Module 2

LIMITS

Familiarity with the limit concept is

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
absolutely essential for a deeper
At the end of the lesson, the students must be understanding of the calculus.
able to: Consider the function defined by
the equation
(a) Gain understanding of limits;
f(x) = 3x + 1
(b) Recall basic trigonometric identities
(c) Perform indicated operations involving and assign some values to x near,
limits but not equal to a specific number
say 2. For each value of x in the
neighborhood of 2, we compute the
corresponding value of y. To get an idea of what is happening, we construct a table of values as
shown below:
X 1.500 1.890 1.999 2.009 2.050 2.160 2.300
f(x) 5.500 6.670 6.997 7.027 7.150 7.480 7.900

The table shows that when x is near 2, whether a little less or a little greater than 2,
f(x) =3x+1 is nearer 7. In other words, “3x+1 approaches the number 7 as a limit when x
approaches 2”. The abbreviated symbolic form for this statement is
3x + 1 7 as x 2
We may also say that “the limit of 3x + 1 as x approaches 2 is 7”. In symbol, we write this as
𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝟑𝒙 + 𝟏) = 𝟕
𝒙→𝟐
[

Definition of the Limit of the Function

Let f(x) be any function and let a and L be numbers. If we can make f(x) as close to L
as we please by choosing x sufficiently close to a then we say that the limit of f(x) as x
approaches a is L or symbolically,
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳
𝒙→𝒂

Trigonometric Identities and Formulas

𝟏 𝟏

=
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝓈
𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝓈
+ cos2 ⱺ
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝓈
sin ⱺ = sin2 ⱺ =1 cot ⱺ =
𝓈

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𝟏
𝒔𝒆
cos ⱺ = tan2 ⱺ + 1 = sec2 ⱺ
𝒄𝓈
𝟏
=
𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝓈
cot2 ⱺ + 1 = csc2
𝒄𝒐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒚
tan ⱺ =
𝒕𝓈 ±
ⱺ
𝓈
𝟏 ∓ 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒚
sin (x ± y) = sin x cos y ± cos x sin y tan (x ± y) =

cos (x ± y) = cos x cos y ∓ sin x sin y

𝒐𝒓
𝓈
sin2 ⱺ = 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐ⱺ = 𝟏 (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 2ⱺ)
𝟏

=𝟏−𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝓈
√
sin

𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

𝒐𝒓
𝓈
cos2 ⱺ = 𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐ⱺ = 𝟏 (𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 2ⱺ)
𝟏

=𝟏+𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝓈
√
cos

𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

=𝟏−𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒐𝒓
𝟏−𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝓈
�
±
√
𝓈 tan2 ⱺ =𝟏+𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝓈
�
�
tan
𝟏+𝒄𝒐𝒔
𝓈
�

sin 2𝓈 = 2sin 𝓈 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝓈

cos 2𝓈 = cos2 ⱺ - sin2 ⱺ
= 2cos2 ⱺ - 1

= 1 – 2sin2 ⱺ
𝟐 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝓈
tan 2𝓈
= 𝟏−𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝓈
𝒂 𝒃 𝒄
=
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝑪
Law of Sines: =
𝑨 𝑩

Law of Cosines: a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A

b2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C
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Pythagorean Theorem: c2 = a2 + b2

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Theorems on Limits
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄 = 𝒄
𝒙→𝒂
(1) where c = any constant

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙 = 𝒂
𝒙→𝒂
(2) where a = any real number

(3) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒄

= 𝒄 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

(4) The limit of the sum of two (or more) functions is equal to the sum of their limits
𝐥𝐢𝐦[ (f(x) ± g(x) ] = L1 ± L2
𝒙→𝒂

where: L1 = lim f (x)

x a

L2 = lim g (x)
x a

(5) The limit of the product of two (or more) functions is equal to the product of their limits
𝐥𝐢𝐦[ (f(x) . g(x) ] = L1 . L2
𝒙→𝒂

(6) The limit of the quotient of two functions is equal to the quotient of their limits provided
the limit of the denominator is not zero

𝒇
𝐥𝐢𝐦
(𝒙) 𝐿1
𝒙→𝒂 𝒈 = 𝐿2
(𝒙)

𝐥𝐢𝐦
(7) 𝒏
√𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒏 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒙→𝒂 √ 𝒙→𝒂

(8) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = [𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)]𝒏

[𝒇(𝒙)]𝒏 𝒙→𝒂
𝒙→𝒂

Special Limits
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝟏
𝒙
(x is measured in radians)
𝒙→𝟎
𝟏−𝒄𝟎𝒔 𝒙
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝟎
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙

𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝟏 + 𝒙)𝒙 = 𝒆 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟏𝟖𝟐𝟖. . .

𝟏

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𝒙→𝟎

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Exercises / Applications
Example (1) Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦( x2 + 3x – 5)
𝐱→𝟒
= (4)2 + 3(4) – 5
= 16 + 12 -5
= 28 – 5
= 23

Example (2) Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝟓)

𝐱→𝟓
= 52 – 25 = 0

Example (3) Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝟏 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝓈)𝟐

𝟏

𝓈→𝟎

Solution 1:

𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝟏 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝓈)𝟐 = (𝟏 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝟎)𝟐

𝟏 𝟏

𝓈→𝟎
𝟏
= (𝟏 − 𝟎)𝟐 = 𝟏
Solution 2: (using the identity 1 - sin2 𝓈 = cos2 𝓈)

𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝟏 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝓈)𝟐 = (𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝟎)𝟐 = 𝟏

𝟏 𝟏

𝓈→𝟎

= 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝒙 − 𝟑) = 𝟎 − 𝟑 = −𝟑
(𝒙+𝟑)(𝒙−𝟑)
𝒙𝟐− = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟗
Example (4) Evaluate
𝐱→𝟎 𝒙+ 𝐱→ 𝒙+ 𝐱→𝟎
𝟑 𝟎 𝟑

= 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝒙 − 𝟑) = 𝟎 − 𝟑 = −𝟑
(𝒙+𝟑)(𝒙−𝟑)
𝒙𝟐− = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟗
Example (5) Evaluate
𝐱→𝟎 𝒙+ 𝐱→ 𝒙+ 𝐱→𝟎
𝟑 𝟎 𝟑

Indeterminate Forms
Consider the function defined by
𝑵 (𝒙)
𝑫 (𝒙)
f(x) =
where D(x) ≠0

𝑵 (𝒂)
Suppose at x = a, N(a) = D(a) = 0

𝟎
=
𝑫 (𝒂) 𝟎
f(a) =

which is undefined. We say that at x = a, the function f(x) assumes the indeterminate form 𝟎. The
𝟎
other indeterminate form is ∞. Obtaining any of these forms by straight substitution does not
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∞
necessarily mean that f(x) has no limit.

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𝒙𝟐−𝟒
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙−𝟐
Example (1) Evaluate
𝐱→𝟐
Solution: This cannot be evaluated by straight substitution since when x = 2, we have

𝒙𝟐−𝟒
𝒙−𝟐 𝟎
which is meaningless (undetermined)
=
𝟎
=
𝟎
𝟒−𝟒
𝟐−
𝟐
𝟎
At x=2, the function assumes the indeterminate form . However, if x ≠ 2, then
𝒙𝟐−𝟒
𝒙+𝟐)(𝒙−𝟐)
𝒙−𝟐
(
= 𝒙−𝟐
= x+2

Therefore, to evaluate the limit of the given function, we proceed as follows:

𝒙 𝟐− (𝒙+𝟐)(𝒙−𝟐)
𝐥𝐢
𝐦 𝟒
=
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙−𝟐
𝐱→
𝟐 𝒙− 𝐱→
𝟐
𝟐

= 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (x+2)
𝐱→𝟐

=2+2=4

𝒇(𝒙)
𝐥𝐢𝐦
Example (2) Evaluate
𝐱→𝟐 +𝒇(𝟐) if f(x) = x2 – 3x
𝒙−𝟐

Solution: if f(x) = x2 – 3x, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)

𝐱→ +𝒇(𝟐)
𝟐
𝒙−𝟐
(𝟐𝟐 – 𝟎
( )
𝐥𝐢 𝐱 – 𝟑𝐱 +𝟐 𝟑(𝟐)+𝟐
𝟐
=𝟎
𝐦 𝟐−𝟐 0
𝐱→
𝒙−𝟐
=
𝟐

0
A straight substitution of x = 2 leads to the indeterminate form . However, by factoring,
(𝒙−𝟏)(𝒙−𝟐)
𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝐱
𝟐
–
𝐱→𝟐 𝟑𝐱)+𝟐 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙−𝟐
=
𝒙−𝟐 𝐱→
𝟐

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𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝒙 − 𝟏) = 𝟐 − 𝟏 = 𝟏
𝐱→𝟐

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EVALUATION

Evaluate each of the following:

1. Lim ( y3 – 2y + 7)
y 3

2. Lim (2x2 + x + 4)
x -1

3. Lim (y + 5y -1)
y -2
sin
4. Lim
𝜃
²
tan
½π ²

5. Lim ( y3 – 2y + 7)
x 3

𝑥3−64
6. li
m 𝑥2−16
x→4

𝑥2+2𝑥−
7.
lim 8
x→2 3𝑥−6

𝑥3−8
8
lim 𝑥2−4
x→2

𝑥3−𝑥2−𝑥−2
9.
lim 2𝑥3−5𝑥2+5𝑥−
x→2 6

10. 𝑓(𝑥)
lim −𝑓(2) if f(x) = x2 – 2x + 3
x→0
𝑥−2

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READINGS/ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Trigonometric Identities
Derivation of the Pythagorean Theorem

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REFERENCES

Feliciano, F. and F. Uy. 1983. Differential and Integral Calculus. Merriam and Webster
Bookstore, Inc.
Love, C. and E. Rainville. 1970. Differential and Integral Calculus. The Mcmillan Company,
New York.
Mendoza, I., G. Ancheta, B. Del Rosario Jr. 1984. Reviewer on Differential Calculus. National
Bookstore, Inc.

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