Module II

BASIC BIOINSTRUMENTATION
SYSTEM
The quantity, property, or condition that is measured by an instrumentation system
is called the measurand (Figure 9.2)

This can be a bioelectric signal, such as those generated by muscles or the brain, or
a chemical or mechanical signal that is converted to an electrical signal.

The sensors are used to convert physical measurands into electric outputs.

The outputs from these biosensors are analog signals—that is, continuous
signals—that are sent to the analog processing and digital conversion block.

Then the signals are amplified, filtered, conditioned, and converted to digital form.
FIGURE 9.2 Basic instrumentation systems using sensors to measure a signal
with data acquisition, storage, and display capabilities, along with control and
feedback.
Function:

Man Instrument System: The overall system, which includes both the human
organism and the instrumentation required for the measurement of a human.

Component of Man Instrument System: Subject, Stimulus, Transducer, Signal

Conditioning equipment, Display Equipment, 'Recording, Data Processing and
Transmission Equipment' and Control Devices.

Objective and Goal: Information gathering, Diagnosis, Evaluation, Monitoring,

Control.

The Goal is to make possible the measurement of information communicated

by the various elements of the human body.
Methods for modifying analog signals, such as amplifying and filtering an ECG
signal

Once the analog signals have been digitized and converted to a form that can be
stored and processed by digital computers, many more methods of signal
conditioning can be applied

Basic instrumentation systems also include output display devices that enable
human operators to view the signal in a format that is easy to understand.

These displays may be numerical or graphical, discrete or continuous, and

permanent or temporary.

Most output display devices are intended to be observed visually, but some also
provide audible output—for example, a beeping sound with each heartbeat.
In addition to displaying data, many instrumentation systems have the capability of
storing data so further processing / examine the data is possible.

Holter monitors, for example, acquire 24 hours of ECG data that is later processed to
determine arrhythmic activity and other important diagnostic characteristics.

Now with the Internet, signals can be acquired with a device in one location and
transmitted to another device for processing and/or storage.

Useful to provide quick diagnostic feedback if a patient has an unusual heart rhythm
while at home.

It has also allowed medical facilities in rural areas to transmit diagnostic images to
tertiary care hospitals so that specialized physicians can help general practitioners
arrive at more accurate diagnoses.
Two components play important roles in instrumentation systems.

The first is the calibration signal. A signal with known amplitude and frequency
content is applied to the instrumentation system at the sensor’s input.

The calibration signal allows the components of the system to be adjusted so

that the output and input have a known, measured relationship.

Another important component, a feedback element, is not a part of all

instrumentation systems.
Devices include pacemakers and ventilators that stimulate the heart or the
lungs.

Some feedback devices collect physiological data and stimulate a response—a

heart beat or breath-when needed , such as blood pressure, and uses conscious
control to change the physiological response.
❖ The system comprising both the Human being and the instruments
used for measurement is termed as MAN INSTRUMENT SYSTEM.
Components of Biomedical Instrumentation System
Any medical instrument consists of the following functional basic parts

1. Measurand:

The measurand is the physical quantity, and the instrumentation systems measure
it.
Human body acts as the source for measurand, and it generates bio-signals.
Example: body surface or blood pressure in the heart

2. Sensor / Transducer:
The transducer converts one form of energy to another form usually electrical
energy. For example, the piezoelectric signal which converts mechanical vibrations
into the electrical signal.
The transducer produces a usable output depending on the measurand.
The sensor is used to sense the signal from the source. It is used to interface the
signal with the human.
3. Signal Conditioner:
Signal conditioning circuits are used to convert the output from the transducer into
an electrical value. The instrument system sends this quantity to the display or
recording system.
Generally, signal conditioning process includes amplification, filtering, analogue to
digital and Digital to analogue conversions.
Signal conditioning improves the sensitivity of instruments.

4. Display:
It is used to provide a visual representation of the measured parameter or quantity.
Example: Chart recorder, Cathode Ray oscilloscope (CRO). Sometimes alarms are
used to hear the audio signals.
Example: Signals generated in Doppler Ultrasound Scanner used for Fetal
Monitoring.

5. Data Storage and Data Transmission: Data storage is used to store the data and can
be used for future reference.
Types
Clinical - It is devoted to the diagnosis, care and treatment of patients.
Research - It is used primarily in the search for new knowledge pertaining to the
various systems that compose the human organism.

Types of Measurements
Vivo - It is made on or within the living organism itself. For Example - A device
inserted into the blood stream to measure the pH of the blood directly.
Vitro - It is performed outside the body, even though it relates to the functions of
the body. For Example - pH of a sample of blood.

Bioamplifier:
It is an electrophysiological device, a variation of the instrumentation amplifier, used
to gather and increase the signal integrity of physiologic electrical activity for output
to various sources.

It may be an independent unit, or integrated into the electrodes.

Why is Bio Amplifier Required?

Generally, biological/bioelectric signals have low amplitude and low frequency.

Therefore, to increase the amplitude level of biosignals amplifiers are designed.

The outputs from these amplifiers are used for further analysis and they appear as ECG,
EMG, or any bioelectric waveforms.

Such amplifiers are defined as Bio Amplifiers or Biomedical Amplifiers.

Gain refers to the relationship between the input signal and the output signal of any
electronic system.

Higher levels of gain amplify the signal, resulting in greater levels of brightness and
contrast. Lower levels of gain will darken the image, and soften the contrast.
What is the voltage gain value of a bioelectric amplifier?

Since the output of a bioelectric signal is in millivolts or microvolt range, the voltage
gain value of the amplifier should be higher than 100dB.

Throughout the entire bandwidth range, a constant gain should be maintained.

A bio-amplifier should have a small output impedance.

Types of Bio Amplifiers

• Differential Amplifier
• Operational Amplifier
• Instrumentation Amplifier
• Chopper Amplifier
• Isolation Amplifier
Basic Requirements for Biological Amplifiers

The biological amplifier should have a high input impedance value. The range of value lies
between 2 MΩ and 10 MΩ depending on the applications.
When electrodes pick up biopotentials from the human body, the input circuit should be
protected.
Every bio-amplifier should consist of isolation and protection circuits, to prevent the
patients from electrical shocks.
Since the output of a bioelectric signal is in millivolts or microvolt range, the voltage gain
value of the amplifier should be higher than 100dB.
Throughout the entire bandwidth range, a constant gain should be maintained.
A bio-amplifier should have a small output impedance.
A good bio-amplifier should be free from drift and noise.
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) value of amplifier should be greater than 80dB to
reduce the interference from common mode signal.
The gain of the bio-amplifier should be calibrated for each measurement.
Operational amplifier:
It is an electronic device that consists of
large numbers of transistors, resistors, and
capacitors.
Op-amp is basically a multistage amplifier in
which a number of amplifier stages are
interconnected to each other in a very
complicated manner.

So, it is packed in a small package and is available in the Integrated Circuit (IC) form.

Used to perform various operations like amplification, subtraction, differentiation,

addition, integration etc.

An example is the very popular IC 741.

What makes opamp different from other amplifiers ?
Opamp is a differential amplifier having very high
gain.

It has basically 2 inputs, non-inverting input (Vp or

V+) and inverting input (Vn or V-).

It will amplify only the difference between these two

inputs ie (Vp – Vn) or (V+ – V-).

Important features of opamp compared to normal

amplifiers are given below.
• Very high gain
• Very high input impedance
• Very low output impedance
• High CMRR
• High bandwidth
• Able to amplify both AC and DC
• Low noise
They are used in variety of applications such as inverting amplifier and
non inverting amplifiers, unity gain buffer, summing amplifier,
differentiator, integrator, adder, instrumentation amplifier, Wien bridge
oscillator, Filters etc.
Ideal Op-amp Transfer Characteristics

• Infinite open loop voltage gain

• Infinite input impedance
• Zero output impedance
• Infinite bandwidth
• Zero input offset voltage
• Zero common mode gain
• Infinite CMRR (Common Mode Rejection Ratio)
• Zero DC output offset
• Zero noise contribution
• Infinite power supply rejection ratio
• Positive and negative voltage swings to supply rail
• Output swings instantly to the correct value
Instrumentation amplifier

It is an IC mainly used for amplifying a signal.

This amplifier comes under the family of the differential amplifier

Its function of this amplifier is to diminish surplus noise that is chosen by the circuit.

The capacity to refuse noise is familiar to every IC pins which are known as the CMRR
(common-mode rejection ratio).
It is an essential component in the designing of the circuit due to its characteristics like
high CMRR, open-loop gain is high, low drift as well as low DC offset, etc.

An instrumentation amplifier is used to amplify very low-level signals, rejecting noise

and interference signals.

Examples can be heartbeats, blood pressure, temperature, earthquakes and so on.

Instrumentation Amplifier using Op Amp
The instrumentation amplifier using op-amp
circuit is shown below.

The op-amps 1 & 2 are non-inverting

amplifiers and op-amp 3 is a difference
amplifier.
These three op-amps together, form an
instrumentation amplifier.

Instrumentation amplifier’s final output Vout is the amplified difference of the

input signals applied to the input terminals of op-amp 3.

Let the outputs of op-amp 1 and op-amp 2 be Vo1 and Vo2 respectively.

Then, Vout = (R3/R2)(Vo1-Vo2)

Isolation Amplifier

Working and Its Applications

An isolation amplifier or a unity gain amplifier provides
isolation from one fraction of the circuit to another fraction.

So, the power cannot be drawn, used and wasted within the
circuit.
The main function of this amplifier is to increase the signal.

It is a form of differential amplifier that allow measurement

of small signals in the presence of a high common mode
voltage by providing electrical isolation and an electrical
safety barrier.
It protect data acquisition components from common mode voltages, which are
potential differences between instrument ground and signal ground.

The same input signal of the op-amp is passed out exactly from the op-amp as
an output signal.

Used to give an electrical safety battier as well as isolation.

It protect the patients from the outflow of current.

How Isolation Achieves?
An op amp has very high input impedance,
that causes isolation.
When a circuit has a very high input
impedance, very little current is drawn from
the circuit. Ohm's law, current, I=V/R.

Thus, the greater the resistance, the less

current is drawn from a power source.

It draws very little current; thus, practically no current is drawn and transferred from
the first part of the circuit to the second.
The high-impedance load of the op-amp ensures this.

Thus, the op-amp serves as an isolation device from one part of a circuit to the next or
of different circuits.
So, the low-level signals can be amplified.

This isolation must have less leakage as well as a high amount of dielectric
breakdown voltage.

Isolation Amplifier: Design Methods

Three kinds of design methods are used in isolation amplifiers which include
the following.

• Transformer Isolation
• Optical Isolation
• Capacitive Isolation