certification (Leadership in Energy and
Environmental design recognized by US and other countries) has to be obtained. Investment
in Renewable energy sources such as solar, wind etc. are needed for sustainable green
practice.

Benefits of GSCM
1. GSCM will help us to gain a competitive advantage and help us to attract new customers.
2. Increased use of resources, improved efficiency and reduced production cost.
3. It contributes greater towards improved financial performance.
4. Reduces risk by avoiding hazardous material that leads to environmental effect.
5. Improved quality of products and services gives higher customer delight and reputation.

Eco Friendly Environment Good practices & Innovation:

“Eco-innovation is the production, application or exploitation of a good, service, production
process, organisational structure, or management or business method that is novel to the firm
or user and which results, throughout its life cycle, in a reduction of environmental risk,
pollution and the negative impacts of resources use (including energy use) compared to
relevant alternatives”.

Following aspects in particular need special mention: -

(a) All the buildings have been so designed that there is proper natural day light, thus
minimizing the use of artificial lights during the day.
(b) The buildings have been so designed that they remain relatively cool during summers and
warm during winter even without air-conditioners, thus there is a positive environmental
impact. It reduces temperature swing also.
(c) All the buildings have proper air ventilation, proper aesthetic appearance, well maintained
neat and clean structures and infrastructure.
(d) All the buildings use greenery and are surrounded by sufficient number of trees so that
there are overall positive environmental impacts
(e) The drainage system of the buildings enables water-reuse in promoting greenery in the
campus. The bio-waste generated by the sanitation system is re-used in promoting greenery.
Good Practices:
1. Energy Conservation
 Ensuring that all computers have activated power management software to minimize
energy consumption and put the computer in sleepy mode when not in use. Always
turn off monitors.
 Adopt guidelines for extending the life of computers and components (i.e. follow
manufacturers guidelines) and maximize (i.e. re-use, repair, recycle).
 Minimising the paper work and wastages go through eco-friendly recycle process.
 Use electronic method for the information / circulation/ notices etc. (thus minimizing
paper use)
 Go for policy of re-use, repair, recycle wherever possible in there working.
 Constructions must well ventilated and lighted and needs no artificial lighting.

2. Use of renewable energy

 Using Solar lightning system in Parking as well as on streets saves large amount of
electricity.
 Installing solar water heating system in homes and hostel which can saves large
amount of fossil fuels and electricity.
3.Water harvesting
 Rainwater can be collected from rivers or roofs, and in many places, the water collected is
redirected to a deep pit (well, shaft, or borehole), a reservoir with percolation, or collected
from dew or fog with nets or other tools.
 Its uses include water for gardens, livestock, irrigation, domestic use with proper
treatment, indoor heating for houses, etc. The harvested water can also be used
as drinking water, longer-term storage, and for other purposes such as groundwater
recharge.

4. Plantation
 Plant more trees for greener environment and to maintain proper oxygen level in the
atmosphere
5. E-waste management
 Following practices are followed
A. Efforts to reuse the e-Waste like computers to teach the basics at the school level.
B. Efforts to repair the computers and to be used for students and library.
C. wherever possible recycling is done.

CHAPTER 6: SUSTAINABILITY REPORTING

 Sustainability Reporting

Definition: A sustainability report is an organizational report that gives information about

economic, environmental, social and governance performance.
 Sustainability reporting is not just report generation from collected data; instead it is a
method to internalize and improve an organization’s commitment to sustainable
development in a way that can be demonstrated to both internal and external stakeholders.

Elements of Sustainability Report:

There are five elements of the sustainability report as follows:

1) Transparency:

 Aside from collecting and compiling the data, which is no small challenge,
transparency requires putting new company information into the public domain.
 There is organizational inertia and a fear that additional data could reflect poorly on
the organization, or even on individuals.
 The other fear is that the information could in some way benefit the competition. As a
result, many reporters take a shortcut by including superficial data rather than truly
transparent information.
 True transparency requires context and parameters. For example, if a company reports
a 20% reduction in water usage, readers shouldn’t have to ask; “20% of what
baseline? Over what time period?”

2) Authenticity:

 We all know that no one is perfect. And no company is perfect either.

 But most companies have been so conditioned to portray themselves as perfect in the
marketplace, that admitting to flaws and challenges is tremendously difficult.
 A sustainability report is not the place to portray perfection. That does a disservice to
stakeholders – because it simply isn’t believable. Good reports acknowledge
challenges and failures provide context and communicate next steps.

3) Stakeholder Engagement:
 Good CSRs provide evidence that the transparent and authentic information included
is also a true reflection of stakeholder interests.
 Many reports handle this GRI requirement by describing channels and perhaps
volume of communication with various stakeholder groups.
 True stakeholder engagement, however, is apparent when there is evidence of an
authentic two-way exchange resulting in some degree of change in the company.
 This proves that the company is really listening and incorporating stakeholder
feedback into their business.

4) Intuitive Structure:

 Sustainability reports have a wide array of audiences – each with very different
expectations.
 If your audience can’t find the information they need, any hard work put into the other
elements will go unnoticed.
 It is important to develop a good structure for content and navigation whether
reporting in a printed piece, a PDF, a website or a mobile app.
 Good structure and design will organize the complex range of information into a
structure simple enough that all readers will be able to navigate intuitively.

5) Meaningful:

 Finally, successful reports will do all of the above in a way that is truly meaningful to
each audience.
 At Emotive Brand, we believe that people (i.e. stakeholders) are increasingly skeptical
and sophisticated, and that they will support companies that offer them meaning.
 Sustainability reports present an opportunity for organizations to communicate
authentically about issues that matter to people.
 So, it is important to tie each of the previous elements together in a way that speaks
clearly and directly to stakeholder interests, while providing an opportunity for
continued dialogue.

 Purpose of Sustainability Report:

1. Sustainability reporting is the practice of measuring, disclosing, and being accountable to
internal and external stakeholders for organizational performance towards the goal of
sustainable development.
2. ‘Sustainability reporting’ is a broad term considered synonymous with others used to
describe reporting on economic, environmental, and social impacts (e.g., triple bottom
line, corporate responsibility reporting, etc.).
3. A sustainability report should provide a balanced and reasonable representation of the
sustainability performance of a reporting organization – including both positive and
negative contributions.
4. Sustainability reports based on the GRI Reporting Framework disclose outcomes and
results that occurred within the reporting period in the context of the organization’s
commitments, strategy, and management approach.

Reports can be used for the following purposes, among others:

• Benchmarking and assessing sustainability performance with respect to laws, norms,
codes, performance standards, and voluntary initiatives;
• Demonstrating how the organization influences and is influenced by expectations about
sustainable development; and
• Comparing performance within an organization and between different organizations over
time.

Advantages / Benefits of Sustainability Report:

1. Sustainability reporting is a vital step towards achieving a sustainable global economy.
2. Reporting enhances companies’ accountability for their impacts and therefore enhances
trust, facilitating the sharing of values on which to build a more cohesive society.
3. The availability of sustainability information can be used by governments to assess the
impact and contribution of businesses to the economy and to understand which issues are
being tackled by which players.
4. Widespread sustainability reporting practices, creating transparency, can help markets
function more efficiently and indicate the health of the economy; and help drive progress
by all organizations towards a smart, sustainable and inclusive growth.
5. Organizations can use reporting to inform their risk analysis strategies and boost their
business.
6. A growing number of companies see sustainability reporting as a means to drive greater
innovation through their businesses and products to create a competitive advantage in the
market.
7. Governments, businesses and stakeholders all directly benefit from it, and the positive
impact on social, environmental and human rights issues is evident.
8. Specifically, for organizations, sustainability reporting adds value in a number of areas:
Building trust Transparency about non-financial performance can help to reduce
reputational risks, open up dialogue with stakeholders such as customers, communities
and investors, and demonstrate leadership, openness and accountability.
9. Improved processes and systems internal management and decision-making processes can
be examined and improved, leading to cost reductions by measuring and monitoring such
issues as energy consumption, materials use, and waste.
10. Progressing vision and strategy Comprehensive analysis of strengths and weaknesses, and
the engagement with stakeholders that is necessary for sustainability reporting, can lead
to more robust and wide-ranging organizational visions and strategies.
11. Importantly, companies can make sustainability an integral part of their strategies.
12. Reducing compliance costs Measuring sustainability performance can help companies to
meet regulatory requirements effectively, avoid costly breaches, and gather necessary
data in a more efficient and cost-effective way.
13. Competitive advantage Companies seen as leaders and innovators can be in a stronger
bargaining position when it comes to attracting investment, initiating new activities,
entering new markets, and negotiating contracts.

GRI G4 Guidelines:
 The GRI Sustainability Reporting Guidelines (the Guidelines) offer Reporting Principles,
Standard Disclosures and an Implementation Manual for the preparation of sustainability
reports by organizations, regardless of their size, sector or location.
 The Guidelines also offer an international reference for all those interested in the
disclosure of governance approach and of the environmental, social and economic
performance and impacts of organizations.
 The Guidelines are useful in the preparation of any type of document which requires such
disclosure.
 The Guidelines are developed through a global multi-stakeholder process involving
representatives from business, labour, civil society, and financial markets, as well as
auditors and experts in various fields; and in close dialogue with regulators and
governmental agencies in several countries. The Guidelines are developed in alignment
with internationally recognized reporting related documents, which are referenced
throughout the Guidelines.

THE GUIDELINES
The Guidelines are presented in two parts: Ÿ
1. Reporting Principles and Standard Disclosures Ÿ
2. Implementation Manual
 The first part – Reporting Principles and Standard Disclosures – contains Reporting
Principles, Standard Disclosures, and the criteria to be applied by an organization to
prepare its sustainability report ‘in accordance’ with the Guidelines. Definitions of key
terms are also included.
 The second part – Implementation Manual – contains explanations of how to apply the
Reporting Principles, how to prepare the information to be disclosed, and how to interpret
the various concepts in the Guidelines. References to other sources, a glossary and
general reporting notes are also included.

Preparing a sustainability report using the Guidelines is an iterative process.

The following steps describe how to use the Guidelines in the sustainability reporting
process.
1. Obtain an overview
 Read the Reporting Principles and Standard Disclosures Ÿ
 Read the Definitions of Key Terms
2. Choose the preferred ‘in accordance’ option Ÿ
 The Guidelines offer two options for an organization to prepare its sustainability
report ‘in accordance’ with the Guidelines. The two options are Core and
Comprehensive. These options designate the content to be included for the report
to be prepared ‘in accordance’ with the Guidelines.
 Both options can apply for an organization of any type, size, sector or location.
3. Prepare to disclose general standard disclosures Ÿ
 Identify the General Standard Disclosures required for the chosen ‘in accordance’
option.
 Check if there are General Standard Disclosures that apply to the organization’s
sector.
 Read the Principles for Defining Reporting Quality.
 Plan the processes to disclose the General Standard Disclosures.
 Consult the information presented in the Implementation Manual for explanations
of how to disclose the General Standard Disclosures Ÿ
 Dedicate adequate time and attention to complete the General Standard
Disclosures under the section ‘Identified Material Aspects and Boundaries’.
 These General Standard Disclosures are a central element of both ‘in accordance’
options, and should be disclosed for both.
To do this: –
a. Read the Principles for Defining Report Content
b. Read the three steps for defining material Aspects and Boundaries,
presented in the Implementation Manual, and use the visual support for
these steps.

4. Prepare to disclose specific standard disclosures Ÿ

 Specific Standard Disclosures are Disclosures on Management Approach (DMA)
and Indicators. They are presented under Categories and Aspects.
 Identify the DMA and Indicators related to the material Aspects Ÿ
 Check if there are Aspects and Specific Standard Disclosures that apply to the
organization’s sector.
 Read the Principles for Defining Reporting Quality
 Plan the necessary processes to disclose the Specific Standard Disclosures.
 The report should cover DMA and Indicators for identified material Aspects.
 Aspects that are not identified as material do not need to be covered in the report
Ÿ Consult the information presented in the Implementation Manual for
explanations of how to disclose the Specific Standard Disclosures Ÿ
 Information on topics considered material by the organization but not covered by
the GRI Aspects list can also be included.
5. Prepare the sustainability report Ÿ
 Present the information prepared Ÿ
 Electronic or web-based reporting and paper reports are appropriate media for
reporting. Organizations may choose to use a combination of web and paper-
based reports or use only one medium. For example, the organization may choose
to provide a detailed report on its website and provide an executive summary,
including its strategy and analysis and performance information, in paper form.
The choice will likely depend on the organization’s decisions on its reporting
period, its plans for updating content, the likely users of the report, and other
practical factors, such as its distribution strategy. Ÿ
 At least one medium (web or paper) should provide users with access to the
complete set of information for the reporting period.

 Eco System:

What is an Ecosystem? An ecosystem includes all of the living things (plants, animals and
organisms) in a given area, interacting with each other, and also with their non-living
environments (weather, earth, sun, soil, climate, atmosphere). Ecosystems are the foundations
of the Biosphere and they determine the health of the entire earth system.
Concept:
Living organisms cannot live isolated from their non-living environment because the latter
provides materials and energy for the survival of the former i.e. there is interaction between a
biotic community and its environment to produce a stable system; a natural self-sufficient
unit which is known as an ecosystem.
 An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with the non-living
components of their environment (things like air, water and mineral soil), interacting as a
system. These biotic and abiotic components are regarded as linked together through
nutrient cycles and energy flows.
 As ecosystems are defined by the network of interactions among organisms, and between
organisms and their environment, they can be of any size but usually encompass specific,
limited spaces.
 Energy, water, nitrogen and soil minerals are other essential abiotic components of an
ecosystem.
 The energy that flows through ecosystems is obtained primarily from the sun. It generally
enters the system through photosynthesis, a process that also captures carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important
role in the movement of matter and energy through the system.
 Ecosystems are controlled both by external and internal factors. External factors such as
climate, the parent material that forms the soil, and topography control the overall
structure of an ecosystem and the way things work within it, but are not themselves
influenced by the ecosystem.
 Ecosystems in similar environments that are located in different parts of the world can
have very different characteristics simply because they contain different species.
 Internal factors not only control ecosystem processes but are also controlled by them and
are often subject to feedback loops.
 While the resource inputs are generally controlled by external processes like climate and
parent material, the availability of these resources within the ecosystem is controlled by
internal factors like decomposition, root competition or shading.
 Other internal factors include disturbance, succession and the types of species present.
Although humans exist and operate within ecosystems, their cumulative effects are large
enough to influence external factors like climate.
 Biodiversity affects ecosystem function, as do the processes of disturbance and
succession. Ecosystems provide a variety of goods and services upon which people
depend; the principles of ecosystem management suggest that rather than managing
individual species, natural resources should be managed at the level of the ecosystem
itself.

Structure and Function of an Ecosystem:

Each ecosystem has two main components:
(1) Abiotic

(2) Biotic

(1) Abiotic Components:

The non-living factors or the physical environment prevailing in an ecosystem form the
abiotic components. They have a strong influence on the structure, distribution, behaviour
and inter-relationship of organisms.

Abiotic components are mainly of two types:

(a) Climatic Factors:
Which include rain, temperature, light, wind, humidity etc.

(b) Edaphic Factors:

Which include soil, pH, topography minerals etc.?

The functions of important factors in abiotic components are given below:

 Soils are much more complex than simple sediments. They contain a mixture of
weathered rock fragments, highly altered soil mineral particles, organic matter, and living
organisms. Soils provide nutrients, water, a home, and a structural growing medium for
organisms. The vegetation found growing on top of a soil is closely linked to this
component of an ecosystem through nutrient cycling.

 The atmosphere provides organisms found within ecosystems with carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis and oxygen for respiration. The processes of evaporation, transpiration
and precipitation cycle water between the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface.
 Solar radiation is used in ecosystems to heat the atmosphere and to evaporate and
transpire water into the atmosphere. Sunlight is also necessary for photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis provides the energy for plant growth and metabolism, and the organic
food for other forms of life.

 Most living tissue is composed of a very high percentage of water, up to and even
exceeding 90%. The protoplasm of a very few cells can survive if their water content
drops below 10%, and most are killed if it is less than 30-50%.

 Water is the medium by which mineral nutrients enter and are trans-located in plants. It is
also necessary for the maintenance of leaf turgidity and is required for photosynthetic
chemical reactions. Plants and animals receive their water from the Earth’s surface and
soil. The original source of this water is precipitation from the atmosphere.

(2) Biotic Components:

The living organisms including plants, animals and micro-organisms (Bacteria and Fungi)
that are present in an ecosystem form the biotic components.

On the basis of their role in the ecosystem the biotic components can be classi-fied into three
main groups:

(A) Producers

(B) Consumers

(C) Decomposers or Reducers.

(A) Producers: The green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which they trap solar
energy and change it into chemical energy of carbohydrates using simple inorganic
compounds namely water and carbon dioxide. This process is known as photo-synthesis. As
the green plants manufacture their own food they are known as Autotrophs (i.e. auto = self,
trophies = feeder).

The chemical energy stored by the producers is utilised partly by the producers for their own
growth and survival and the remaining is stored in the plant parts for their future use.

(B) Consumers: The animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesise their own food.
There-fore, they depend on the producers for their food. They are known as heterotrophs (i.e.
heteros = other, trophos = feeder)

The consumers are of four types, namely:

(a) Primary Consumers or First Order Consumers or Herbivores:

These are the animals which feed on plants or the producers. They are called her-bivores.
Examples are rabbit, deer, goat, cattle etc.

(b) Secondary
econdary Consumers or Second Order Consumers or Primary Carnivores:

The animals which feed on the herbivores are called the pri-mary carnivores.

Examples are cats, foxes, snakes etc.

(c) Tertiary Consumers or Third Order Consumers:

These are the large carnivores which feed on the secondary consumers.

Example is Wolves.

(d) Quaternary Consumers or Fourth Order Consumers or Omnivores:

These are the largest carnivores which feed on the tertiary consumers and are not eaten up by
any other animal.

Examples are lions and tigers.

(C) Decomposers or Reducers:

Bacteria and fungi belong to this category. They breakdown the dead organic materials of
producers (plants) and consumers (animals) for their food and re-lease to the environment the
simple
imple inorganic and organic substances produced as by
by-products
products of their metabolisms.

These simple substances are reused by the producers resulting in a cyclic ex-change of
materials between the biotic community and the abiotic environment of the ecosystem. The
decomposers are known as Saprotrophs (i.e., sapros = rotten, trophos = feeder)
 Industrial Effluents:

Effluent is an out flowing of water or gas to natural body of water, or from a manmade
structure. Effluent, in engineering, is the stream exiting a chemical reactor.

Effluent is defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as "wastewater -

treated or untreated - that flows out of a treatment plant, sewer, or industrial outfall.
Generally, refers to wastes discharged into surface waters". The Compact Oxford English
Dictionary defines effluent as "liquid waste or sewage discharged into a river or the sea".

Effluent in the artificial sense is in general considered to be water pollution, such as the
outflow from a sewage treatment facility or the wastewater discharge from industrial
facilities. An effluent sump pump, for instance, pumps waste from toilets installed below a
main sewage line. Similar to wastewater produced in different establishments, industries, and
facilities. These wastewaters released can also accumulate and pollute the nearby
communities and bodies of water.

Monitoring:

Final Effluent Monitoring Systems provide continuous monitoring of compliance parameters

for the purpose of effluent permit reporting purposes or simply self-monitoring purposes. Our
monitoring systems can provide hardcopy recording via strip chart recorders, or provide
electronic data-logging, or retransmit via a network connection. Any analytical parameter can
be monitored including:

• pH (0-14)
• Flow (instant and total)
• Temperature
• Conductivity / Turbidity
• TSS and / or TDS
• Heavy Metals via colorimetric determination including (Fe, Cu, Cd, Cr, Ni, Zn, etc.)

Recording Methods can include any conventional data recording device including:

 Circular Chart Recorders

 Strip Chart Recorders
 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems
 PLC retransmission to a Building Monitoring System (BMB).

Local and Remote Monitoring Options:

 Local SCADA system and automated report generation on a daily, weekly, and
monthly basis.
 Remote monitoring, control, and data logging via the Cloud (internet connection
required).
 Automated paging to cell phones of alerts or alarms.
 SCADA System Monitoring

Online monitoring of effluents is mandatory for specific category of industries in India. The
equipment needs to be rugged, reliable (result comparable to lab data), economical, well
supported by manufacturer and local distributor with inventory of spares and skilled
manpower. The system shouldn't require recurring cost in reinvestment for replacements at a
later stage. Also, the instrument needs to comply Local and International Standards.

Analysis: -

1) Temperature: -Temperature affects chemical, biological reactions in water. In the

present study, it varies from 28 to 29.5 0C, but there are cases where that temperature has
been reported more than 40 0C due to reactions in the plants (nuclear and thermal power
plants). Generally, the effluents are suitably diluted before they are released to the
sewage.
2) pH: - The pH values are in the range 6.5-8. This is in accordance with the WHO
permissible limit (6.0-8.5). The extreme pH of wastewater are generally not acceptable, as
lower pH cause problems to survival of aquatic life. It also interferes with the optimum
operation of wastewater treatment facilities. Water with high or low pH is not suitable for
irrigation. At low pH most of the metals become soluble in water and therefore could be
hazardous in the environment. At high pH most of the metals become insoluble and
accumulate in the sludge and sediments. The toxicity of heavy metals also gets enhanced
at particular pH.
3) Electrical conductivity the electric conductivity of water is a measure of the ability of a
solution to conduct an electric current; this ability depends upon the presence of ions,
their total concentration, mobility and temperature of water. The conductivity of the water
is one of the important parameters used to determine the suitability of water for irrigation.
It is useful indicator for salinity or total salt content of waste water.
4) Total dissolved solids: - Total dissolved solid is the measure of total inorganic salts and
other substances that are dissolved in water. The effluents with high TDS value may
cause salinity problem if discharged to irrigation water. The total dissolved solids in
various industrial effluents ranged from 1557- 39643 mg /L.
5) Total Suspended solids: - In the present Study, the total suspended solid was found in
the range of 82 to 4410 mg/L, which was very higher value compare to limit set by WHO.
6) Nitrates and Phosphates: - 20-50 mg/L of nitrates and 0-20mg/L of phosphates are
permissible for irrigation. More than 75% of the samples are having higher concentration
levels; they are unfit for irrigation without proper treatments.
7) Dissolved Oxygen (DO): - Dissolved oxygen levels are found to be very low and hence a
lot of oxygen has been used up. It shows the increased concentration of organic matter.
More than 4 mg/L is desirable but all the samples show very negligible amount of DO.
The presence of free oxygen in water is an indication of the ability of that water to
support biological life. Low value of DO may be due to higher water temperature and
increased activity of microorganisms in the water which consumes a lot of oxygen due to
metabolic process and the decomposition of organic material.
8) BOD and COD: - BOD measure the amount of oxygen requires by bacteria for breaking
down to simpler substances from the decomposable organic matter present in any water
and COD test is useful in pinpointing toxic condition and presence of biological resistant
substances10. In the present study BOD and COD values were found in the range of 90 -
1213mg /L and 167 – 8220 mg/L respectively which goes higher side than the limit
WHO.
9) Chlorides and Sulphates: - Concentration of Chloride varied from 200-600 mg/L and
that of sulphate varied from 200-400 mg/l. More than 95% of samples show higher
amount of Chlorides and Sulphates compared to WHO limits. (250 mg/L). High
contraction of Chlorides and Sulphates may due to use Chlorine compounds, like
Hydrochloric acid, Hypo chloric acid, chlorine gas and sulphate compounds like
Sulphuric acid, Sodium sulphate, Aluminium sulphate etc. are used as a raw material in
various process.
10) Sodium and Calcium: - Sodium concentration was found in the range 65 to 5693 mg/L.
and Calcium was in the range of 103 to 6470 mg/L which exceeds the limit set by WHO.
The concentration of sodium and calcium in effluent may due to use large amount sodium
and calcium compounds used in various manufacturing process.
11) Magnesium and Potassium: - Magnesium concentration varies in the range of 34 to
3246 mg/L. 90% of samples exceeds the standard limit of WHO. Potassium
concentrations were in the range of below detection limit to 74 mg/L.

 Green Building: -

 Green building (also known as green construction or sustainable building) refers to both a
structure and the application of processes that are environmentally responsible and
resource-efficient throughout a building's life-cycle: from planning to design,
construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and demolition.
 This requires close cooperation of the contractor, the architects, the engineers, and the
client at all project stages. The Green Building practice expands and complements the
classical building design concerns of economy, utility, durability, and comfort.
 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) is a set of rating systems for the
design, construction, operation, and maintenance of green buildings which was
Developed by the U.S. Green Building Council.
 Other certificates system that confirms the sustainability of buildings is the British
BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method) for
buildings and large-scale developments.
 The common objective of green buildings is to reduce the overall impact of the built
environment on human health and the natural environment by:

1) Efficiently using energy, water, and other resources

2) Protecting occupant health and improving employee productivity
3) Reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradation

 A similar concept is natural building, which is usually on a smaller scale and tends to
focus on the use of natural materials that are available locally.

Benefits of green building

With new technologies constantly being developed to complement current practices in
creating greener structures, the benefits of green building can range from environmental
to economic to social.
Benefits of green building include:
Environmental benefits:
1) Reduce wastage of water
2) Conserve natural resources
3) Improve air and water quality
4) Protect biodiversity and ecosystems

Economic benefits:
1) Reduce operating costs
2) Improve occupant productivity
3) Create market for green product and services

Social benefits:
1) Improve quality of life
2) Minimize strain on local infrastructure
3) Improve occupant health and comfort