PRACTI

CAL
RESEA
RCH 2
Based on
Most
Essential
Learning
Competenci
es
QUARTER 2

Prepared by:

ROSE MARY A. OTAZA

SHS Teacher

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ACTIVITY SHEETS IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

Name: Grade/Section:
School: Bunawan National High School Date:

Teacher: Rose Mary A. Otaza Score:

I. Title: Choosing Appropriate Quantitative Research Design

II. Learning Competency:

Chooses appropriate quantitative research design. (CS_RS12-IIa-c-1)

III. Instruction/Discussions

CHOOSING APPROPRIATE QUANTITATIVE

RESEARCH DESIGN

INTRODUCTION
To start writing a research paper, you have to plan the research design
is your overall concept or strategy to put together the components of your
study in a logical manner. Additionally, the design ensures that the research
problem is appropriately addressed. The research problem and questions
shall determine the type of research design you should use.

The choice of a correct research design is important prior to obtaining

information relevant to your research study. You can review and synthesize
literature or studies that have used the same research design and which are
relevant to your research study.

Types of Quantitative Research Designs

Research problems vary. Although every research problem unique
there are
certain similarities relating to situational variables like personal
characteristics, areas of significance, among others.

Basic quantitative research designs can be used to address or match

given problems and objectives.

The three (3) traditional categories of research designs are

exploratory, descriptive and causal.

Exploratory Research Design

An exploratory research design is often used to establish an initial
understanding and background information about a research study of
interest, oftenly with very few or no earlier related studies found relevant to
the research study.
This research design is described as an informal or unstructured way of
investigating available sources. You may conduct library search, secondary
data analysis, experience surveys, opinionnaire, case analysis, focus groups,

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projective techniques and Internet searches. Secondary data include
information which you may gather from books, journals, proceedings,
newsletters, magazines, annual reports and many others. Experience
surveys refer to gathering data from key informants about a research topic.
In case analysis, you may review past experiences or situations that may
have some similarities with the present research problem. You can also
gather small groups of people and conduct focus group discussions. Through
an unstructured discussion, you can gain information relevant to the
research study that you plan to undertake.

In the sample size in exploratory studies is small, the results of the

study cannot be generalized for a population.

Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design is used to gather information on current
situations and conditions. It helps provide answers to the questions of who,
what, when, where and the how of a particular research study. Descriptive
research studies provide accurate data after subjecting them to a rigorous
procedure and using large amounts of data from large numbers of samples.
This design leads to logical conclusions and pertinent recommendations.
However, the descriptive research design is dependent to a high degree on
data collection instrumentation for the measurement of data and analysis.

According to Polit and Hungles (1999), the following research designs

are classified as descriptive design:

 Survey
The survey research design is usually used in securing opinions
and trends through the use of questionnaires and interviews. A survey
is used in gathering data from institutions, government and businesses
to help in decision-making regarding change strategies, improving
practices, analysing views on choice of products or market research.
Surveys can be conducted face-to-face or online. Online surveys are
widely used because gathering data from the target respondents or
completing of questionnaires is fast using the Internet.

 Correlation Research
Correlation research design is used for research studies aimed to
determine the existence of a relationship between two or more
variables and to determine the degree of the relationship. Examples of
correlational research involving two (2) quantitative variables that can
be correlated are: mental ability and grade in math; gender and math
performance; advertising costs and sales;, and income and expenses.

Evaluation Research

Evaluation research is conducted to elicit useful feedback from a
variety of respondents from various fields to aid in decision making or
policy formulation.

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Commonly used types of evaluation based on the purpose of the
study are Formative and Summative evaluation.
Formative evaluation is used to determine the quality of
implementation of a project, the efficiency and effectiveness of a
program, assessment of organizational processes such as procedures,
policies, guidelines, human resource development and the like.

 On the other hand, Summative evaluation is done after the

implementation of the

program. It examines the outcomes, products or effects of the

program.

Here some examples of formative evaluation:

 Needs Assessment
Evaluates the need for the program or project. For
example, now great is need for a remedial program in
mathematics? Who needs the program? Where or in what college
will the program be implemented and what are needed to
implement the program?

 Process Evaluation
Evaluates the process of implementation of a program. For
example, you may want to conduct study on the implementation of
the Student Information System (SIS) in your school. Some questions
would be: how will the students and teachers assess the efficiency of
the current process of the SIS? It working will? What suggestions may
be implemented to improve the program? When will recommendations
from teachers and students be implemented to improve the program
considering the cost and other technicalities?

 Implementation Evaluation

Evaluates the efficiency or effectiveness of a project or program.

For example, how effective is the scholarship program in your school?
Are the criteria followed? How many students availed themselves of
said scholarships and how many students graduated successfully?

 Program Monitoring
Evaluates the performance and implementation of an unfinished
program. The evaluation is done prior to the completion of the
program. It helps improve implementation and achieve best results.
The initial implementation of the K-12 program is a very good topic for
evaluation under this type of research design. Whatever evaluation is
to be done will be a part of a monitoring program for the K-12
implementation.

Here are some examples of summative evaluation:

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 Secondary Data Analysis
You may examine existing data for analysis. For example, you
may want to find out the influence of gender and mental ability in the
results of the National Achievement Test (NAT) In your school or in
your region.
 Impact Evaluation
This is used to evaluate the overall effect of the program in its
entirety. For example, you may want to determine the effect of
remedial classes on the performance of students in mathematics in
your school.

 Outcome Evaluation
This is done to determine if the program nas caused useful
effects based on target outcomes. For example, you may want to
determine if a leadership training program for officers of student
organizations of a certain public secondary school have enhanced the
leadership skills of the participants.

* Cost-effectiveness Evaluation
Also called cost-benefit analysis, it compares the relative costs
to the outcomes or results of some courses of action. For
example, you may conduct study on the value for money returns
of a company brought about by an intensive training investment
for employees in the Sales department.

Causal Research Design

Causal research design is used to measure the impact that an
independent variable (causing effect) has on another variable (being
affected) or why certain results are obtained. A valid conclusion may be
derived when an association between the independent variable and the
dependent variable is obtained. It can also be used to identity the extent and
nature of cause-and-effect relationships. Causal research can help
businesses determine how decisions may affect operations. A restaurant
owner may want to find out why he/she has fewer customers than their
neighboring restaurants that resulted in decline in sales. So management
may conduct his/her study on the quality of the food, the price of the food,
cleanliness or the quality of services accorded to the customers. Thus, the
purpose of the research study is to find out the factors that cause the decline
in the number of customers in the said restaurant.

In addition to the discussion on the characteristics of the three main

categories
of quantitative research designs, Table 1 outlines other points of comparison
of their characteristics:

Points of Exploratory Descriptive Causal

Comparison Research Research Research
Research Unstructured and Formal and Highly structured

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Approach flexible Structured

Degree of Not well-defined Variables are Variables and

Problem defined relationships are
defined
When to use? Initial research Often a follow-up Late stage of
to exploratory decision-making
research
Goals and Provides insights Describe Explains the
Objectives on a problem situations cause and effect
relationship
between
variables

Sample size Small non- Large Large

representative representative representative
sample sample sample
Types of Research Hypothesis is Hypothesis is
Hypothesis questions only non-conditional directional
Data Data may not be Data are Data are
management statistically statistically statistically
and measurable measurable measurable
measurements

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IV. ACTIVITY

A. Directions: Compare and contrast the following kinds of research

design using the expanded Venn diagram below. Highlight the uses of
each design.

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Exploratory Research Design

Descriptive Research Causal Research

B. Directions: Complete the table below by giving the correct data.

Design DEFINITION EXAMPLE IMPORTANCE
Exploratory
Research Design

Descriptive
Research

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Causal Research

C. Directions: Based from your previous output in Practical Research 2,

choose appropriate quantitative research design.

VI. Closure
What I have learned?

VI. Reference
Carey, T., Naval, V., & Prieto, N. (2017). Choosing appropriate quantitative
Research Design. Practical research 2 for senior high. QC: Lorimar
Publishing, Inc.

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ACTIVITY SHEETS IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

Name: Grade/Section Score:

School: Bunawan National High School Date:

Teacher: Rose Mary A. Otaza Score:

I. Title: Choosing Appropriate Quantitative Research Design

II. Learning Competency:

Describes sampling procedure and sample. (CS_RS12-IIa-c-2)

III. Instruction/Discussions

DESCRIBING SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING

INTRODUCTON

Determining the correct sample size and how the samples are selected
are crucial in ensuring the accuracy and precision of an estimate leading to
valid research findings. Sampling is securing some of the elements of a
population. An element is a member of a population who can provide
information for the population. A population consists of the total elements
about which you can make inferences based on the data gathered from a
determined sample size.

Sample Size Determination

A sample (n) is a selection of respondents for a research study to
represent the total population (N). Making a decision about sample size for a
survey is important. Too large a sample may mean a waste of resources,
both human and financial. On the other hand, too small a sample decreases
the utilization of the results.

The following are some reasons for the use of samples:

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1. A sample saves time compared to doing a complete census which
requires more time.
2. A sample saves money because it is less costly than conducting a
complete census.
3. A sample allows more particular attention to be given to a number
of elements than when doing a census.
4. There is a greater error in reporting results of a census caused by
inexperienced interviewers. There is less sampling error in a survey.
5. Some research studies in the industry may only be performed on a
sample of items. For example, testing the length of time a battery
will last.

SLOVIN'S Formula in Determining the Sample Size

The following information is needed to be able to determine the
sample size using the Slovin's formula.

 Population (N) consists of members of a group that a researcher is

interested in studying the members of a group that usually have
common or similar characteristics.
 Margin of error is the allowable error margin in research. A
confidence interval of 95% gives a margin of error of 5%, a 98% gives
a margin of error of 2%; a 99% confidence interval gives a 1% margin
of error.

The sample size can be obtained by the formula:

N
n= 2
1Ne
Where:
n = sample size
N = total population
e = margin of error

Example 1:
A researcher wants to conduct a survey, if the population of a big
university is 35,000, find the sample size if the margin of error is 5%.

Given: find: formula:

N
N = 35,000 n=? n= 2
1Ne
e = 5% or 0.05

Solution:
35,000
n= 2
1+ ( 35,000 )( 0.05 )

35,000
¿
1+ ( 35,000 ) (0.0025)
35,000
¿
1+ 87.5

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35,000
¿
88.5

n=395

Example 2:
Supposed you have a plan to conduct a study among 1,500 grade 11
students enrolled in the STEM track. How may respondents are needed using
a margin of error of 2%?

Given: find: formula:

N
N = 1, 500 n=? n= 2
1Ne
e = 2% or 0.02

Solution:
1 , 500 1 , 500
n= n=
1+ ( 1 , 500 ) ( 0.02 )
2
1+ 0.6

1, 500 1 , 500
n= n=
1+ ( 1 , 500 ) (0.0004 ) 1.6

n=938

Sampling Procedure

Sampling is a formal process of choosing the correct subgroup called a

sample from a population to participate in a research study. The subgroup
shall be the representative of the large group from where they were
selected. To create a sample, you may follow any of the following categories
of sampling techniques: probability sampling and non- probability
sampling schemes.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING PROCEDURES

The most of the important characteristics of probability sampling
procedure from the is the population random selection of the samples.
Specifically, each sample (n) or element from the population (N) has an
equal chance of selection under a given sampling technique. Four (4)
probability sampling procedures are described below:

1. Simple Random Sampling

The most frequently used type of probability sampling technique.
This characterized by the idea that the chance of selection is the same
for every member of the population.

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For example, assume that you want to conduct a survey of 100
senior high school students in a certain private school. To get the
desired sample size of 100, you can do the selection process, either
manually or electronically, ensuring that each student in the
population has an equal chance of being drawn from the total
population of senior high school students in that school.

2. Systematic Random Sampling

Systematic random sampling follows specific steps and
procedures in doing the random selection of the samples. It requires a
list of the elements and every nth element in the list is drawn for
inclusion in the sample. If for instance, you have a list of 5,000 persons
and you need a sample of 500, here are the steps to follow
 Divide the number of elements in the population by the desired
sample size. In this case, you divide 5,000 by 500 which gives a
value of 10.
 Choose a random number between one and the value you
obtained from Step 1. In this example, you choose a number
between 1 and 10, let's say you choose 5.
 Starting with the number you picked which is 5, you take every
tenth (10th) (from Step 1) and you use 5 as your starting point.
Thus, you have to select the samples whose numbers are 5, 15,
25, 35, 45 and so on until you reach the desired sample size of
500.

3. Stratified Random Sampling

In this type of probability sampling procedure, the population is first
divided into two or more mutually exclusive categories based on your
variables of interest in the research study. The population is organized
into homogeneous subsets before drawing the samples. With stratified
random sampling, the population is divided into subpopulation called
strata. It your variable of interest is economic status based on the family
combined income level, you can divide the population into strata of
different income levels (low, average, high income with specific numerical
value of annual family income per level). When these have been
determined, you may draw a sample from each stratum with a separate
draw from each of the different strata. The sample sizes within the strata
can now be determined.

The primary advantage of this technique is that cases from each

stratum of the population are given importance, as in the other groupings.

To illustrate the procedure to be followed in this probability

sampling technique suppose you're interested in how frequent internet
use varies by level among junior high school students. To explore this
inquiry, rather than taking simple random samples from the school's
population of junior high school students, you need to ensure that an

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appropriate number of students are drawn from all levels of the junior
high school track.

In this case, you have to stratify by level (first year, second year,
third year and fourth year). When these have been determined, you may
draw a sample from each stratum with a separate draw from each of the
different strata. The sample sizes within the strata should be pre-
determined.

The primary advantage of this technique is to ensure that cases

from each stratum of the population are given importance as in the other
groupings.

To illustrate the procedure to be followed in this probability

sampling, suppose you are interested in how frequent Internet use varies
by level among junior high school students. To explore this inquiry, rather
than taking a simple random sample from the school population you need
to ensure that appropriate number of students are drawn from each level
in proportion to the percentage of the population as a whole.

In this example, if there are 1,200 junior high school students, here
are the steps to follow:
 Get the population of junior high school students per level. In this
case, the following data were recorded:

First year 350

Second Year 300
Third Year 280
Fourth Year 270
Total 1,200
 Divide each number of students per level by the total population
of 1200 and then multiply by the desired sample size of 300.

In this case

First year 350/1200 x 300 = 87.5 ≅ 88

Second Year 300/1200 x 300 = 75
Third Year 280/1200 x 300 = 70
Fourth Year 270/1200 x 300 = 67.5 ≅ 67
Total 300

You can now randomly draw out 88 from the first year level, 75 samples
from the second year, 70 from third year and 67 from the fourth year level of
junior high school students. This gives a sample that represents the whole
proportionately per level.

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Stratified random sampling is preferred by researchers who want to study
subpopulations where categorization of homogeneous characteristics of each
stratum is being considered.

4. Cluster Sampling
Most largescale surveys use cluster sampling method. Cluster sampling
is used when the target respondents in a research study is spread across a
geographical location. In this method, the population is divided into groups
called clusters which are heterogeneous in nature and are mutually
exclusive. A random sampling technique is used on relevant clusters to be
included in the study.

Cluster sampling may be classified as either single-stage, two-stage

cluster sampling or there also exists multi-stage cluster sampling. In single-
stage cluster sampling, all the members from each of the selected clusters
are used in the sampling process. In two-stage cluster sampling, a subset of
elements within each selected cluster is randomly selected for inclusion in
the sample. In multi-stage sampling, more than two steps are taken in
selecting clusters from clusters. Examples are those which consider
geographical clustering as provinces, towns or cities. Thus, multi-stage
sampling takes a large population into account.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING PROCEDURES

There are situations when the researcher cannot employ random

selection. In cases where probability sampling Is not applicable, you may
consider some non-probability sampling alternatives.

1. Convenience Sampling
This is a method of selecting samples that are available and are
capable of participating in a research study on a current issue. This
method is sometimes called haphazard or availability sampling. An
example would be conducting a survey or interview on a captive audience
inside a mall or park or school to obtain a quick response of public opinion
on an issue about election of public officials.

2. Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is a technique where the researcher identifies
about a research participate in the study. The Identification of the
samples respondent who can participate in the study. The identification
follows a multiplier effect, that is, one person is asked to refer the
researcher to another respondent and so on. This technique is applicable
when researchers to find difficulty in locating special numbers of a
population. The chain referral procedure allows the researcher to reach

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the desired samples. For example, an ethnographic research of the
indigenous groups called Mangyans who are living in the island of Mindoro
used snowball sampling to locate respondents. Based on this unpublished
research study, the total population of the eight (8) ethnic groups called
Mangyans may be around 100,000 according to official records. But
according to the researcher, they are difficult to locate because of
distance remote areas) and some have little contact with the lowlanders
or the outside world.

3. Purposive Sampling
Purposive sampling sometimes called judgmental or subjective
sampling employs a procedure in which samples are chosen for a special
purpose. It may involve members of a limited group of population. For
example, you may want to conduct a study on why Grade 11 students
chose the Voc-Tech track over the Academic track. You, therefore, find
your samples and your first question would be "Are you planning to go to
the university?" Those who will say "No" would not be included in the
study.

4. Quota Sampling
Quota Sampling is gathering a representative sample from a group
based on certain characteristics of the population chosen by the
researcher. Usually the population is divided into specific groups. If the
specific condition, for example, is for both genders, males and females
are to be represented equally in the sample group, then it 60
representatives are needed, then you get 30 males and 30 females from
each group.

The main difference between stratified random sampling and quota

sampling can be explained in a way that in quota sampling, you use non-
random selection.

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IV. Activity

A. Directions: On the line before the number, write the letters of the
expression outside the box.

Simple Random Sampling Margin of error

Stratified Random Sampling Cluster Sampling
Snowball Sampling Convenient Sampling
Systematic Random Sampling Purposive Sampling
Population Quota Sampling
Sample

1. Sometimes called judgmental sampling or common

sampling
2. Population is organized into homogeneous subsets
3. Based on certain characteristics of the population
4. Most frequently used probability sampling technique
5. Used in largescale surveys

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6. Follows a multiplier effect
7. Selecting samples that are available
8. Follows specific steps and procedures in random
selection of
the samples
9. Allowable error
10.Consists of members of a group

B. Directions: Write P if the sentence talks about probability sampling;

otherwise, write NP.

1. Checking every 10th student in the list

2. Interviewing some persons you meet on the campus
3. Dividing 100 persons into groups
4. Choosing subjects behaving like the majority members of NPC
Town
5. Choosing a group of subjects among several groups
6. Choosing subjects capable of helping you meet the aim of
your study
7. Choosing samples by chance but through an organizational
pattern
8. Letting all members in the population join the selection
process
9. Having people willing to be chosen as respondents
10. Matching people's traits with the population members' traits

C. Directions: Using the space below, categorize the sampling

procedures using a graph.

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D. Directions: Form a group of six, then subdivide the group into two
smaller groups. One of the small groups will alternate in giving their
explanations or descriptions about expressions in relation sampling (i.e.,
sample, sampling frame, population, probability sampling different
sampling techniques, and so on). The other group will take the task of
guessing the correct terms referred to. Exchange roles later. Every correct
answer will earn you five points. Submit your score sheet to your teacher
at the end of the activity.

E. Direction: Remember the quantitative research design you want to

realized. Decide on what sampling method to use. Choose one that you
can concretize; meaning, one that can make you produce verbal
descriptions and factual evidence of the selection process. Show such
sampling process evidence to, your teacher and classmates.

V. Closure
What I have learned?

VI. Reference

Carey, T., Naval, V., & Prieto, N. (2017). Choosing appropriate quantitative
research design. Practical research 2 for senior high. QC: Lorimar
Publishing, Inc.

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ACTIVITY SHEETS IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

Name: Grade/Section Score:

School: Bunawan National High School Date:

Teacher: Rose Mary A. Otaza Score:

I. Title: Research Instrument

II. Learning Competency:
Constructs an instrument and establishes its validity and reliability.
(CS_RS12-IIa-c-3)

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III. Instructions/Discussions

RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

Questionnaire

-a set of orderly arranged questions, carefully prepared to answer the

specific problems of the study. A list of questions to be answered by
the respondents to get facts or information.

- a principal instrument of data collection

- answers will be the bases for hypothesis testing.

- factors to be considered includes: content of questions, type of

questions, pre- testing of questionnaires, and process of
questionnaire administration.

Content of Questions

Questions must:

1. Pertain to hypothesized relation of variables.

2. Provide answers to the stated research questions.
3. Attain the research objectives
4. Relate to the theoretical and conceptual framework
5. Be stated in words whose meaning is understood by the respondents
and researchers.

Categories of Questions

1. Factual Questions- these are questions about respondents’

background.
2. Opinion Questions- these are questions to draw out attitudes-
respondent’s prejudices, values, ideas, fears, feeling and convictions.
3. Probe Questions- these are questions that elicit further pertinent
information from the respondents to clarify answers to previous
questions.

Types of Questions

1. Open-ended Questions- does not provide possible answers to choose

from respondents answer freely.
2. Close- ended Questions- respondents are offered a set of answers from
which they can choose.
- Easy to ask, to answer and to record
- Limit to the choices provided
3. Contigency Questions
- are asked after a particular question is answered in a certain way.
- It depend on the respondent’s answer to the previous selection.

Question Format

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1. General Format- a format to give the open- ended questions and leave
blanks for the answer, or in close- ended questions that give the
answers and provide boxes or blank to put checkmark or encircle the
answers.
Example:
- What is your civil status?
or
- Place a check mark inside the bracket of your chosen answer.

( ) Single ( ) Married

( ) Divorced ( ) Others

2. Rating- answers are in the form of a scale- meaning, a hierarchy or a

gradation of the intensity of response, according to the sets of
categories.
Example:
- Respondents indicate thier answers as
( ) Strongly Agree
( ) Agree
( ) Disagree
( ) Strongly Disagree
3. Matrix Questions- a method for organizing a large set of rating
questions that have the same response categories.
Example:

4. Semantic Differential
- Another type of rating scale

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- It measures the respondent’s reaction to some objects or concepts
in terms of rating on bipolar scales with contrasting adjectives at
the end.
Example:
Place a check in the space above the number that best describe
your judgement.
Good __ __ __ __ __ __ __ Bad
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
5. Ranking
- the question asked the respondents to choose the degree of priority
or place of importance to the answers
- it takes the form of numbering, starting from 1 as the first/ highest
or not important.
Example: Rank of the following problems faced by Duterte’s
administration ( 1 being the most important).
( ) Unemployment
( ) Pollution
( ) Inflation
( ) Power Shortage
( ) Crime related
6. Card Sort
- the respondents is handed a set of cards with a statement on each
card.
- Respondents is asked to sort the cards and place the chosen answer
into one several boxes- which are degrees of agreement with the
statement.
-

Questionnaire Pretesting

- to test for reliability and validity

- pretesting check respondent’s understanding of the questions
- it helps indentify problems and gaps in content, format and words
used.

Establish the Validity of the Questionnaire

Validity- is tradionally defined as “degree to which a test measures

what it claims, or purports, to be measuring” (Brown, 1996).

A questionnaire undergoes a validation procedure to make sure that it

accurately measures what it aims to do. A valid questionnaire helps to collect
reliable ans accurate data.

Establish the Reliability of the Questionnaire

Reliability indicates the accuracy or precision of the measuring

instrument (Norland, 1990). It refers to a condition where measurement
process yields consistent responses over repeated measurements.

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Here are some ways to assess the reliability of a questionnaire:

1. Test-retest reliability
- This is the simplest method of assessing reliability. The same test or
questionnaire is administered twice and correlation between the
two sets of scores is computed.
2. Split- half method
- This method is also called equivalent or parallel forms. In this
method, two different tests covering the same topics are used and
the correlation between the two sets of scores is calculated.
3. Internal consistency
- This method is used in assessing reliability of questions measured
on an interval or ratio scale. The reliability estimate is based on a
single form of test administered on a single occasion.

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IV. Activity

Activity 1. On Questionnaire Design: Its Validity and Reliability

A. Directions: Identity the independent variable/s and dependent variable in

each
of the following:

1. Relationship between gender and preference for Information and

Communication
Technology (ICT) use

Independent ______________________________

Dependent _______________________________

2. Effects of cigarette use on the human body

Independent ______________________________

Dependent _______________________________

3. Relationship between emotional stability and physical we being.

Independent ______________________________

Dependent _______________________________

4. Influence of online social networks on the academic performance or

students
Independent ______________________________

Dependent _______________________________

5. Social, personal and political factors related to high school drop-out rates.

Independent ______________________________

Dependent _______________________________

6. Effects of home schooling on the social development of students

Independent ______________________________

Dependent _______________________________

7. Emotional intelligence and its relation to student academic performance

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Independent ______________________________

Dependent _______________________________

8. Math anxiety and its relationship to math achievement in senior high

school.

Independent ______________________________

Dependent _______________________________

9. Personality attributes and their relationships to Music preference.

Independent ______________________________

Dependent _______________________________

10. Relationship between parents’ educational qualification and their

children's academic achievement in school.

Independent ______________________________

Dependent _______________________________

b. On Types of Questions in Designing a Questionnaire

1. Explain the uses of the following types of questions:

a. Closed questions
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
b. Open- ended questions
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
c. Rank- order questions
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

d. Rating scales questions

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

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2. Construct two (2) closed questions related to your career choice in college.

Question 1: _____________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

Question 2: _____________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

3.Construct two (2) open- ended questions related to your career choice in
college.

Question 1: _____________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

Question 2: _____________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

c. Directions. Write a the following based on the format from “Ang Tagnau”
which was given to you during the first quarter.

 Research Instrument

V. Closure

What I have learned

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VI. Reference

Carey, T., Naval, V., & Prieto, N. (2017). Research instrument. Practical
research 2 for senior high. QC: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

ACTIVITY SHEETS IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

Name: Grade/Section Score:

School: Bunawan National High School Date:

Teacher: Rose Mary A. Otaza Score:

I. Title: Intervention

II. Learning Competency:

Describes intervention (if applicable) (CS_RS12-IIa-c-4)

III. Instruction/ Discussions

INTERVENTION

What is a research intervention?

Intervention research is the systematic study of purposive change

strategies. It is characterized by both the design and development of
interventions. This includes determining the extent to which an intervention
is defined by explicit practice principles, goals, and activities.

What is Interventional Study?

An interventional study is one in which the participants receive some

kind of intervention, such as a new medicine, in order to evaluate it. In the
medicines development process, medicines are evaluated through
interventional studies known as clinical trials.

There are many variations in how clinical trials are designed, but they
are commonly randomized (participants are allocated to different arms in the
study randomly) and controlled (the study medicine is given to one arm, and
the outcomes are compared with an alternative treatment or placebo given
to another arm). These are called randomized controlled trials, or RCTs.

Interventional studies can be divided broadly into two main types:

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1. “controlled clinical trials” (or simply “clinical trials” or “trials”)
 which individuals are assigned to one of two or more
competing interventions,
2. “community trials” (or field trials), in which entire groups, e.g.,
villages, neighborhoods, schools or districts, are assigned to
different interventions.

The interventions can be quite varied; examples include administration

of a drug or vaccine or dietary supplement, performance of a diagnostic or
therapeutic procedure, and introduction of an educational tool. Depending on
whether the intervention is aimed at preventing the occurrence of a disease
(e.g., administration of a vaccine, boiling of water, distribution of condoms or
of an educational pamphlet) or at providing relief to or curing patients with a
disease (e.g., antiretroviral drugs in HIV-infected persons), a trial may also
be referred to as “preventive trial” or “therapeutic trial”.

VARIOUS TYPES OF INTERVENTIONAL STUDY DESIGNS

Several variations of interventional study designs with varying

complexity are possible, and each of these is described below. Of these, the
most commonly used and possibly the strongest design is a randomized
controlled trial (RCT).

1. Randomized controlled trials

In an RCT, a group of participants fulfilling certain inclusion and

exclusion criteria is “randomly” assigned to two separate groups, each
receiving a different intervention. Random assignment implies that each
participant has an equal chance of being allocated to the two groups.

The use of randomization is a major distinguishing feature and

strength of this study design. A well-implemented randomization procedure
is expected to result in two groups that are comparable overall, when both
measured and unmeasured factors are taken into account. Thus,
theoretically, the two groups differ only in the intervention received, and any
difference in outcomes between them is thus related to the effect of
intervention.

The term “controlled” refers to the presence of a concurrent control or

comparator group. These studies have two or more groups – treatment and
control. The control group receives no intervention or another intervention
that resembles the test intervention in some ways but lacks its activity (e.g.,
placebo or sham procedure, referred to also as “placebo-controlled” or
“sham-controlled” trials) or another active treatment (e.g., the current
standard of care). The outcomes are then compared between the
intervention and the comparator groups.

If an effort is made to ensure that other factors are similar across

groups, then the availability of data from the comparator group allows a

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stronger inference about the effect of the intervention being tested than is
possible in studies that lack a control group.

Some additional methodological features are often added to this study

design to further improve the validity of a trial. These include allocation
concealment, blinding, intention-to-treat analysis, measurement of
compliance, minimizing the dropouts, and ensuring appropriate sample size.
These will be discussed in the next piece.

2. Nonrandomized controlled clinical trials

In this design, participants are assigned to different intervention arms

without following a “random” procedure. For instance, this may be based on
the investigator's convenience or whether the participant can afford a
particular drug or not. Although such a design can suggest a possible
relationship between the intervention and the outcome, it is susceptible to
bias – with patients in the two groups being potentially dissimilar – and
hence validity of the results obtained is low.

3. Interventional studies without concurrent controls

When a new intervention, e.g., a new drug, becomes available, it is

possible to a researcher to assign a group of persons to receive it and
compare the outcome in them to that in a similar group of persons followed
up in the past without this treatment (”historical controls”). This is liable to a
high risk of bias, e.g., through differences in the severity of disease or other
factors in the two groups or through improvement over time in the available
supportive care.

4. Before–after (pre–post) studies

In this design, a variable of interest is measured before and after an

intervention in the same participants. Examples include measurement of
glycated hemoglobin of a group of persons before and after administration of
a new drug (in a particular dose schedule and at a particular time in relation
to it) or number of traffic accident deaths in a city before and after
implementation of a policy of mandatory helmet use for two-wheeler drivers.

Such studies have a single arm and lack a comparator arm. The only
basis of deriving a conclusion from these studies is the temporal relationship
of the measurements to the intervention. However, the outcome can instead
be related to other changes that occurred around the same time as the
intervention, e.g., change in diet or implementation of alcohol use
restrictions, respectively, in the above examples. The change can also
represent a natural variation (e.g., diurnal or seasonal) in the variable of
interest or a change in the instrument used to measure it. Thus, the
outcomes observed in such studies cannot be reliably attributed to the
specific intervention, making this a weaker design than RCT.

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Some believe that the before-after design is comparable to
observational design and that only studies with a “comparator” group, as
discussed above, are truly interventional studies.

5. Factorial study design

If two (or more) interventions are available for a particular disease

condition, the relevant question is not only whether each drug is efficacious
but also whether a combination of the two is more efficacious than either of
them alone.

The simplest factorial design is a 2 × 2 factorial design. Let us think of

two interventions: A and B. The participants are randomly allocated to one of
four combinations of these interventions – A alone, B alone, both A and B,
and neither A nor B (control).

This design allows

(i) comparison of each intervention with the control group,

(ii) comparison of the two interventions with each other, and
(iii) investigation of possible interactions between the two
treatments (whether the effect of the combination differs from
the sum of effects of A and B when given separately). As an
example, in a recent study, infants in South India being
administered a rotavirus vaccine were randomly assigned to
receive a zinc supplement and a probiotic, only probiotic (with
zinc placebo), only zinc supplement (with probiotic placebo), or
neither (probiotic placebo and zinc placebo). Neither zinc nor
probiotic led to any change in the immunogenicity of the
vaccine, but the group receiving the zinc-probiotic combination
had a modest improvement.

This design allows the study of two interventions in the same trial
without unduly increasing the required number of participants, as also the
study of interaction between the two treatments.

6. Crossover study design

This is a special type of interventional study design, in which study

participants intentionally “crossover” to the other intervention arm. Each
participant first receives one intervention (usually by random allocation, as
described above). At the end of this “first” intervention, each participant is
switched over to the other intervention. Most often, the two interventions are
separated by a washout period to get rid of the effect of the first intervention
and to allow each participant to return to the baseline state. For example, in
a recent study, obese participants underwent two 5-day inpatient stays –
with a 1-month washout period between them, during which they consumed
a smoothie containing 48-g walnuts or a macronutrient-matched placebo
smoothie without nuts and underwent measurement of several blood
analytes, hemodynamics, and gut microbiota.

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This design has the advantages of

(i) each participant serving as his/her own control, thereby reducing

the effect of interindividual variability, and
(ii) needing fewer participants than a parallel-arm RCT.

However, this design can be used only for disease conditions which are
stable and cannot be cured, and where interventions provide only transient
relief. For instance, this design would be highly useful for comparing the
effect of two anti-inflammatory drugs on symptoms in patients with long-
standing rheumatoid arthritis.

7. Cluster randomized trials

Sometimes, an intervention cannot be easily administered to

individuals but can be applied to groups. In such cases, a trial can be done
by assigning “clusters” – some logical groups of participants – to receive or
not receive the intervention.

As an example, a study in Greece looked at the effect of providing

meals in schools on household food security. The 51 schools in this study
were randomly allocated to provide or not provide a healthy meal every day
to students; schools in both the groups provided an educational intervention.

However, such studies need a somewhat larger sample size than

individual-randomized studies and the use of special statistical tools for data
analysis.

Example studies:

Effectiveness of a School Food Aid Programme in Improving Household

Food Insecurity: A Cluster Randomized Trial.

Mechanisms Underlying the Cardiometabolic Protective Effect of Walnut

Consumption in Obese People: A Cross-Over, Randomized,
Double-Blind, Controlled Inpatient Physiology Study

The effect of probiotics and zinc supplementation on the immune response

to oral rotavirus vaccine: A randomized, factorial design, placebo-
controlled study among Indian infants.

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V. Activity

A. Directions: On the line before the number, write the letters of the
expression
outside the box.

field trials crossover study design

factorial study design cluster randomized trial
before–after (pre–post) studies research intervention
randomized controlled trials Interventional Study
controlled nonrandomized controlled clinical
first trials

1. Can be applied to groups

2. Study participants intentionally
3. Refers to the presence of a comparator group
4. Participant has an equal chance of being allocated to
the two

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groups
5. Participants are assigned to different intervention arms
6. Interventions are available for a particular disease
condition
7. Clinical trials
8. Variable of interest is measured before and after an
intervention
9. Community trials
10. Purposive change strategies

B. Directions: Describe intervention using the graphic organizer below.

Highlight the uses of each intervention and its importance in daily life.

Definition

Importance Purpose

INTERVENTION

Example Title

VI. Reference

Aggarwal R, Ranganathan P. Study designs: Part 2 – Descriptive studies.

Perspect Clin Res. 2019;10:34–6. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
[Google Scholar]

Dalma A, Petralias A, Tsiampalis T, Nikolakopoulos S, Veloudaki A, Kastorini

CM, et al. Effectiveness of a school food aid programme in improving
household food insecurity; a cluster randomized trial. Eur J Public
Health. 2019 pii: ckz091. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Lazarus RP, John J, Shanmugasundaram E, Rajan AK, Thiagarajan S, Giri S, et

al. The effect of probiotics and zinc supplementation on the immune
response to oral rotavirus vaccine: A randomized, factorial design,
placebo-controlled study among Indian infants. Vaccine.
2018;36:273–9. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

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Ranganathan P, Aggarwal R. Study designs: Part 1 – An overview and
classification. Perspect Clin Res. 2018;9:184–6. [PMC free article]
[PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Ranganathan P, Aggarwal R. Study designs: Part 3 – Analytical observational

studies. Perspect Clin Res. 2019;10:91–4. [PMC free article]
[PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Tuccinardi D, Farr OM, Upadhyay J, Oussaada SM, Klapa MI, Candela M, et al.
Mechanisms underlying the cardiometabolic protective effect of
walnut consumption in obese subjects: A cross-over, randomized,
double-blinded, controlled inpatient physiology study. Diabetes Obes
Metab. 2019 [In Press]. doi: 10.1111/dom.13773. [PMC free article]
[PubMed] [Google Scholar]

https://www.eupati.eu/glossary/interventionalstudy/#:~:text=An
%20interventional%20study%20is% 20one,studies%20known%20as
%20clinical%20trials.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6647894/
#:~:text=Interventional%20studies%20can%20be%20divided,entire
%20groups%2C%20e.g.%2C%20villages%2C

ACTIVITY SHEETS IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

Name: Grade/Section Score:

School: Bunawan National High School Date:

Teacher: Rose Mary A. Otaza Score:

I. Title: Planning Data Collection Procedures

II. Learning Competency:

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Plans data collection procedure. (CS_RS12-IIa-c-5)

III. Instruction/ Discussion:

Data collection refers to the process of gathering information.

The data that you will collect should be able to answer the
questions you posed in your Statement of the Problem.
There are various methods that you can use in collecting data for
a research study. Each has its advantages and disadvantages and
as a researcher you should be able to identify when it is appropriate
to employ each of the data collection procedures. All these
techniques are expected to generate numerical calculations. The
data are collected, recorded, organized and translated to
measurement scales and entered into a computer database for
statistical computation, using appropriate software packages like
EXCEL, SPSS, SAS, etc.

Types of Quantitative Data Collection Procedures

A. Observation
This method of gathering data is usually used in situations where the
respondents cannot answer the researcher's question to obtain
information for a research study. The observation is structured to elicit
information that could be coded to give numerical data. As a researcher,
you have to prepare a checklist using an appropriate rating scales that
may categorize the behaviour, attitude or attribute that you are observing
to answer the questions posed in your study. As you observe, you will
record your observation by using checkmarks or cross marks on your
checklist.

B. Survey

Quantitative data can be collected using four (4) main types of survey:

Sample survey.

The researcher collects data from a sample of a population to

estimate the attributes or characteristics of the population. Example of
sample survey pertains to customer satisfaction, education surveys
pertains to customer satisfaction, health care, politics, market research,
academic or. Education surveys. At the current time surveys concerning
feedbacks from parents and teachers on the K-12 implementation are
very timely.

Administrative data.

This is a survey on the organization's day-to-day operations. This kind

of data is now supported with various ICT tools and softwares making it
easy for organization especially governement, schools, industry, NGO to
update thier records efficiently and effectively and put up thier own
Management Information System (MIS).

Census

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The researcher collects data from the selected population. It is an
official count on survey of a population with details on demographics,
economic and social data such as age, sex, education, marital status,
household size, occupation, religion, employment data, educational
qualifications, and housing. The collected data are usually used by
government or private firms for planning purposes and development
strategies.

In the Philippines, census of this kind is conducted by the National

Statistics Office (NSO) for civil registration system, Bureau of Labor and
Employment Statistics (BLES), Philippine Statistical Association (PSA),
COMELEC and other national agencies.

Tracer studies

This is a regular survey with a sample of those surveyed within a

specific time or period. In school settings, tracer studies are used by
educational institutions to follow up their graduates. The survey is usually
sent to a random sample after one or two years after graduation from
their courses. Tracer studies gather data on work or employment data,
current occupation and competencies needed in the workplace to
determine gaps in curriculum and other related activities between
academe and industry.

C. Quantitative Interview

The interview may be used for both quantitative and qualitative

research studies. Both research methods involve the participation of the
researcher and respondents.

In conducting a quantitative interview, the researcher prepares an

interview guide or schedule. It contains the list of questions and
answer options that the researcher will read to the respondent. The
interview guide may contain closed-ended questions and a few open-
ended questions as well, that are delivered in the same format and
same order to every respondent.

This method of collecting data involves gathering of information

from a large representative sample, which is quite laborious. Using a
recorder during the interview will lessen not only the time required to
record the answers but will also lessen the interview effect on the
respondents. Likewise, it gives the researcher an opportunity to explain or
clarify some questions which may be confusing to the respondent.
However, it is time consuming and expensive than administering
questionnaires.

Data from quantitative interviews can be analyzed by assigning

numerical values to the responses of the participants. The numeric
responses may be entered into a data analysis computer program where
you can run various statistical measures.

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D. Questionnaire

A questionnaire may be standardized or researcher-made.

A Standardized questionnaire has gone through the process of

psychometric validation, has been piloted and revised.

Sauro (2012) provided the advantages of standardized usabilty

questionnaire:

1. Validity it has undergone the process of validation procedures.

That is, it determines how well the questionnaire measures what
it is intended to measure.
2. Reliability The repeatability of the questionnaire has been
tested. It refers to how consistent responses are to the
questions.
3. Sensitivity
It is often measured using resampling procedures to see how
well the questionnaire can differentiate at a fraction of the
sample size.
4. Objectivity
To attain this measure, practitioners or experts are requested to
verity statements of other practitioners in the same field.
5. Quantification
The standardized questionnaire has undergone statistical
analysis
6. Norms
The standardized questionnaire have normalized references and
databases which allow one to convert raw scores to percentile
ranks.

For a researcher-made questionnaire that has been developed by

the researcher specifically tor a research study, the following should be
discussed

1. the corrections and suggestions made on the draft to improve

the instrument
2. the different persons involved in the correction and refinement
of the research instrument
3. the pre-testing efforts and subsequent instrument revisions
4. the type of items used in the instrument
5. the reliability of the data and evidence of validity
6. the steps involved in scoring, guidelines for interpretation

The following discussion will guide you in formulating good questions in a

questionnaire:

 Avoid leading questions.

 Be specific with what you like to measure. For example, if you want
to evaluate a program, be specific with what aspect or

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measurement you like to evaluate in the program, quality?
Effectiveness?
 Avoid unfamiliar words that the respondents might not be familiar
with
 Multiple choice categories should be mutually exclusive to elicit
clear choices
 Avoid personal questions, which may intrude into the privacy of the
respondents like those questions pertaining to income, family life,
beliefs, like religions or political affiliation
 Make your questions short and easy to answer

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IV. Activity

A. Direction: On Data Collection Procedures

1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each one of the
types of data collection methods for quantitative research?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

B. Directions. Write a the following based on the format from “Ang Tagnau”
which was given to you during the first quarter.

 Data Gathering Procedur

V. What have I learned?

1. Which data collection procedure appropriate to your chosen

research study? Why do you say so?
.

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VI. References:

Carey, T., Naval, V., & Prieto, N. (2017). Planning Data Collection Procedures.
Practical research 2 for senior high. QC: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

Ang Tagnau

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ACTIVITY SHEETS IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

Name: Grade/Section Score:

School: Bunawan National High School Date:

Teacher: Rose Mary A. Otaza Score:

I. Title: Planning Data Analyses Using Statistics and Testing the Hypothesis

II. Learning Competency:

Plans data analysis using statistics and hypothesis testing (if
appropriate)
(CS_RS12-IIa-c-6)

III. Instructions

INTRODUCTION

When the necessary data have already been collected, the next
step is to organize the raw data for data analysis. It is important that
the researcher is assured of the quality of the data for accuracy,
consistency, completeness and systematic arrangement to facilitate
coding and tabulation.

Every research methodology requires a data analysis plan. The

plan includes specifying the statistical measures to use and to address
the research questions. The appropriate methods of data analysis are
determined by the type of data, the variables.

Purpose of Data Analysis Plan

The purpose of a data analysis plan is to gather useful information to

find solutions to research questions of interest. It may be used to:

 describe data sets;

 determine the degree of relationship of variables;
 determine differences between variables;
 predict outcomes, and
 compare variables.

All of the above could be manipulated by using any or a combination of

the following data analysis strategies:

 Exploratory Data Analysis

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This type of data analysis is used when it is not clear what to expect
from the data. This strategy uses numerical and visual presentations such as
graphs. Since the research of interest is new, it is possible to find some
inconsistencies, such as missing values, distribution of the data or unusually
small or too large values or invalid data.

 Descriptive Data Analysis

This type of data analysis Is used to describe, show or summarize data

in a meaningful way, leading to a simple interpretation of data. Descriptive
data analyses do not allow you to formulate conclusions beyond the data
that you have described. The commonly used descriptive statistics are those
that analyze the distribution of data such as frequency, percentage,
measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion.

 Inferential Data Analysis

Inferential statistics tests hypotheses about a set of data to reach

conclusions or generalize beyond merely describing the data. Inferential
statistics include tests of significance of difference such as the t-test,
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA); and tests of relationship such as Product
Moment Coefficient or Correlation or Pearson r, Spearman rho, linear
regression and Chi-square test.

Quantitative Analysis in Evaluation

Determining the level of measurement of the quantitative data is

important before proceeding with analysis of data. The choice of statistical
measure/s to use is dependent on the level of measurement of the data. The
following are the levels of measurement scales:

 Nominal Scale
 Ordinal Scale
 Interval Scale
 Ratio Scale
 Nominal Scale

A nominal scale of measurement is used for labelling variables. It

is sometimes called categorical data. Basketball players wear sports
shirts with numbers, but that is just a way to identify the players.
Likewise, if you want to categorize respondents based on gender, you
could use 1 for male, and 2 for female. No order or distance is
observed. The Yes or No scale is an example of nominal data. The
numbers assigned to the variables have no quantitative value. Some
examples of variables measured on a nominal scale are gender,
religious affiliation, race or ethnic group.

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 Ordinal Scale

An ordinal scale of measurement assigns order on items on the

characteristics being measured. It involves the ranking of individuals,
attitudes and characteristics. The order in the honor roll (first honor,
second honor, third honor); order of agreement (strongly agree, agree,
strongly disagree) or economic status (low, average, high) are some
examples.

Numerical scores such as first, second, third and so on are

assigned but the

numerical value or quantity has no value except its ability to establish

ranking among a set of data. You can talk about ordering, but differences in
order between the ranks are not specified.

 Interval Scale

The interval scale has equal units of measurement, thereby,

making it possible to interpret the order of the scale scores and the
distance between them. However, interval scales do not have a "true
zero".

With interval data, addition and subtraction are possible but you
cannot multiply or divide.

 Ratio Scale

Ratio scale is considered the highest level of measurement. It

has the characteristics of an interval scale but it has a zero point.
Because of this property, all Statistical operations can be performed on
ratio scales. All descriptive and inferential statistics may be applied. All
variables can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided.

Descriptive Data Analysis

1. Measures of Central Tendency

Suppose, senior high school students were asked how many hours they
spent on the computer, and in what subject they often used the computer
for. Results of the survey could indicate that on the average, the senior high
school students spent two (2) or more hours with a range of one (1) to four
(4) hours. A typical senior high school student spent more than two hours
studying his/her research subject using the computer.

In the above example, the findings are presented as averages. The use
of the phrase "on the average" and the word "typical" denote that one is
interested to determine the center or middle of a set of data.

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The common measures of central tendency, sometimes called
measures of location or center, include the mean, median and mode.

1.1 Mean

Often called the arithmetic average of a set of data, the mean is the
sum of the observed values in the distribution divided by the number of
observations. It is frequently used for interval or ratio data. The symbol X (x
bar) is used to denote the arithmetic mean.

The mean is calculated by summing up the observations (items,

height, scores or responses) and dividing by the number of observations.

Mean ( X )=
∑ of observations
number of observations
The formula is:
n
Xi
X =∑
i=1 n

The following examples show the calculation of the mean for

ungrouped data, that is a list of data that is not recognized in any way.

A. For Ungrouped Data

Example 1:

Find the mean of the measurement: 18, 26, 27, 29, 30

Solution:

Substitute the measurements using the formula.

X=
∑ x = 18+26+27 +29+30 = 130 =26
n 5 5
Note that the value of the, falls near the middle of the data set.

Answer: X is 26

Suppose the 3rd measurement was 17 (rather than 27). The mean
120
would be =24 . Tnus, the mean is changed when one of the values in the
5
set of observation is changed.

Example 2:

Find the mean of the following:

Scores in the National Achievement Test (NAT)

90 95 96 87 110
102 95 98 87 117
115 96 91 95 95
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You can use the mean when the numbers you have can be added or
when characteristics are measured on a numerical Scale like those used to
describe height, weight, or scores on a test.

B. For Grouped Data

When the observations are grouped into classes, the formula for
grouped data is as follows:
frequency of each class
Mean ( X )= x class midpoint
total number of observation

1.2 The Weighted Mean

The weighted average or weighted mean is necessary in some

situations. Suppose that you are given the means of two or more
measurements and you wish to find the mean of all the measures combined
into one group. The formula for weighted mean is given by,

x w=
∑ fx
n
Where:
f = frequency
x = numerical value
n = number of observations in the data set
Example 1:
Find the mean of the heights of 50 senior high school students
summarized as follows:

HEIGHT x
HEIGHTS FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY
56 6 336
57 15 855
58 12 696
59 8 472
60 5 300
61 2 122
62 2 124
∑ f =50 ∑ f x=2905
Solution:
Using the above data, the weighted mean is equal to the sum of the
column fx, divided by the total number of observations.

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Weighted Mean ( x w )=
∑ fx = 2905 =58.1 inches
n 50

When the data is grouped into the classes, the class midpoint
represents the “X” in the formula.
Example 2:
Solve for the mean of the data value:

FREQUENCY CLASS
CLASS fx
(f ) MIDPOINT ( x )
76 – 80 3 78 243
71 – 75 5 73 365
66 – 70 6 68 408
61 – 65 8 63 504
56 – 60 10 58 580
51 – 55 7 53 371
46 – 50 7 48 336
41 – 45 3 43 129
36 – 40 1 38 38
TOTAL 50 2965

Solution:

Mean ( X )=
∑ fx = 2965 =59.3
n 50
Answer: 59.3
1.3 Median

The median is the midpoint of the distribution. It represents the point

in the data where 50% of the values fall below that point and 50% fall above
it. When the distribution has an even number of observations, the median is
the average of the two middle scores. The median is the most appropriate
measure of central tendency for ordinal data.

A. For Ungrouped Data

The median may be calculated from ungrouped data by doing the

following steps:

1. Arrange the items (scores, responses, observations) from lowest to

highest.

2. Count to the middle value. For an odd number of values arranged

from lowest to highest, the median corresponds to value. If the
array contains an even number of observations, the median is the
average of the two middle values

Example 1:

Consider these odd numbers of numerical values:

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7, 8, 8, 9, 10, 12, 23

By inspection, the median is 9 because half of the values (7, 8, 8) are

below 9

and half (10, 12, 23) are above 9. Since n = 7 is odd, the median has

( ) ( )
th th
n+1 7 +1 th
rank = =4 = item and is equal to 9.
2 2

Answer: The Median is 9.

Example 2

Consider these even numbers of numerical values:

12, 15, 18, 22, 30, 32

The two middle values are 18 and 22. If the average of the two middle
numbers is taken, that is, 18 + 22 = 40 and divided by 2, the median is 20.

Answer: The Median is 20

Example 3:

Find the median for the set of measurements.

15, 20, 12, 26, 3, 30, 14

Solution:

We first rank the measurements from the smallest to the largest 3, 12,
14, 5, 20, 26, 30. Since the number of cases is odd, the median has rank

( ) ( )
th th
n+1 7 +1 th
= =4 .
2 2

The 4th item and is equal to 15.

Answer: The Median is 15.

Suppose the last number is 32 (rather than 30), the median is still 15.
Unlike the mean, the median is not affected by extreme values in the
distribution.

A. For Grouped Data

The data are grouped into classes, the median will fall into one of the

()
th
n
classes as the alue. The process involves several steps and has for its
2
general formula the following:

( )
n
−F
2
Median=L+i
f

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where

L = exact lower limit of the class containing the median (median class)
I = interval size
n = total number of items or observations
F= cumulative frequency in the class preceding the median class
f = frequency of the median class

In the following examples, the use of the step by step procedure will be
illustrated:

Example 4:

The following data show the distribution of the ages of people

interviewed for a survey on a topic about climate change.

CUMULATIVE
CLASS INTERVAL ( x ) FREQUENCY (f )
FREQUENCY ( F )
11 – 20 20 20
21 – 30 14 34
31 – 40 22 56
41 – 50 18 74
51 – 60 14 88
61 – 70 12 100
TOTAL 100
Solution:

Since there are 100 values in the data set, the median will represent

() ( )
th th
n 100
the or the item, that is the 50th largest value.
2 2

Determine in which class the 50th value falls. The first two classes
have a cumulative frequency of 34 classes.

We need another 16 values to reach 50. Thus, the 50h value falls in
the next class which contains 22 values. The median class then is 31-40.

Thus,

L = 30.5
n = 100
F = 34
f = 22
i= 10

Substitute all these values using the following formula.

( )
n
−F
2
Median=L+i
f

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( )
50
−34
2
¿ 30.5+10
22

¿ 30.5+10 ( 1622 )
160
¿ 30.5+
22
¿ 30.5+7.27
¿ 37.77

This means that 50% or 50 of the 100 ages will fall below 37.77 and
50% or 50 will fall above it.

1.4 Mode

The mode is the most frequently occurring value in a set of

observations. In cases where there is more than one observation which is the
highest but with equal frequency, the distribution is bimodal (with 2 highest
observations) or multimodal with more than two highest observations. In
cases where every item has an equal number of observations, there is no
mode, the mode is appropriate for nominal data.

Example 1:

The ages of fifteen (15) persons assembled in a room are as follows:

16, 18, 18, 18, 25, 25, 25, 30, 34, 36 and 38.

Solution:

An age of 25 is the mode because it has been recorded three times in

the sample, more than any other age.

Answer: Mode = 25

Example 2

The number of hours spent by 10 students in an internet café was as

follows:

2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5

Solution:

Both 2 and 4 have a frequency of 3. The data is therefore bimodal.

Answer: Mode 2 and 4

Example 3:

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Referring to the data on the distribution of the ages of 100 people
interviewed for a survey on a topic on national interest, the modal class is
31-40. The mode which corresponds to the class midpoint would be
31−40
=35.5 .
2

2. Measures of Dispersion

Suppose you ask a group of senior high school students to rate the
quality of food at the school canteen and you find out that the average rating
is 3.5 using the following scale: 5 (Excellent); 4 (Very Satisfactory); 3
(Satisfactory); 2 (air), and 1 (Poor).

How close are the ratings given by the studeents ? Do their ratings
cluster around the middle point of 3, or are their ratings spread or dispersed,
With some students giving

ratings of 1 and the rest giving ratings of 5?

The extent of the spread, or the dispersion of the data is described by

a group of measures called measures of dispersion, also called measures of
variability. The measures to be considered are the range, average or mean
deviation, standard deviation and the variance.

2.1 The Range

The range is the difference between the largest and the smallest
values in a set of data.

Consider the following scores obtained by ten (10) students

participating in a mathematics contest:

6, 10, 12, 15, 18, 18, 20, 23, 25, 28

Thus, the range is 22. The scores range from 6 to 28.

2.2 Average (Mean) Deviation

This measure of spread is defined as the absolute difference or

deviation between the values in a set of data and the mean, divided by the
total number of values in the set of data.

In mathematics, the term "absolute" represented by the sign " ||”

simply means taking the value of a number without regard to positive or
negative sign.

A. For Ungrouped Data

The formula based on the definition is:

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|x−x|
Average Deviation ( AD )=∑
n
Example1:

Consider a set of values which consists of 20, 25, 35, 40, 45. Solving
for the
20+25+35+ 40+45
mean, , the mean is 33. Find the average deviation.
5

Solution:

|20−33|+|25−33|+|35−33|+|40−33|+|45−33|
AD=
5
|−13|+|−8|+|2|+|7|+|12|
AD=
5
13+8+2+7+12
AD=
5
42
AD=
5
AD=8.4

Thus, on the average, each value is 8.4 units from the mean.

Example 2:

A set of observations consists of 22, 60, 75, 85, 98. Find the average
deviation.

Solution:

The mean is
∑ x = 340 =68
n 8
The average deviation is computed as follows:

|22−68|+|60−68|+|75−68|+|85−68|+|98−68|
AD=
5

|−46|+|−8|+|7|+|17|+|30|
AD=
5
46+ 8+7+17+30
AD=
5
108
AD=
5
AD=21.6
Thus, the average distance for the set of data is 21.6 units from the mean.

2.3 Standard Deviation

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The standard deviation (SD) is a measure of the spread or variation of
data about the mean.

SD computed by calculating the average distance that the average

value is from the mean.

A. For Ungrouped Data

The formula for calculating the standard deviation for ungrouped data
is given by:

SD=
√ ∑ ( x−x )2
n−1
Example 1 will outline the steps in computing the standard deviation for a
set of data.

Example 1:

Let us consider the values are 6, 10, 12, 15, 18, 18, 20, 23, 25, 28.

Solution:

1. Compute the mean

6+10+12+15+18+ 18+20+23+25+ 28
x=
10
175
¿
10
x=17.5

2. Subtract the mean from each score ( x ) ,∨x−x .

3. Square each difference from Step 2, or ( x−x . )2

Score (x) x−x ( x−x )2

6 (6-17.5) = -11.5 132.25
10 (10-17.5) = -7.5 56.25
12 (12-17.5) =-5.5 30.25
15 (15-17.5) = -3.5 12.25
18 (18-17.5) = .5 6.25
18 (18-17.5) = 5 25
20 (20-17.5) = 2.5 6.25
23 (23-17.5) = 5.5 30.25
25 (25-17.5) = 7.5 56.25
28 (28-17.5) =10.5 110.25
∑ ( x −x )2=434.5

4. Sum all the squares from Step 3 or ( x−x )2.

5. Divide the number in Step 4 by n−1. The number of items or scores is

denoted byn . The quantity n−1 is called the degrees of freedom, a
statistical concept that produces a more accurate estimate of the data.

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6. Compute the standard deviation using the formula below:

SD=
√ ∑ ( x−x )2
n−1

¿
√ 434.5
10−1

¿
√ 434.5
9

¿ √ 48.278
SD¿ 6.95

Interpretation of the Standard Deviation

The standard deviation allows you to reach conclusions about scores in

the distribution the following conclusions can be reached if that distribution
of scores is normal:

1. Approximately 68% of the scores in the sample falls within one standard
deviation of the mean.

2. Approximately 95% of the scores in the sample falls within two standard
deviations of the mean.

3. Approximately, 99% of the scores in the sample falls within three

standard deviations of the mean.

4. In our example, with a f of 17.5 and a standard deviation of 6.95, we can

say that,

68% of the scores will fall in the range

= (17.5-6.95) to (17.5+6.95)

= 10.5 to 24.45

5. Likewise, 95% of the scores will fall in the range

= 17.5- (2)(6.95) to 17.5+ (2)(6.95)

= (17.5-13.9) to (17.5+13.9)

= 3.6 to 31.4

B. Inferential Data Analysis

Inferential statistics refers to statistical measures and techniques that

allow us to use samples to make generalizations about the population from
which the samples were drawn.

Below is a list of common statistical measures to measure significant

differences and relationships between variables.

1. Test of Significance of Difference (T-test)

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 Between Means
 for independent samples (i.e when the respondents consist of
two different groups as boys and girls, working mothers and
non-working mothers, healthy and malnourished children and the
like)

Case 1: δ 1=¿ δ 2unknown or n1 ≥ 30∧n2 ≥ 30.

( x 1−x 2 )−( μ1−μ 2 )

z=

√
2 2
δ1 δ 2
−
n1 n2

Case 2:δ 1 ≠ δ 2 and n1 <30∧n2 <30.

( x 1−x 2) −( μ1−μ 2)
t=

√
2
s1 s2
2 (df =smaller of n1−1∨n2−1)
−
n1 n2

Case 3:δ 1 ≠ δ 2 and n1 <30∧n2 <30.

( x 1−x 2) −( μ1−μ 2)
t=

√
2
sp s p
2 (df =n1 +n2 −2)
−
n1 n2

2 ( n1−1 ) s 21+ ( n2−1 ) s22

Where s=
p
n1 +n2−2

for correlated/dependent samples (i.e when the same set of respondents or

paired sets of respondents are involved)
d−μd
t= (df =n−1)
sd
√n
 Between Proportions or Percentages
 for independent samples
( p1− p2 )
z=
pq pq
−
n1 n2 √
 for correlated/dependent samples

D− A p 1− p2
z= ∨z=
√ A +D a+ d
N √
 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

ANOVA is used when significance of difference of means of two or more

groups are to be determined at one time

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 One-Way Analysis of Variance

A typical ANOVA Table

Source of Degree Sum Mean

F-ratio ρ
Variation f Freedom F Squares Square

Between
groups

Within
groups

Total

ANOVA relies on the F-ration to test the hypothesis that the two
variances are equal; that is, the subgroups are from the same population.
"Between groups” refers to the variation between each group mean and the
grand or Overall mean.

2. Tests of Relationship

 Spearman Rank-Order Correlation or Spearman rho. This is used when

data available are expressed in terms of ranks (ordinal variable).

6∑ D
2
ρ=1−
N ( N 2−1 )

 Chi-Square Test for Independence. This is used when data are

expressed in terms of frequencies or percentages (nominal variables).

Case 1: Multinomial

Case 2: Contingency Table

( O−E )2
x 2= ∑ [ df =( r −1 ) ( c−1 ) ]
E
where

( row total ) ( column total )

E=
( grand total )

 Product - Moment Coefficient of Correlation or Pearson r

This is used when data are expressed in terms of scores such as

weights and heights or scores in a test (ratio or interval).

Case 1: When deviations from the mean are used

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r=
∑ ( x−x ) ( y− y )
2 2
[ ∑ ( x −x ) ] [ ∑ ( y − y ) ]
Case 2: When raw scores on the original observation are
used
n ∑ xy −( ∑ x )( ∑ y )
r=
√ [ n∑ x − (∑ x ) ][ n∑ y −(∑ y ) ]
2 2 2 2

 T-test to test the Significance of Pearson r

The T-test to test the significance of Pearson r is used to
determine if the
value of the computed coefficient of correlation is significant.
That is, does it represent a real correlation. or is the obtained
coefficient or correlation merely brought about by the formula

√
2
( f o−f e ) n−2
x =∑
2
¿ t=r
fe 1−r 2
where
r = correlation coefficient
n = number samples
The coefficient of determination (r) can also be used to indicate
what proportion of the total variation in the dependent variable
is explained by the linear relationship with the independent
variable. You can multiply by 100 to convert the coefficient of
determination to percent.

TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS

Introduction

Hypothesis testing is an important part of the data analysis plan in

conducting a research study. if the researcher wishes to draw some
inferences from data taken from a sample which may have wider
generalizability, this is referred to as inferential statistics

and it is more complex than descriptive statistics.

Inferences applied to the total population are valid under two

conditions, namely:

there is a target population and when appropriate random sampling has

been used in the selection of the samples.

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Population and Sample

A measure based on a population is called a parameter while a

measure based on a sample is called a statistic. The population mean is
called a parameter and is represented by the symbol μ (a Greek letter). The
sample mean is a statistic and is represented by X .

Inferential statistics requires that the sample be drawn by random

sampling. If there is bias in sampling, it is possible for the inference to be
wrong. To determine if the inference is valid, testing the statistical
significance is very important. To be statistically significant, any relationship
or difference must be due to planned interventions rather than by chance.

Statistical Significance

Statistically Significant means that a relationship between two or more

variables is caused by something other than by random chance. Significant
also means probably

true (not due to chance). When the result is highly significant, it means that
it is very

probably true.

The level of significance shows how likely the results of your data are
due to chance. A chance of being true indicates that the finding has a five
percent chance of not being true. A level of significance means that there is
a chance that the finding is true.

Statistical hypothesis testing is used to determine whether the result of

a data set is statistically significant.

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a pre-conceived idea, assumed to be true and has to be

tested for its truth or falsity. Let us suppose a researcher is concerned with
testing the relationship between variables. Through inferential statistical
measures, the researcher can discover important information even if no
relationship is established between the variables. It is possible for the
researcher to discover differences and, therefore may test individual or
group differences.

Consequently, the researcher should think of inferential statistics in

terms of whether it tests for relationship or association or whether it tests for
comparison or difference.

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The two types of hypothesis are the null hypothesis and the
alternative hypothesis.

The null hypothesis is denoted by while the alternative hypothesis is

denoted by H o . The null hypothesis is the hypothesis that is always tested by
a researcher. The null hypothesis indicates that there is no difference
between the group means in the comparison. The alternative hypothesis on
the other hand, indicates that there is a true difference between the group
means.

The results will show that

(1) either there is a meaningful difference between the two groups,

thus, you reject the null hypothesis or

(2) the difference between the two groups is not large enough to
conclude that the groups are different thus you fail to reject the null
hypothesis. If the null hypothesis is rejected, then the alternative
hypothesis is accepted.

Type I and Type II Errors

There are two types of errors involved with hypothesis testing. Type I
error is committed when a researcher rejected a null hypothesis when in
fact it is true. The second type of error, Type II error, is the error that occurs
when the data from the sample produce results that fail to reject the null
hypothesis when in fact the null hypothesis is false and should be rejected.

Parametric and Nonparametric Statistics

Two types of significance tests that are usually used by researchers

are called parametric and nonparametric statistics. Parametric tests are used
for interval and ratio scales of measurement. They require that the samples
and observations are drawn from normally distributed populations and that
the selection of each case should be independent of the other. The
population should have equal variances.

Nonparametric tests do not specify normally distributed populations

and similarity of variances. Nonparametric tests are the only tests used with
nominal data or ordinal data.

Steps in Hypothesis Testing

The main concern or idea in hypothesis testing is to ensure that what is

observed from sample data and generalized to population phenomena is not
due to chance.

The following outlines the steps in hypothesis testing in any given

situation.

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1. State the null hypothesis. The null ( H o ) hypothesis is a statement that no
difference exists between the averages or means of two groups.

Example

Let us suppose that an advertising agency is conducting an experiment

using two different methods of marketing strategies (X and Y) to grade 11
students. The results of the experiment will be measured using the monthly
sales of the company.

There are three possible outcomes

A. Strategy X is equal to strategy that is, (X = Y)

B. Strategy X is better than strategy Y, that is, (X > Y)

C. Strategy X is poorer than strategy Y, that is, (X < Y)

Outcome A forms the basis of the null hypothesis ( H o ) , a statement of no

difference in monthly sales in the populations being compared.

Outcomes B and C are statements of differences between populations and

are the alternate hypothesis. For the experiment, the following are the
hypothesis:
Ho : Respondent in the population where strategy X will be used to
produce monthly sales equal to that of the population where
strategy Y will be used.
H 1 : Respondents in the population where Method X will be used to show
either more or less monthly sale than those where strategy Y will
be used. Therefore, outcomes B and C are combined into a single
alternate hypothesis. This hypothesis is called a non-direction
hypothesis and a two-tailed test is needed for this kind of
experiment.

However, if the alternate hypothesis was that respondents using

strategy X got higher monthly sales than those using Method Y, the result
would be a directional hypothesis that should be tested by a one-tailed test.

2. Choose the statistical test and perform the calculation. A researcher must
determine the measurement scale, the type of variable, the type of data
gathered and the number of groups or the number of categories.

3. State the level of significance for the statistical test. The level of
significance is determined before the test is performed. It has been
traditionally accepted by various schools of thought to use alpha ∝to
denote the level of significance in rejecting the null hypothesis. It is
equivalent to the amount or risk regarding accuracy of the test that the
researcher is willing to accept. The levels frequently used are .05, .01, and
.001. An ∝level of significance implies that the probability of committing
an error by chance is 5 in 100.

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4. Compute the calculated value. Use the appropriate formula for the
significance test to obtain the calculated value.

5. Determine the critical value the test statistic must attain to be significant.
After you have computed the calculated measure, you must look at the
critical value in the appropriate table for the distribution. The critical value
defines the region or rejection from the region of acceptance of the null
hypothesis. The areas or acceptance and rejection in a standard normal
distribution, using ∝= 0.05, is illustrated below.

Figure 1. Critical region for the test of significance

6. Make the decision. If the calculated value is greater than the critical value,
you reject the null hypothesis. If the critical value is larger, you conclude that
you have failed to reject the null hypothesis.

IV. ACTIVITY

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A. Directions: Given a population (N) of 10,000, complete the table
below using the Slovin’s Formula.

Estimate of error (e) Sample size (n)

1%
2%
3%
4%
5%

B. Directions: Using stratified random sampling procedure, determine

the number of samples from each level based on the sample size of
200.
A public secondary school wishes to assess the student’s views of the
quality service of specific offices under the students services. The
population of 2000 students consist of:

LEVEL POPULATION (N) SAMPLE SIZE (n)

First Year 550
Second Year 500
Third Year 500
Fourth Year 450
N=2000 n=200

C. Directions: Solve the following using the stepwise Method

The following are the scores of 10 male and 10 female AB students
in spelling. Test the null hypothesis that there is no significant
difference between the performance of male and female AB students in
the test. Use the t-test at 0.05 level of significance.

Male (X 1) Female (X 2)
14 12
18 9
17 11
16 5
4 10
14 3
12 7
10 2
9 6
17 13

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Solution:

MALE FEMALE

X1 X1
2
X2 X2
2

∑ X 1=¿ ¿ ∑ X 21=¿ ¿ ∑ X 2=¿ ¿ ∑ X 22=¿ ¿

I. What is the problem?

II. What is the hypothesis?

Ho :

H1:

III. What is the level of significance?

IV. What is the statistics used?

V. What is your decision rule?

VI. What is your conclusion?

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D. Directions. Write a the following based on the format from “Ang Tagnau”
which was given to you during the first quarter.

 Research Instrument
 Data Analysis

V. Closure

What I have learned

VI. Reference

Carey, T., Naval, V., & Prieto, N. (2017). Planning data analyses using
statistics. Practical research 2 for senior high. QC: Lorimar Publishing,
Inc. Pp. 119-134.

Carey, T., Naval, V., & Prieto, N. (2017). Testing the hypothesis. Practical
research 2 for senior high. QC: Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Pp. 135-138.
https://www.google.com/search?
q=critical+region+for+the+test+of+significance&rlz=1C1GTPM_enPH889PH
889&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj6jpWq0prqAhUY7WEKHf

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EUAp8Q_AUoAXoECA0QAw&biw=1024&bih=526#imgrc=Fi8tTw29E3AkrM&i
mgdii=rpb9ZxVIoRDmqM. Retrieved on June 24, 2020.

ACTIVITY SHEETS IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

Name: Grade/Section Score:

School: Bunawan National High School Date:

Teacher: Rose Mary A. Otaza Score:

I. Title: Research Methodology

II. Learning Competency:

Research Methodology. (CS_RS12-IIa-c-7)

III. Instructions

Chapter 3
RESEARCH METHODS

3.1 Research Design

The first sentence of this section states the research design whether
experimental, correlational, descriptive, quantitative, qualitative or
combination, historical, etc. which you are using in your study. This will be
followed by sentences that will support your chosen research design. You
may do this by explaining why you chose this design or by explaining what
procedure or instrument you are using for this design.

3.2 Participants/Subject of the Study

Choose “Participants of the Study” if you are gathering data from human
beings, use “Subject of the Study” if you are gathering data from non-human
biological beings, phenomenon, or non-animate things. In this section, you
will explain the respondents or participants of the study, and provide reasons
of your choice. You will then write the sampling procedure that you
employed in this study and its method of identifying the samples. If you are
using Probabilistic Sampling (Simple Random Sampling, Stratified Random
Sampling, Cluster Sampling, etc.), state the formula and the margin of error
that you will consider in identifying the samples. If you are using Non-
probabilistic Sampling (Purposive Sampling, Snowball Sampling, etc.),
discuss the criteria that you considered in choosing your samples or
respondents.
The next paragraph tells the table showing the sample distribution
below (except for Non-probabilistic Sampling). Label it as “Table 3.2.1”.

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Table 3.2.1 Distribution of strata per section in Grade 12 students
(example of table using Stratified Random Sampling)
3.3 Setting of the Study
Write the place or locale where you are going to conduct your study
and explain
the reason why you chose this setting. Insert map if necessary, the map
should be labeled “Figure 3.3.1”.

3.4 Research Instrument

Begin by discussing what type of instrument you are using, and
describe the contents of this instrument and what data can be extracted
using this instrument. Indicate whether you designed it or adopted it. Do not
forget to mention the source for instruments that were adopted. Discuss also
the validation procedures and the reliability of your instrument.

3.5 Data Gathering Procedure

The first paragraph talks about the preliminary procedures done by the
researchers before gathering the data. This includes the preparation and
distribution of intent letters to the different concerned offices/agencies.
The second paragraph discusses the mining of data using the
instruments
developed and/or adopted to the target respondents. You should be able to
enumerate the procedures from setting the respondents, distribution of
materials up to the retrieval of instrument. The last paragraph indicates the
proper handling of data extracted from the respondents by keeping the data
anonymous and/or confidential.

3.6 Data Analysis

This section discusses the statistical tools and data analysis techniques
employed in your study.
Mean. Begin enumerating by indenting once the paragraph and write the
statistical tool you are using (example above is “Mean”). It should be in
sentence case and in bold format. The following sentences will then discuss
the tool at the context of your study. Meaning you should not define the
statistical tool, rather discuss it in context.

T-test. If there are plenty of statistical tools that should be discussed,

enumerate
them one by one and discuss them at the context of your study. (Note: You
may also include tables that will show how you will analyze your data e.g.
Likert-scale, etc.)

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IV. Activity

Based from your chosen research study, presents your written

research methodology following the parts and format below.
 Research Design
 Participants of the study
 Setting of the Study
 Research Instrument
 Data Gathering Procedure
 Data Analysis

The following rubrics will be use in scoring your output.

Approve
Approve Revise
Approve d with Revise
d with and
QUALITY INDICATORS: d with Revision and
Commen Resubmit
RESEARCH PROJECT Written s Resubmit
dation 2
4 3 1
5

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
• The research design is appropriate and described fully.
• Research design is free of specific weaknesses.
• The role of the researcher is clearly explained.
• The research setting is described and justified.
• Population, sample, criteria for selecting sample/
participants, and access to subjects/participants are
appropriate and described in adequate detail.
• The process to generate, gather and record data is
explained in detail.
• Data gathering methods and procedures are
appropriate and clearly described.
• The systems used for keeping track of data and
emerging understandings (logs, reflective journals,
cataloging) are clearly described.
• Description of instrumentation or data collection tools
is present.
• Measures for ethical protections and rights of
participants are adequate.
• Data analysis methods and procedures are clearly
described.

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V. What have I learned:

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_______________

VI. References: Ang Tagnau, The Agusan del Sur Research Manual
ACTIVITY SHEETS IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

Name: Grade/Section Score:

School: Bunawan National High School Date:

Teacher: Rose Mary A. Otaza Score:

I. Title: Collecting Data Using Appropriate Instruments

II. Learning Competency:

Collects Data Using Appropriate Instruments. (CS_RS12-IId-g-1)

III. Instructions

Chapter 3
COLLECTING DATA USING APPROPRIATE INSTRUMENTS
INTRODUCTION
There are various types of instruments you may use to collect data for
evaluation. The choice of appropriate instruments depends on the type of
data to be collected, the question to be answered, the time frame and the
resources. The method or data collection should not only be appropriate but
also effective.

Data Collection Techniques

Data collection is very important in the analysis of data. There are two
different methods to gather information: primary or secondary.

Primary data collection uses surveys, interviews, questionnaires,

tests, observations, checklists and rating scales. Secondary data collection is
conducted by obtaining information found in journals, books, annual reports,
websites and other publications available for public use.

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A. Collecting Data through Survey Questionnaire

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ACTIVITY SHEETS IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

Name: Grade/Section Score:

School: Bunawan National High School Date:

Teacher: Rose Mary A. Otaza Score:

I. Title: Collecting Data Using Appropriate Instruments

II. Learning Competency:

Collects Data Using Appropriate Instruments. (CS_RS12-IId-g-1)

III. Instructions

COLLECTING DATA USING APPROPRIATE INSTRUMENTS

INTRODUCTION
There are various types of instruments you may use to collect data for
evaluation. The choice of appropriate instruments depends on the type of
data to be collected, the question to be answered, the time frame and the
resources. The method or data collection should not only be appropriate but
also effective.

Data Collection Techniques

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Data collection is very important in the analysis of data. There are two
different methods to gather information: primary or secondary.

Primary data collection uses surveys, interviews, questionnaires,

tests, observations, checklists and rating scales. Secondary data collection is
conducted by obtaining information found in journals, books, annual reports,
websites and other publications available for public use.

A. Collecting Data through Survey Questionnaire

Sample Survey on
"Student Satisfaction on Student Services in a Private Secondary School”

Dear student,

Thank you for being a respondent for this survey. Please help us
improve our services by completing this survey.

1. What is your overall satisfaction rating with our school services?

Very satisfied
Somewhat satisfied
Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
Somewhat dissatisfied
Very dissatisfied

2. Please explain your answer

3. Please rate your level of satisfaction in the quality of student services

provided by your school.

5 - Very Satisfied

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4 - Somewhat Satisfied
3 - Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied
2 - Somewhat Dissatisfied
1 - Very Dissatisfied
5 4 3 2 1
 Registrar's Office
 Canteen
 Student Information System (SIS
 Comfort Rooms
 Classroom Ventilation
 Cashier's Office
 College/Department staff

4. Please rate the following personal goals o going to Senior High School
(SHS) in order of importance from 1 to 6 with 1 indicating most
important goal, 2 second most important goal and so on.

To pursue college education

To be employed after graduation
To enhance my sell-esteem
To become a useful citizen
To develop good attitudes
To be socially and intellectually mature

B. Collecting Data Through Interviews

Sample Research on

"Students Perceptions About Use of ICT in Learning Mathematics

Sample Interview Guide for Students

1. What is your favorite subject/s?

2. Why do you like the subject?
3 What is your least-liked subject/s?
4. Why do you dislike the subject?
5. How is your favorite subject taught by your teacher?
6. How is your least-liked subject taught by your teacher?
7. Which method/ strategy do you find interesting?
8. Does your teacher use ICT in teaching mathematics?
9. Which lICT devices do you frequently use? graphic calcular?
computer?
e-learning?
10. What are the ICT activities that you perform inside the classroom?

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outside the classroom?
11. Which of these activities are helpful to you?
12. Given the number of minutes you spent in learning mathematics,
how many percent do you spend for ICT hands-on math activities?
13. Do you find the use of ICT in leaning mathematics interesting?
14. From a scale of 1 to 10, (with 1 as the lowest and 10 as the
highest), at what level do you assess the effectiveness of ICT
integration in learning mathematics?
15. Does ICT integration in learning mathematics improve your
academic performance in mathematics?

C. Collecting Data Through Questionnaires

Sample Questionnaire A

Directions: Below are questions on the Parents-Teachers Associations

(PTA) involvement in the school development programs of
Francisco Felix High School in Cainta, Rizal.
Please put a check mark (✓) or fill in the blanks on some
necessary information asked for.

Name: (optional):
. .

Status of PTA membership: Officer Member

1. What Is the level of your involvement in the following school

development programs using the following scales:

5 - Highly involved
4 - Moderately involved
3 - Somewhat involved
2 - Slightly involved
1 - Not at all involved
A. Decision Making 5 4 3 2 1
1. Resolving issues on matters arising

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during PTA meetings
2. Pertinent matters on school
development program involvement
B. Support to School Programs
1. Organization of the PTA
2. Sports development activities
3. Intramural activities
4. School activities
5. Cultural programs
6. Beautification programs
7. Environmental awareness
8. Academic competitions
9. Clean and green campaign
10. Waste management
11. Climate change
12. Field trips
C. Fund Raising
1. Sourcing out donations
2. Fund-raising activity
3. Book donations
4. Contribution of construction materials
5. Free labor and repair

D. Extensions and Community

5 4 3 2 1
Involvement
1. Livelihood program
2. Environmental Education
3. Health and Nutrition
4. Population Education
6. ICT Literacy

Sample Questionnaire B

Directions: Please use the following scale to measure the quality of

your school life as a senior high school student. Put a check
mark (✓) on your choice

5-Strongly agree
4-Agreee
3 Neither agree nor disagree
2-Disagree
1- Strongly disagree
Quality of School Life 5 4 3 2 1
1. Teacher support for my well being

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2. Teacher support for my academic
success
3. Good appearance of school

4. Good appearance of classroom

5. Safety at school

6. Enough chairs in the classrooms

7. Good ventilation in the classrooms

8. Enough books in the library

9. Clean and quality service of
canteen
10.Respect from other students

11. Having friends in school

12. Enough playground in school

13. Satisfaction with teachers

14. Satisfaction with grades

15. Overall satisfaction with life in
school
IV. Activity

A. Directions: Use the following questionnaire in conducting a research

study in a nearby secondary school about Senior High School
(SHS) implementation.

Prepare a research report on the study.

Questionnaire on Senior High School (SHS) Implementation

Name of Respondent:
Position:
Type of School: Public Private

A. Basic Information
1. Which track/s in SHS do you offer in your school?
Academic Technical-Vocational Sports Arts and
Design

2. What strand, if academic/ technical-vocational?

Academic Track
Humanities and Social Sciences (HUMSS)

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Accountancy, Business Management (ABM)
Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM)
Liberal Arts or other course/track

Technical-Vocational
Home Economics
Agriculture-Fishery
Arts and Trades
Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

3. How many learners are currently enrolled in- the tracks you are
offering?
 Academic Track
 Technical-Vocational Track
 Sports
 Arts and Design

4. Adequacy of Resources
Instructions: Please check the appropriate rating scale that
corresponds to year evaluation of each statement.
3 - Highly adequate
2 - Adequate
1 – Inadequate

Resources 5 4 3 2 1
1. Availability of Classrooms
2. Availability of component teacher
to handle the track/strand
3. Availability of books and
instructional materials
4. Number of meetings with parents
and students for career choice
5. Number of meetings of officials/
administrators/implementers
6. Number of meetings/workshops/
trainings conducted for SHS
teachers/ facilitators
7. Availability of industry

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partners/private sectors for On-
the-Job Training

B. Directions: Construct a questionnaire that will help you to your study.

Let the teacher validators validate your questionnaire.

The Following Rubric will use in scoring your questionnaire.

Rubric in Constructing A Questionnaire

Good Fair Poor

(3 points) (2 points) (0)
Questions The questions are
clear and precise,
The questions
sometimes are clear
The questions
difficult
are
to
collectively allowing and precise, understand not
for detailed, collectively allowing precise and
unambiguous for meaningful ambiguous.
and meaningful answers. Questions Questions are
answers. are interpreted in interpreted in
Questions are the same way by different way by
interpreted in the respondents. respondents.
same way by
respondents.
Answers All
answers
predefined
provided
All
answers
predefined
provided
All
answers
predefined
provided
and their formats and their formats and their formats
are appropriate to are not always are not appropriate
the question. The appropriate to the to the question. The
number of rating question. The number of rating
scale options is number of scale options is not
adequate to the rating scale options adequate to the
questions. is adequate to the questions.
questions.
Questionnaire Form There is room for
people to add
There is room for
people to add
There is not room
for people to add
additional additional additional
information if they information if they information if they
need. need. need.
Writing Style Writing
concise
style is
and
Writing style
appropriate to the
is Writing
vague
style
and
is
not
accurate and target audience. accurate or
appropriate to the appropriate to the
target audience. target audience.

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Grammar The
grammar
spelling,
and
The
grammar
spelling,
and
The
grammar
spelling,
and
punctuation is punctuation is clear punctuation is not
correct and enough accurate.
accurate.
Timeliness The questionnaire is
submitted before
The questionnaire is
submitted on time.
The questionnaire is
submitted after the
the deadline. deadline.

V. Closure

What I have learned?

VI. References

Carey, T., Naval, V., & Prieto, N. (2017). Planning data analyses using
statistics. Practical research 2 for senior high. QC: Lorimar Publishing,
Inc. Pp. 151-156.

https://www.rcampus.com/rubricshowc.cfm?sp=true&code=W55B93. Retrieved on
June 26, 2020.

ACTIVITY SHEETS IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

Name: Grade/Section Score:

School: Bunawan National High School Date:

Teacher: Rose Mary A. Otaza Score:

I. Title: Presenting and Interpreting Data in Tabular and Graphical Forms

II. Learning Competency:

Presents and interprets data in tabular or graphical forms. (CS_RS12-
IId-g-2)

III. Instructions

PRESENTING AND INTERPRETING DATA IN TABULAR

AND GRAPHICAL FORMS

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INTRODUCTION

To be able to create and present an organized picture of information

from a research report, it is important to use certain techniques to
communicate findings and interpretations of research studies into visual
forms. The common techniques being used to display data results are
tabular, textual and graphical methods. All these provide an initial analysis of
data.

Textual Presentation of Data

Textual presentations use words, statements or paragraphs with

numerals, numbers or measurements to describe data. They can be used
independently to describe the data when there are very few quantities or
numbers. They can also be used to compare data using paragraphs for the
discussion. Here are some examples:

There are 42, 036 barangays in the Philippines. The largest

barangay in terms of population size is Barangay 176 in Caloocan City
with 247 thousand persons. It is followed by Commonwealth in Quezon
City (198, 285) and Batasan Hills in Quezon City (761, 409). Twelve
other barangays posted a population size of more than a hundred
thousand persons.

Source: psa.gov.ph

Tabular Presentation of Data

Tables present clear and organized data. A table must be clear and simple
but complete.

A good table should include the following parts:

 Table number and title- These are placed above the table. The title is
usually written right after the table number.
 Caption subhead- This refers to columns and rows
 Body - It contains all the data under each subhead
 Source - It indicates if the data is secondary and it should be
acknowledged.

Here is an example of a good table.

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Tabular Presentation with Textual Analysis

An information sheet is distributed to 300 junior and senior high school

students of a certain school to gather data on background of the students in
terms in sex, grade level and socioeconomic status as measured by monthly
family income. A profile analysis of the students’ background is provided for
each tabular presentation of the profile variables to illustrate textual
analysis.

Analysis: Of the survey’s 300 respondents, 60 (20%) are in Grade 7,

54 (18%) are in Grade 8, 51 (17%) are in Grade 9 and 45 (15%) are
in Grade 10. This constitutes enrolment in Junior High School.

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Enrolees entering Senior High School in Grade 11 constitute 90
(30%) of the total enrolment.

Example

Table 4.1.1 shows the format of the table in Chapter 4 which is similar
to the table formats in the previous chapters. The table number is in
sentence case and bold format. Example above is “Table 4.1.1”. The next
line will be the name of the table in sentence case. The table number and
table name have a single spacing with no space after the paragraph. The
first paragraph is the interpretation of data. You may do this by grouping all
similar results (example: The table above shows that items number 1, 2, and
5 are strongly agree with mean scores 3.94, 3.50 and 4.00, respectively. This
means that the students find the research manual very easy to use.), you
may also interpret the data by citing only the highest three and highest low,
especially if you have a long list of items or provisions.

The second paragraph is the discussion of the interpreted results. You

may do this by revisiting your Chapter 2 for related phenomenon that may
explain the similarity of your findings. Example: “The students find the
research manual very easy to use because examples on how to write the
specific sections in the research paper are present. This is because examples
provide concrete reference and elaboration of a concept as mentioned by
Dela Cruz (2018)”.

Graphical Methods of Presenting Data

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A graphical or chart portray the visual presentation of data using
symbols such as lines, dots, bars or slices. It depicts the trend of a certain
set of measurements or shows comparison between two or more sets of data
or quantities.
Charts and graphs are very useful in simplifying the presentation of
research reports. They help students and researchers understand data
quickly and interestingly.

Line Graph
A line graph is a graphical presentation of data that shows a
continuous change or trend. It may show an ascending or descending trend.

Example 1:
The National Statistics Office (NSO) released the following data on the
rates of unemployment from 2001- 2010.

Bar Graph or Bar Chart

A bar graph uses bars to compare categories of data. It may be drawn
vertically or horizontally. A vertical bar graph is best to use when comparing
means or percentages between distinct categories. The categories are
measured indepedently and compared woth one another. A horizontal bar
graph may contain more than 5 categories. A bar graph is plotted on either
the x- axis or y- axis. The categories may be plotted on one axis while the
other axis contains the numerical values that represent the data being
measured.

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Vertical Graph

In this illustrative example, 100 respondents were requested to select one

distinct option for reasons why they travel, making its cross analysis with
number of respondents.

Illustrative Example 2
The following is an example of a double bar graph based on the
following data.

Pie Charts or Circle Graphs

A pie chart is usually used to show how parts of a whole compare to
each other and to the whole. The entire circle represents the total, and the
parts are proportional to the amount of the total they represent.

The amount going to each part is expressed as a percentage; then, a

circle is divided into pieces proportional to the percentage of each category.
This is done by multiplying the percentage share by 360 degrees.

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IV. Activity

I. In your own idea, which of the three common techniques

being used to display data results is the best? Why?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

II. Table 3. Demographic Profile of the Respondents

Interpret the data below using the tabular presentation

with textual analysis.

Age Frequency %

16-18 115 85.19

19-21 15 11.11
22 above 5 3.70
Sex
Male 60 44.44
Female 75 55.56

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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V. What have I learned:

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

VI. References:

Carey, T., Naval, V., & Prieto, N. (2017). Presenting and Interpreting Data in
Tabular and Graphical Forms. Practical research 2 for senior high.
QC: Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Pp. 157-164.
Ang Tagnau, The Agusan del Sur Research Manual
ACTIVITY SHEETS IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

Name: Grade/Section Score:

School: Bunawan National High School Date:

Teacher: Rose Mary A. Otaza Score:

I. Title: Using Statistical Techniques in Analyzing Data

II. Learning Competency:

Uses statistical techniques to analyze data – study of differences and
relationships limited for bivariate analysis. (CS_RS12-IId-g-3)

III. Instructions

USING STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES IN ANALYZING DATA

INTRODUCTION
There are many instances in your life when you try to determine some
characteristics are related with each other. On a higher level, you also want
to measure the degree of their relationship or association. You usually
associate height and weight budget and expenses, mental ability and
academic performance, sibling order and Status and managerial skills and
other aspects of life which may be related with one another.
The relationship between variables can be measured statistically by
various correlation methods.

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1. The Scatter Diagram
Plotting graphically the values of the correlated variables means
placing one variable on the x-axis and the other on the y-axis. The
scatter diagram gives you a picture of the relationship between
variables.
The following are examples of scatter diagrams:
A B
50 30
45 27
40 24
35 21
30 18
25 15
20 12
15 9
10 6
5 3

Figure 1
In Figure 1, the points are plotted to snow the relationship
between the values listed under column A which are, plotted on the x-
axis and the values listed under column B which are plotted on the y-
axis. Observe from this data that for every increase of 5 units on the
items in column A, there is a corresponding increase of 3 units on the
items
listed on B. You will also observe that ne points tall along a straight line
running from the lower left to the upper right or the scatter diagram.
This illustrates a perfect positive relationship. When computed, the
coefficient of correlation is equal to 1.

A B
50 3
45 6
40 9
35 12
30 15
25 18
20 21
15 24
10 27
5 30
Figure 2
Figure 2 is the opposite of Figure 1. You will notice that for every
increase of 5 units in A, there is a corresponding increase of 3 units on
B, the points also fall along a straight line but this time it runs from the
upper left hand part to the lower right of the scatter
diagram. This is an example of a perfect A B negative
relationship. When computed, the 50 24 coefficient
45 21
of correlation is equal to -1.
40 18
35 23
30 18
25 11
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15 7
10 4
5 2
Figure 3
There are some situations in life wherein the relationship Is not
perfect. Figure 3, above is a graphical presentation of a scatter
diagram wherein the points are not falling along a straight line but the
line is still apparent. This figure illustrates a very high positive
correlation between the two sets of points.

A B Figure 4
50 8
45 20
40 6 The
35 15 scatter
30 5
diagram
25 20
20 9 in Figure
15 8 4 shows
10 16 the
5 8 points
scattered
in all directions. This is an illustration of a low negative relationship.
When the points are evenly distributed all over the scatter
diagram, that will indicate that there is relationship.

TYPES OF CORRELATION

The types of correlation are summarized below:

1. Simple Correlation
This is a relationship between two variables. The relationship
between an independent variable and a dependent variable is usually
measured.

A. Linear Correlation

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This means that a change in one variable is at a constant rate
with respect to the change in the second variable. The correlation
between the variables may either be showing direct or inverse
relationship.

1. Direct
For every increase in one variable, there is a corresponding
increase in the second variable.

2. Inverse
For every increase in one variable, there is a corresponding
decrease in the second variable.

B. Curvilinear Correlation
This means that a change in one variable is not at a fixed rate. It
may be increasing or decreasing with respect to the change in the
other variable

2. Multiple Correlation

Multiple involve more than two variables. The relationship between

dependent variable and two or more independent variables is usually
measured.

A. Non-linear Correlation
The relationship in non-linear correlation is similar to curvilinear
correlation.
However, in this correlation more than two variables are involved.

B. Joint Correlation
This correlation between the dependent variable and two or
more variables
is changed with the addition of another independent variable

3. Partial Correlation
This is a relative measure of relationship between the dependent
variable and a particular independent variable, without considering the effect
of the other independent variables under study.

The Coefficient of Correlation

To obtain the quantitative value of the extent of the relationship
between two sets of items, it is necessary to calculate the correlation
coefficient. The values of the coefficient of correlation ranges between +1 to
1. Zero represents no relationship. Correlation coefficient between 1 and -1
represents various degrees of relationship between two variables.

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1. The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient (Pearson r)
The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient is commonly
called the Pearson r. This measure was first derived by a British statistician
named Karl Pearson. It measures the linear relationship between two
variables. Therefore, to be able to determine linearity, it is important that a
scatter diagram be constructed prior to the computation of the Pearson r.

A. Computation of Pearson r
Pearson r can be computed based on raw scores.

The formula used is:

n ∑ xy −( ∑ x )( ∑ y )
r=
√ [ n∑ x − (∑ x ) ][ n∑ y −(∑ y ) ]
2 2 2 2

where:
r = Coefficient of correlation
n = number of samples
x = first set of variables
y = second set of variables

Example 1
The scores of ten randomly selected senior high school on the
mathematical portion of the National Admission test (NAT) and mathematical
ability part of a a university admission test were recorded as follows:
x y x
2
y
2
xy
A 5 6 25 36 30
B 7 15 49 225 105
C 9 16 81 256 144
D 10 12 100 144 120
E 11 21 121 441 231
F 12 22 144 484 264
G 15 18 225 324 270
H 17 26 289 676 442
I 20 25 400 625 500
J 26 30 676 900 780
∑ x =132 ∑ x =191 ∑ x 2=2110 ∑ y 2=4111 ∑ x =2886
Table 5

The scores on the mathematical portion of the NAT are listed under the
column marked x while the scores on the mathematical ability part of a
university admission test are listed under the column marked y . In the
column marked x are the squares of each of the x scores and in the column
marked y are the squares of each of the y scores. The last column marked xy
consists of the product of each x times y. All the columns are summed up
and the values may now be entered in the given formula:

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Solution:
10 ( 2886 )−(132)(191)
r=
√ [ 10 ( 2110 )−( 132 ) ] [ 10 ( 4111 )−( 191 ) ]
2 2

3648
r=
√(3676)(4629)
3648
r=
√ 17 016 204
3648
r=
4125.07

r =0.88

The sign of the coefficient of correlation indicates the direction of the

relationship between the two variables. A positive correlation coefficient
means that individuals first variable tends to obtain low scores in a second
variable.
A negative correlation coefficient means that for every increase in
one variable, there is corresponding decrease on a second variable. Or a
decrease in one variable brings about an increase on the second variable.
The absolute value of the correlation coefficient indicates the
extent of the relationship. An r of 0.7 and above indicates a very high
correlation, an r around 0.5 may be interpreted as substantial; and an r of
0.3 and below indicates a low relationship between two variables being
measured.
A 0.88 degree of correlation for the above mentioned data denotes
very high correlation.
The value of the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient
(Pearson r) can be interpreted as follows as suggested by Garett (1969).
r ¿ 0.00 ¿ ± 0.20 denotes indifferent ,inverse∨negligible relationship
r ¿ 0.21 ¿ ±0.40 denoteslow but slight relationship
r ¿ ± 0.41¿ ± 0.70 denotes substantial∨marked relationship
r ¿ ± 0.71¿ ± 1.00 denotes high ¿ very high relationship

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2. The Spearman Rank Order Correlation Coefficient (Spearman Rho)

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The statistics being used based on ranks or position is the Spearman
Rank Correlation Coefficient represented here by r. It is a measure of
relationship between two variables by ranking the items or individuals
under study according to their position. It represents the extent to which
the same individuals or events occupy the same relative position on two
variables.
The following formula may be applied:
6∑ D
2
r s=1−
n ( n2−1 )
where:
r = Spearman rank correlation coefficient
D = difference between the two ranks of an individual in the variables
studied
n = number of individuals

The formula requires that you get the differences in the ranks of the
individuals from the two variables, then you square and add the squared
differences and substitute the resulting values in the above formula.

Example
The scores obtained by fifteen (15) randomly selected senior high
school graduating batch of junior high school students who took an
admission test In English were recorded. The same students took a similar
test with a version in Filipino.
Determine the correlation coefficient between the two sets of scores
obtained by the students using the Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient
formula.
Studen SE SP RE RP D D
2

ts
1 48 50 4.5 6 -1.5 2.25
2 35 50 12 6 6 36
3 48 52 4.5 3 1.5 2.25
4 38 42 9.5 11 -1.5 2.25
5 36 32 11 15 -4 16
6 53 48 2 8.5 -6.5 42.25
7 48 52 4.5 3 1.5 2.25
8 32 40 13 12 1 1
9 48 48 4.5 8.5 -4 16
10 30 36 14 13.5 .5 .25
11 46 52 7 3 4 16
12 56 58 1 1 0 0
13 28 36 15 13.5 1.5 2.25
14 38 46 9.5 10 -.5 .25
15 42 50 8 6 2 4
∑ D 2=143
6∑ D
2
r s=1−
n ( n2−1 )

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6(143)
r s=1−
15(152 −1)
858
r s=1−
15(224)
858
r s=1− ¿
3360 ¿
r s=1−0.255
6(143)
r s=
15 (152−1)

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There are three (3) major uses of regression analysis:
 Causal analysis
establishes the possible causation of changes in one variable by
changes in other variables,
 Forecasting an Effect
predicts or estimate the value of a variable given the values of other
variables;
 Linear Trend Forecasting
imposes a line of best fit to time series historical model (Mc Guigan,
2011).

The next step in regression analysis is to find a suitable function that

expresses redirected value of Y given a value of X.

The general form of the linear function is y=a+bX

where
a is called the Y-intercept of the line (the value of Y when X is equal to
zero);
b is the slope of the line called the regression (the rate of change of Y
per unit change in X).

Figure 5: Graph of y=a+bX when b> 0.

The line describes the statistical relationship between X and Y is called

the regression line. It is a straight line that attempts to predict the
relationship between points also known as line of best fit.

The regression line gives an estimate of the mean value of Y;

denoted by Y, given the value of X. Hence the equation of the
regression line is

Y =a+bX
Y should be distinguished from the observed data values which we
denote simply as Y. For a specific X, the resulting Y is a predicted value of
the dependent variable.

Characteristics of the Regression Line

1. When b> 0, Y increases as X increases. In this case, we say that Y is

directly or positively related to X.

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2. When b< 0, Y decreases as X increases. In this case, we say that Y is
inversely or negatively related to X.

3. When b=0, Y is constant and is equal to the y-intercept a . This implies

that there is no change in Y whatever X value is.

Computations of linear regression are usually processed using

statistical software packages.
For this example, you will be acquainted with both computations a
"software package" called SPSS.

Illustrative Example
Fifteen (15) randomly selected Grade 11 students took an aptitude test
before they began their course in Statistics and Probability subject:

1. What linear equation best predicts performance (based on first

grading test scores) in Statistics and Probability based on
performance in the mathematics aptitude?
2. If a student made a score of 45 on the math aptitude test, what
score would we expect the student to obtain in Statistics and
Probability.

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3. How well does the regression equation fit the data?

Calculation of the Regression Equation

Given: Equation of the line Y =a+bX

n [ ∑ xy−( ∑ x ∑ y ) ]
Computing for a∧b : b yx =
n ∑ x 2− ( ∑ x )
2

a yx =Y −b yx X

Data scores of 10 students on Math Aptitude Test and Statistics Test

Scores – Test 1 (X) and Test 2 (Y).

Test 1 (X) Test 2 (Y) X

2
Y
2
XY
38 25 1444 625 950
35 20 1225 400 700
30 17 900 289 510
28 15 784 225 420
25 12 625 144 300
24 15 576 225 360
20 18 400 324 360
18 10 324 100 180
16 12 256 144 192
15 10 225 100 150
12 10 144 100 120
10 10 100 100 100
8 7 64 49 56
7 6 49 36 42
5 5 25 25 25
∑ X=291 ∑ Y =192 ∑ X =7141
2
∑Y
2
=2886 ∑ XY =4465
∑ X=291 ∑ X =7141
2
∑ XY =4465
∑ Y =192 ∑ Y =2886
2
N=15

Y =∑ Y / N=192/15=12.5 X =∑ X /N =291/15=19.4

Computing for a and b:

n [ ∑ xy−( ∑ x ∑ y ) ]
b yx =
n ∑ x −( ∑ x )
2 2

15 ( 4465 )−(291)(192)
b yx = 2
15 ( 7141 ) −( 291 )

66,615−55,872
b yx=
105,115−84,681

10,743
b yx =
22,434

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b yx =0.4949

For a :
a yx =Y −b yx X
a yx =12.8−(0.4949)(19.4 )
a yx =12.8−9.60
a yx =3.2
The Regression equation is aa linear equation of the form. Thus, the
regression equation is Y =a+bX .

The proper interpretation of 10.91 as a predicted value is that on the

average a student obtains a score of 14 in the test if his scores in Test 1 is
54.
Simple Linear Regression in SPSS
To run simple regression in SPSS. Click Analyze, Regression, Linear…
on the top menu, as shown below.

When you click the linear… the dialog box below will show:

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Chi-Square( X 2)

The chi-square (Greek letter chi, X*) is the most commonly used
method of comparing proportions. It is particularly useful in tests evaluating
a relationship between nominal or ordinal data. Typical situations or settings
are cases where persons, events, or objects are grouped in two or more
nominal categories such as "Yes – No" responses, "Favor-Against-Undecided"
or class "A, B, C, or D".
Chi-square analysis compares the observed frequencies of the
responses with the expected frequencies. It is a measure of actual
divergence of the observed and expected frequencies. It is given by the
formula:
2
( F o −Fe )
X=
Fe

Where:
F o= observed number of cases
F e= expected number of cases

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Chi-square and Goodness of Fit: One Sample Case

There are research problems where responses fall in any one or a

number of categories. The data are expressed in frequencies and the
observed frequencies (F ¿¿ o)¿are compared to the frequencies expected
(F ¿¿ e)¿ on the basis of some hypothesis.
If the differences between the observed and the expected frequencies
are small, will be small. The greater the difference between the observed
and expected frequencies under the hypothesis, the greater or larger the X 2
will be. If the difference between the observed and expected values are so
large collectively as to occur by chance only, say 0.05 or less, when the
hypothesis is true, then the null hypothesis is rejected.

Illustration:

Consider the nomination of three (3) presidential candidates of a

political party, A,
B and C. The chairman wonders whether or not they will be equally popular
among the
members of the party. From this the hypothesis of equal preference, a
random sample of 315 men were selected and interviewed which one of the
three candidates they prefer.

The following are the results of the survey:

Candidates Frequency

A 98

B 115

C 102

Are you going to reject the hypothesis that equal members of men in
the party prefer each of three candidates? Or are you going to accept the
hypothesis of equality of preference?

2
Fo Fe F e −Fo 2 ( Fe −F o )
( F e −F o )
Fe
A 98 105 -7 49 49/105=0.467
B 115 105 10 100 100/105=0.952
C 102 105 -3 9 9/105=0.056
1.505

2
( F o −Fe )
X= = 1.505
Fe

In order to test the significance of the computed X value using a

specified criterion
of significance, the obtained value -Is referred to a table with appropriate
degree of freedom which is equal to k-1, where k Is equal to the number of

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categories of the variable. In this problem, fd = 3-1 = 2. Therefore, for the X
to be significant at the 0.05 level, the computed value should be more than
(>) the tabular value which is 5.991.

Summarizing

Level of significance = 5%
df = k – 1 (number of categories minus one)

=3–1

=2

Critical value: X 2 (0.052)

Decision Rule: Reject H o if X computed >5.991 , otherwise do not reject H o .

Conclusion:

Since 1.505 < 5.991, do not reject H o . There is no sufficient evidence

or reason to reject thee null hypothesis that the frequencies in the
population are equal.

Chi-square and Goodness of Fit in SPSS

To run Chi-square test in SPSS. Click Analyze, Nonparametric Tests,

Legacy Dialog, Chi-square… on the top menu, as shown below:

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Chi-Square as a Test of Independence: Two Variable Problem

Chi-Square can also be used to test the significance of the relationship

between two variables when data are expressed in terms of frequencies of
joint occurrence. For this kind of problem, a two-way contingency table with
rows and columns are set-up.

In the case of two variable problems, the expected frequencies are

those predicated on the independence of the two variables. The formula is
equal to

[
F e=
( row total ) ( column total )
N ]
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Example:

Suppose, one wants to Know ere s a relationship between gender and

school choice. A sample of 100 female and 100 male freshman students
were asked individually for their school choice. Test the null hypothesis of no
significant relationship between the students’ gender and school choice at
5% level of significance.

School Gender
Choice
Public
Private
Total

Computational Procedure:

1. Compute the expected frequency of each cell

Raw Total Column Total
Expected Frequency F e =
Grand Total
100 x 107
C 1= =53.5
200
100 x 93
C 2= =46.5
200
100 x 107
C 3= =53.5
200
100 x 93
C 4= =46.5
200

2. Present in table form

fo fe f e −f o 2
( f e −f o ) ( f e−f o )
2

fe
42 53.5 -11.5 132.25 2.48
58 46.5 11.5 132.25 2.85
65 53.5 11.5 132.25 2.48
35 46.5 -11.5 132.25 2.85
2
( f e −f o )
∑ f =10
e

Therefore, X 2 =10.66.

3. Prepare the hypothesis.

 Null hypothesis: No significant relationship exist between gender and

school
Choice.
 Level of Significance: 5%
 Degree of Freedom: (c -1) (r-1)
 c = No. of columns

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 r = No. of rows
 df =( 2−1 ) ( 2−1 ) =( 1 )( 1 ) =1

4. Decision Rule

Since the computed value X 2 =10.66 is greater than the critical value
(3.841), we reject the null hypothesis. Thus, the two variables of gender and
school are related: females tend to prefer private schools while males tend
to prefer to study in public schools.

Chi-squares as a Test of Independence in SPSS

To run Chi-square test in SPSS. Click Analyze, Descriptive Statistics,

Crosstabs… on the top menu, as shown below:

When you click the Crosstabs… the dialog box below will show:

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The Output Viewer for Chi-square as Test of Independence test will appear.

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One-Sample z-Test

The one-sample z-test is used when we want to know whether the

difference between a sample mean and the population mean is large enough
to be statistically significant, that is, if it is unlikely to have occurred by
chance. This test can be used only if the background assumptions are
satisfied such as the population mean and standard deviation must be
known and the test statistic should follow a normal distribution.

Computed Test Statistic z:

x−μo
z=
σ
√n
where: σ=
√ ∑ ( x− x )2
N

Example:

A company who make cookies, ciaim5 mat ts product have a mean life
span of 7 days with standard deviation of 2 days. a random sample of 50
cookies is tested and one found to have a mean me span for only 4 days.
Test the claim at the 5% level of significance.

Computational Procedure:

1. Define the Null Hypothesis:

H o : μ=7∧H o : μ ≠ 7
2. State the alpha
α =0.05
3. State Decision Rule
One-Tailed Test: |z|> z a , Reject H o

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Two-Tailed Test: |z|> z a , Reject H o
2

4. Calculate Test Statistics

x−μ0
z=
σ
√n
4−7
z=
2
√ 50
= -10.6066
5. State the results (Use z table to get the critical value)
z α/ 2 → z 0.05/ 2 → z 0.025 =1.96
|−10.6066|>1.96, Reject H o
6. Therefore, the company who makes cookies have mean life span of not
equal to 7 days.

One-sample t-Test

This test is used when we have a random sample and we want to test if
it is significantly different from a population mean or we compared a single
sample mean ( X ) to a known or hypothesized population mean ( μ). This test
can be used only if the background assumptions are satisfied such as Sample
observations should be random and the population standard deviation is not
known.

Computed Test Statistic t:

x−μo
t=
s
√n
where: s=
√ ∑ ( x−x )2
n−1

Remember degrees of freedom: n-1

Example:

A random sample of 10 fifth grade pupils has grades in English, where

marks range from 1 (worst) to 6 (excellent). The grade point average (GPA)
of all fifth-grade pupils as of the last six years is 4.5. Is the GPA of the 10
pupils different from the population’s GPA? Use 0.05 level of significance.

Student 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Grade Points 5 6 4. 5 5 6 5 5 5 5.
5 5

Computational Procedure:

1. Define the Null and Alternative Hypothesis:

H o : μ=4.5∧H o : μ ≠ 4.5

2. State Alpha: α =0.05

3. df =n−1 → df =10−1 →df =9
4. State Decision Rule

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One-Tailed Test: |t |>t a ,n −1 , Reject H o
Two-Tailed Test: |t |>t a ,n−1 , Reject H o
2

5. Calculate Test Statistics

x−μo
t=
s
√n
5.20−4.5
t=
0.4831
√10
t=4.583
6. State Results (Use t table to get the critical value)
t α / 2 ,n−1 → t 0.05/ 2 ,10−1 → t 0.025 , 9=2.262
|4.583|>2.262, Reject H o
7. Therefore, the grade point average or 10 pupils is different from the
populations' GPA.

One-Sample t-Test in SPSS

To run One-Sample t-Test in SPSS, Click Analyze, Compare Mean, One-

Sample t-Test… on the top menu, as shown below:

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Place the variable; GPA at the Test

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Independent Sample z-Test: Equal Variance Not Assumed

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Similar to the test on single mean, the Z-test is used for testing two
means wnen the variance is known and T-test if the variance is unknown.

Computed Test Statistic Z:

If Equal Variances Assume: σ 21=σ 22=σ

( x 1−x 2 )−( μ1−μ 2 )

z=
σ
√ 1 1
+
n1 n 2

If Equal Variances Not Assumed: σ 21 ≠ σ 22

( x 1−x 2 )−( μ1−μ 2 )

z=

√
2 2
σ 1 σ2
+
n1 n2

Example:

Employees at public universities work 11.3 hours per week on the

average, with a standard deviation of 9.5. At private universities, the
average working time for employees is 9.7 hours, with a standard deviation
of 8.9 hours. The sample size for each is 500. Is there a significant difference
between the average hours of the public and private universities? Perform a
hypothesis testing using 5% level of significance to find out.

Computational Procedure:

1. Define the Null and Alternative Hypothesis:

H o : Public=Private∧H a : Public ≠ Private

2. State Alpha: α =0.05

3. State Decision Rule

One-Tailed Test: |t |>t a , n1+ n2−2 , Reject H o

Two-Tailed Test: |t |>t a ,n 1+ n2−2 , Reject H o
2

4. Calculate Test Statistic

( x 1−x 2 )−( μ1−μ 2 )

z=
σ1
√ √ 1
+σ
1
n1 2 n2

( 11.3−9.7 ) −0
z=
9.5
√ 1
500
+8.9
√ 1
500
z=1.9444

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za
5. State Results (Use z table to get the critical value )
2
z α/ 2 → z 0.05/ 2 → z 0.025 =1.96
|1.9444|<1.96 , Accept H o
6. Therefore, there is significant difference between the average
hours of the public and private universities.

Independent Sample t-Test: Equal Variance Assumed

The independent-measures hypothesis test allows researchers to

evaluate or compare the mean difference between two populations using the
data from two separate
samples. Generally, o is unknown and is being estimated from the data.
Hence, the t-test is used. Computed Test Statistic t:

If Equal Variances Assume: s21=s 22

( x 1−x 2) −( μ1−μ 2)
t=
sp
√ 1 1
+¿ ¿
n1 n2

If Equal Variances Assume: s21 ≠ s 22

( x 1−x 2) −( μ1−μ 2)
t=

√ 1 1
+¿ ¿
n 1 n2

Remember degrees of freedom: df =n1 +n2−2

Example:

Suppose we put people on 2 diets “the fruit diet and the bread diet".
Participants are randomly assigned to either T-days or eating exclusively
fruits or 7-days of exclusively eating bread. At the end of the week, we
measure the weight gain of each participant.

Does bread diet cause more weight gain compared to fruits diet? Test
the claim using 10% level of significance.

x 1 :(fruit diet ) 3 4 4 4 5 6 6
x 2 :¿ 1 2 2 2 3 4 4

Computational Procedure:

1. Define the Null and Alternative Hypothesis:

H o : fruit diet =bread diet ∧H a :fruit diet=bread diet

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2. State Alpha: α =0.10
df =n1 +n2−2→ 7+7−2=12

3. State Decision Rule

One-Tailed Test: |t |>t a , n1+ n2−2 , Reject H o

Two-Tailed Test: |t |>t a ,n 1+ n2−2 , Reject H o
2

4. Calculate Test Statistic

2 ( n1−1 ) s 21+ ( n2−1 ) s22

s=
p
n1 +n2−2

( 7−1 ) 1.2857 + ( 7−1 ) 1.2857

s2p= =1.2857
7+7−2

s p= √ 1.2857 =1.1339

za
5. State Results (Use z table to get the critical value )
2
t α / 2 , n1 +n2−2 → z0.10 / 2 , 7+7−2 →t 0.05 ,12=1.782
|3.2998|>1.782, Accept H o
6. Therefore, bread diet causes more weight gain compared to fruits
diet.

Independent Sample t-Test: Equal Variance Assumed in SPSS

To run Independent Sample t-Test in SPSS, Click Analyze, Compare

Means, Independent Sample t-Test… on the top menu, as shown below:

When you click the Independent Sample T-test… the dialog below will show:

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Place the variables; Data at the Test Variable(S) and Types of Diet at
the Grouping Variable, Then click Define Groups. The dialog box for Define
Groups will appear and put 1 to Group 1 and put 2 to Group 2 to indicate the
coding for Types of Diabetes.

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One-Way Analysis of Variance

One-way analysis of variance is used when you want to compare the

means of more than two groups. This test can be used only if the background
assumptions are such that it has independent random samples, population
are normal and population variance are equal.

Summary of Table for One-way ANOVA:

DEGREES
SUM OF VARIANCE F
SOURCE OF
SQUARES ESTIMATE RATIO
FREEDOM
Between SS B K−1 SS B
MS b=
K−1
Within SSw N−K SS w MS B
MS w =
N−K MSW
Total SSr =SS B + SS w N−1

k 2 k k 2
Note: SS B=Σ i=1 ( yi − y ) and SSw =Σ i =1 Σ j=1 ( y ij − y i )

Example:

A teacher is concerned about the level or knowledge possessed by PUP

students regarding Philippine history. Students completed a senior high
school level standardized history exam. Academic major or the students was
also recorded. Data in terms of percent correct is recorded below Tor 24
students. Is there a significant difference between the levels of knowledge
possessed by PUP students regarding Philippine history when grouped
according to their academic major? Compute the appropriate test for the
data provided below and used 0.05 level of significance.

Business/ Behavioral/
Education Engineering
Management Social Sciences
63 72 42 81

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79 49 52 57
78 64 30 87
56 68 83 64
67 39 22 29
47 78 71 30

Computational Procedure:

1. Define the Null and Alternative Hypothesis:

H o : Education=Business=Bahavioral=Engineering
H a : At least two of the means of Education , Business , Behavior ,∧¿
Engineering are not equal
2. State Alpha: α =0.05
3. df 1 =k−1 df =4−1=3 ,
df 2 =k−1 df =24−4=20
4. State the Decision Rule
One-Tailed Test: |f |> f a , df 1 ,df 2 , Reject H o
Two-Tailed Test: |f |> f a /2 , df 1 ,df 2 , Reject H o
5. Calculate Test Statistics

Business/ Tota
Behavioral/ Engineerin
Education Manageme l
Social Sciences g
nt
63 72 42 81
79 49 52 57
78 64 30 87
56 68 83 64
67 39 22 29
47 78 71 30
Mea 65.00 61.67 50.00 58.00 58.6
n 7

k
SS B=n ∑ ( y 1 − y )
2

i=1

= 6(65.00 - 58.67)2 + 6(61.67-58.67)2 + 6(50.00-58.67)2+ 6(58.00-

58.67)2
= 748

k k
SS B=∑ ∑ ( y ij − y 1 )
2

i=1 j=1

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= 778 + 1093.3333 + 2782 + 3032 = 7685.3333

2 2 2 2 2 2
SSw Education=(63−65.00) +(79−65.00) +(78−65.00) +(56−65.00) +(67−65.00) +( 47−65.00) =778
2 2 2 2
SSw Business =( 72−61.67 ) + ( 49−61.67 ) + ( 64−61.67 ) + ( 68−61.67 )
2 2
+ ( 39−61.67 ) +( 72−61.67) =1093.3333
2 2 2 2
SSw Behavioral =( 42−50.00 ) + ( 52−50.00 ) + ( 30−50.00 ) + ( 83−50.00 )

( 22−50.00 )2+ (71−50.00 )2=2782

2 2 2 2
SSw Engineering =( 81−58.00 ) + ( 57−58.00 ) + ( 87−58.00 ) + ( 64−58.00 )

+ ( 29−58.00 )2+ ( 30−58.00 )2 =3032

SUM OF DEGREES OF VARIANCE

SOURCE F RATIO
SQUARES FREEDOM ESTIMATE

748
Between 748 4 – 1 =3 =249.3333
3

249.3333
=0.6489
7685.3333 384.2667
Within 7685.3333 24 – 4 = 20 =384.2667
20

Total 8433.3333

6. State Results (Use t table to get the critical value)

|f |> f a /2 , df 1 ,df 2 , → f 0.025 ,3 , 20=3.86

|0.6489|>3.86 , Accept H o
7. Therefore, there is no significant difference between the levels of
knowledge possessed by PUP students regarding Philippine history when
grouped according to their academic major.

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IV. Activity

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Directions: Solve the following problems completely as directed:

1. The data below shows the scores obtained by the top ten junior high
school students of a certain private high school on an entrance test for
Senior high school (SHS) and a mathematical ability aptitude test for
STEM strand.

Studen SHS Entrance Test Mathematical Ability Aptitude

ts (x) Test (y)
1 55 52
2 32 26
3 68 56
4 62 50
5 40 38
6 62 60
7 40 50
8 30 18
9 48 44
10 68 56

Directions:

a. Plot a scatter diagram

b. Calculate the Pearson r
c. Convert to ranks and calculate the Spearman Rank Order
Correlation Coefficient

2. Construct a scatter diagram for each of the following set of items by

collecting data on:
a. Height and weight of your classmates.
b. Allowance and expenses of your classmates.
c. Grade in English and number of hours of study.

3. The mental ages (x) and the score on the mathematics aptitude test
(y) of fifteen (15) boys were as follows:

x 10 10 10 11 11 12 12 12 13 13 13 13 14 14 14
y 15 18 18 15 25 25 25 26 26 30 35 40 43 45 40

Compute the correlation coefficient using the Spearman Rank-

Order correlation coefficient.

4. Solve for the correlation coefficient of the following paired ranks:

a. b.

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1 10
2 9 1 1
3 8 2 2
4 7 3 3
5 6 4 4
6 5 5 5
7 4 6 6
8 3 7 7
9 2 8 8
10 1 9 9
10 10

5. A certain small-scale industry conducted a study on the relationship

between advertising cost and company scale for the year. Estimate the
correlation coefficient between the two sets of data.

Advertising Cost Sales

(In Thousands) (In Thousands)
January 40 510
February 30 375
March 20 320
April 25 400
May 30 420
June 40 575
July 25 300
August 35 445
September 30 500
October 40 560
November 35 520
December 40 600

6. The ranks of the height of seven male senior high school students are
given below. Calculate the correlation coefficient.

Student
A 7 3.5
B 6 1
C 5 3.5
D 4 5.5
E 3 5.5
F 2 7
G 1 2
7. A private school owner had been working to improve students satisfaction
in her school. He predicted that she met her goal of increasing student
satisfaction from 65% to 80%. Sampled school students from four levels

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were asked if they were satisfied with the quality of life and services of
the school. The results are shown on the following table:

1st Year 2nd Year 3rd Year 4th Year

Satisfied 32 28 25 23
Not Satisfied 15 10 5 3
Total 47 38 30 26
Use Chi-square to determine whether the results support or reject the
school owner’s prediction.

8. Collect the questionnaires from your respondents and create a table.

Then, decide on the type of statistical method that you are going to use
in your research study. Show the computational procedure and the result
using SPSS.

V. Closure

What I have learned?

VI. References

Carey, T., Naval, V., & Prieto, N. (2017). Planning data analyses using
statistics. Practical research 2 for senior high. QC: Lorimar Publishing,
Inc. Pp. 165-209.

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ACTIVITY SHEETS IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

Name: Grade/Section Score:

School: Bunawan National High School Date:

Teacher: Rose Mary A. Otaza Score:

I. Title: Drawing Logical Conclusions from Research Findings

II. Learning Competency:

Draws conclusions from research findings. (CS_RS12-IIj-j-1)

III. Instructions

DRAWING LOGICAL CONCLUSIONS FROM RESEARCH FINDINGS

INTRODUCTION
Conclusions represent inferences drawn from the findings of the study.
The number of conclusions coincide with the number of specific findings. You
have to formulate the Conclusions concisely and briefly. It should not contain
any number or measurements. If there are tested hypotheses in the study,
the rejection or acceptance of hypotheses are placed under Conclusions.

Since the conclusion is the final result, it should give the final
impression and it should summarize the learnings from the study. It leaves
the reader in no doubt that you have answered the questions posed in your
paper. It is a wrapped-up of the entire project and its completeness.

Strategies for Writing an Effective Conclusion

Here are some suggestions on strategies with examples for writing effective
conclusions:

1. Conclusions are intertwined with the Introduction Intertwining your

conclusion with the Introduction of your research paper can be a good
strategy as you will end with the scenario that you have evidences to
contribute a new understanding to a field of study. Example:

Introduction

Reproductive health education is one area of research that should be

tackled in schools. High school students should be exposed to innovative
ways of disseminating and communicating issues or reproductive health
education of high school students shall be the focus of the study.

Conclusion

The high school student respondents are not fully aware and have little
knowledge in reproductive health education on the following areas: social
and gender related issues, family planning and other clinical services 2.

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Conclusions are inferences and generalizations based upon the findings
Example: Based on a research study on "Factors Affecting the Career
Choices

2. Conclusion are inferences and generalizations based upon the

findings

Example: based on a research study on “Factors Affecting the Career

Choices of High School Students” two (2) conclusions can
be drawn from the findings of the study:

Conclusion 1: Males prefer technology- based courses while females

prefer business- related courses.

Conclusion 2: There is significant difference between the career

choices of male and female high school respondents.

3. Conclusions should specifically answer the questions posed in the

Statement of the Problem" of your research study.

Example 1: the profile of the respondents will be used to test for

variation on or measures, here are some examples of possible conclusions:

Conclusion 1: Majority of the respondents are aged 12-16 and

mostly are males. Conclusion 2: Respondents of the study are
mostly Catholics.

Conclusion 3: Among the profile of the respondents, age and

gender are

Example 2: If the problems raised in a research study entitled

"Reading Difficulties of First Year High School Students” were:

Problem 1: In what areas do the student respondents encounter

difficulties in reading?

Problem 2: Is the profile of the student respondents significantly

related to significantly related their reading difficulties?

The corresponding conclusions may be the following statements:

Conclusion 1: The student respondents had problems in the

following areas of English reading test: vocabulary, sentence structure
and reading comprehension. Conclusion 2: Profile of the student
respondents such as gender and mental ability are significantly related
to the reading difficulties of the student respondents.

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IV. Activity:

On Writing Conclusions
Direction: Take a look and analyse the following research study.

Research Study:
The canteen owner of a big school conducted a research on
possible reasons on the decline in the number of students entering
and buying in the canteen.
Write conclusion to address the issues and problems identified on
the following areas:
1. Price of Food
Conclusion:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

2. Quality of Food
Conclusion:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
3. Competition with other food centers in the vicinity
Conclusion:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
4. Quality of Service of Canteen Staff/ Personnel
Conclusion:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
5. Cleanliness
Conclusion:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

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__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

V. What have I learned:

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_______________

VI. References:
Carey, T., Naval, V., & Prieto, N. (2017). Planning data analyses
using statistics. Practical research 2 for senior high. QC: Lorimar
Publishing, Inc. Pp. 214-216.

Ang Tagnau, The Agusan del Sur Research Manual

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ACTIVITY SHEETS IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

Name: Grade/Section Score:

School: Bunawan National High School Date:

Teacher: Rose Mary A. Otaza Score:

I. Title: Formulating Recommendations

II. Learning Competency:

The learner formulates recommendations. (CS_RS12-IIh-j-2)

III. Instructions

FORMULATING RECOMMENDATIONS

INTRODUCTION

Recommendations typically play a vital portion of a research study.

Formulating recommendations is easy, provided the findings and conclusions
have been fully explained and completed. Recommendations are based on
the findings of the study. They should not be based on your own beliefs or
biases. They should not be too broad to lose its relevance to the exact topic
of your research study.

Characteristics of Recommendations

The following characteristics should be found in formulating

recommendations for research:

 Relevance to the study

Relevance measures the degree to which a certain variable is

related or useful to what is being talked about. Recommendations for
things not discussed in the study is irrelevant.

 Logical reasoning
The recommendations should be well thought of and with valid
reasons. If the findings, for example, is too large class size, it is only
logical to recommend an ideal class size to create a healthy teaching
and learning environment.

 Feasibleness and attainability

The recommendations based on the findings and conclusions should be
practical, workable and achievable. A recommendation pertaining to

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the need to improve and upgrade the science laboratory in public
schools is feasible and attainable.

Purposes of a Recommendation

There are several purposes of writing a recommendation after

determining issues raised in a research study.
1. Policy recommendations
A policy serves as a guideline in promulgating certain regulations
in various sectors of society.

Policy recommendations should be included as an output of

research. Researchers can use the findings of their research studies
to effect change in policies already being implemented.

The recommended actions should be specified, the steps

required to implement the proposed actions and what resources
are needed should also be included.

When formulating policy recommendations, the following should

be included:

1. Discussion of the problems based on the findings and

what should be done to solve the problem.

2. Discussion of the benefits or advantages to the agency or

organization.

3. The feasibility or viability of the proposed policy.

4. The plan of action and the evaluation process to ensure

success of the proposed policy recommendations.

Sample Policy Recommendation No.1

 On lack of teacher preparation

“Teacher preparation and development programs should
include development of pedagogical knowledge and
competencies to handle the K to 12 program".

Sample Policy Recommendation No. 2

 On heavier semestral load of senor high school students

"Revisit the 80 hours per semester requirement for each
subject in the Senior High School (SHS) Curriculum”

Sample Policy Recommendation No. 3

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 On the implementation of Tech-Voc Track of the SHS
Curriculum
"Revisit the Tech-Voc curriculum to prepare students for
gainful employment in industry"

Sample Policy Recommendation No. 4

 On lack of modules and other instructional materials
"Teachers should be encouraged to conduct research
work and collaborate with other teachers in the preparation of
modules, guides and other instructional materials"

2. Recommendations for Future Research Directions

It is also ideal to present and discuss actions or off-shoots of your

research for further study of validation purposes. You may present or
discuss additional research which you were not able to include in your
research but worthwhile doing.

Some types of future research suggestions may be any one of the

following:

1. Addressing research limitations of your research study.

Example

A study was conducted to determine the effects of

cooperative learning on students' performance in English. It was
found out that the use of cooperative earning can increase
students' performance in English. However, the sample when
compared to the whole population of the school was inadequate.
Larger sample is needed to determine if the same results will come
out to produce better recommendations.

2. Examining other variables not included in your current research

study.

3. Examining alternative interventions which merits serious study.

4. More research on the effects and effectiveness of a similar program

to younger or older age groups.
5. Similar studies which may be done on academic achievement on
other subjects

3. Recommendations to some Problems Discovered in the Research Study

In the research study on the "Evaluation of Mainstreaming Special

Education (SPED) for Visually Impaired" by DepEd, results indicated that
teachers are not majors of SPED and the facilities are inadequate to support
the program.

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Sample recommendations:

1. Hire qualified teachers to handle the program.

2. Conduct regular trainings/workshops and other faculty

development programs to improve the capabilities of current
teachers.

3. Improve existing facilities, instructional materials, curriculum,

teaching approaches, sch0ol management and other support
systems to improve effectiveness of mainstreaming SPED
program of DepEd.

4. Recommendations for Improvement or Change.

In a research study on the implementation of an effective

reproductive health education program, an example of a
recommendation for improvement is:

The school should implement an effective and relevant

reproductive health education program geared towards
providing a formative curriculum that will significantly
promote responsible adolescenthood in terms of reproductive
health education thus reducing the evidence of social
problems such as abortion, unwanted pregnancies, and
sexually transmitted diseases shall be appropriately
addressed.

5. There may also be recommendations for the continuance of a

good practice.

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IV. Activity

A. Directions: Describe a research recommendation using the graphic

organizer below.

Difinition

Characteristics Recommendation Importance

Purposes

B. Essay.
Do we need to write a research recommendation? Why or why not?

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C. Directions: Based from your research study, write your
recommendations. You can use the template from your research
teacher.

V. Closure

What I have learned?

VI. References

Carey, T., Naval, V., & Prieto, N. (2017). Planning data analyses using
statistics. Practical research 2 for senior high. QC: Lorimar Publishing,
Inc. Pp. 217-219.

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