User-Defined Functions in Python

A user-defined function in Python is a function created by the programmer

to perform a specific task or set of tasks. These functions are defined using
the def keyword, followed by the function name, parameters (if any), and the
function body. User-defined functions provide a way to organize code into
reusable pieces, which makes the code more modular and easier to maintain.

Basic Structure of a Function

python

Copy code

def function_name(parameters):

"""

Optional docstring to describe the function.

"""

# Code block (function body)

return value # Optional return value

 def: A keyword used to define a function.

 function_name: The name of the function. It should be descriptive

and follow Python's naming conventions (e.g., lowercase letters with
words separated by underscores).

 parameters: Optional. Variables that hold values passed to the

function. You can pass zero or more parameters.

 return: Optional. Specifies what the function should output or return

after executing. If no return is used, the function returns None by
default.

Examples of User-Defined Functions

1. Simple Function Without Parameters

A basic function that performs a task without requiring any input.

python
Copy code

def greet():

print("Hello, welcome to Python!")

greet()

Explanation:

 This function, greet(), prints a greeting message. It doesn't accept any

parameters.

 The function is called by using its name followed by parentheses,

greet().

2. Function with Parameters

A function that takes parameters and uses them within the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet("Ajay")

Explanation:

 The function greet(name) accepts one parameter, name, which is used

inside the function.

 When calling the function, you provide an argument like greet("Ajay"),

and it will output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

3. Function with Return Statement

A function that performs a task and returns a value to the caller.

python
Copy code

def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(5, 7)

print(f"The sum is: {result}")

Explanation:

 add(a, b) takes two arguments and returns their sum.

 The returned value is stored in the variable result and printed.

4. Function with Default Parameters

You can assign default values to function parameters. If an argument is not

provided when the function is called, the default value is used.

python

Copy code

def greet(name="Guest"):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet() # Output: Hello, Guest! Welcome to Python.

greet("Ajay") # Output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

Explanation:

 The function greet(name="Guest") has a default value for the name

parameter.

 If the function is called without an argument, it uses "Guest" as the

default name. If an argument is provided, like "Ajay", it uses that
instead.

5. Function with Multiple Parameters

You can pass multiple parameters to a function.

python

Copy code

def calculate_area(length, width):

return length * width

area = calculate_area(5, 10)

print(f"The area is: {area}")

Explanation:

 The function calculate_area(length, width) calculates the area of a

rectangle by multiplying the two arguments.

 The result is stored in the variable area and printed.

6. Function with Variable-length Arguments (*args)

You can use *args to accept a variable number of positional arguments.

python

Copy code

def sum_numbers(*args):

return sum(args)

print(sum_numbers(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 6

print(sum_numbers(4, 5, 6, 7, 8)) # Output: 30

Explanation:

 The sum_numbers(*args) function accepts any number of arguments

and sums them.

 *args collects all the arguments passed into a tuple.

7. Function with Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

**kwargs allows passing variable-length keyword arguments (key-value pairs)

to the function.

python

Copy code

def display_info(**kwargs):

for key, value in kwargs.items():

print(f"{key}: {value}")

display_info(name="Ajay", age=30, city="Berlin")

Explanation:

 The function display_info(**kwargs) accepts a variable number of

keyword arguments and prints each key-value pair.

 **kwargs collects the keyword arguments into a dictionary.

8. Recursive Function

A recursive function is a function that calls itself. This is useful for problems
like calculating the factorial of a number or traversing a tree structure.

python

Copy code

def factorial(n):

if n == 1:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

Explanation:
 The factorial() function calls itself to compute the factorial of a number.

 The base case is when n == 1, and the recursive case is n * factorial(n

- 1).

9. Higher-Order Function

A higher-order function is a function that either takes another function as an

argument or returns a function.

python

Copy code

def apply_twice(func, value):

return func(func(value))

def double(x):

return x * 2

print(apply_twice(double, 5)) # Output: 20

Explanation:

 The apply_twice() function accepts a function and a value. It applies

the function to the value twice.

 double() doubles the input value, and apply_twice() applies it twice,

resulting in 20.

Docstrings in Functions

A docstring is a string that documents what a function does. It’s placed as

the first statement in the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):
"""This function greets the person passed as the argument."""

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

print(greet.__doc__)

Explanation:

 The string inside the function is a docstring. You can access it using the
__doc__ attribute of the function.

 It's useful for explaining the purpose and usage of the function.

Key Features of User-Defined Functions:

1. Reusability: Functions allow you to reuse the same code block

multiple times, reducing redundancy.

2. Modularity: Functions help organize code into smaller, manageable

pieces.

3. Maintainability: Functions make it easier to maintain and update the

code. If changes are required, you only need to update the function.

4. Abstraction: You can use functions to encapsulate complex operations

and only expose an easy-to-use interface.

5. Arguments and Return Values: Functions can accept arguments

and return values to be used elsewhere in the code.

More Advanced Example:

Fibonacci Series Using Recursion

This is a classic example that demonstrates recursion in user-defined

functions.

python

Copy code

def fibonacci(n):

"""Return the nth Fibonacci number."""

if n <= 1:

return n

else:

return fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2)

n_terms = 10

for i in range(n_terms):

print(fibonacci(i), end=" ")

Explanation:

 The function fibonacci(n) returns the nth Fibonacci number using

recursion.

 It calls itself for the two preceding Fibonacci numbers (n - 1 and n - 2).

In summary, user-defined functions in Python allow you to create

reusable, modular blocks of code that can perform specific tasks. They are
flexible, allowing the use of parameters, return values, and support for
variable-length arguments (*args and **kwargs). Functions are essential in
Python for organizing code efficiently and improving maintainability.

4o

User-Defined Functions in Python

A user-defined function in Python is a function created by the programmer

to perform a specific task or set of tasks. These functions are defined using
the def keyword, followed by the function name, parameters (if any), and the
function body. User-defined functions provide a way to organize code into
reusable pieces, which makes the code more modular and easier to maintain.

Basic Structure of a Function

python

Copy code

def function_name(parameters):
"""

Optional docstring to describe the function.

"""

# Code block (function body)

return value # Optional return value

 def: A keyword used to define a function.

 function_name: The name of the function. It should be descriptive

and follow Python's naming conventions (e.g., lowercase letters with
words separated by underscores).

 parameters: Optional. Variables that hold values passed to the

function. You can pass zero or more parameters.

 return: Optional. Specifies what the function should output or return

after executing. If no return is used, the function returns None by
default.

Examples of User-Defined Functions

1. Simple Function Without Parameters

A basic function that performs a task without requiring any input.

python

Copy code

def greet():

print("Hello, welcome to Python!")

greet()

Explanation:

 This function, greet(), prints a greeting message. It doesn't accept any

parameters.

 The function is called by using its name followed by parentheses,

greet().
2. Function with Parameters

A function that takes parameters and uses them within the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet("Ajay")

Explanation:

 The function greet(name) accepts one parameter, name, which is used

inside the function.

 When calling the function, you provide an argument like greet("Ajay"),

and it will output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

3. Function with Return Statement

A function that performs a task and returns a value to the caller.

python

Copy code

def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(5, 7)

print(f"The sum is: {result}")

Explanation:

 add(a, b) takes two arguments and returns their sum.

 The returned value is stored in the variable result and printed.

4. Function with Default Parameters

You can assign default values to function parameters. If an argument is not

provided when the function is called, the default value is used.

python

Copy code

def greet(name="Guest"):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet() # Output: Hello, Guest! Welcome to Python.

greet("Ajay") # Output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

Explanation:

 The function greet(name="Guest") has a default value for the name

parameter.

 If the function is called without an argument, it uses "Guest" as the

default name. If an argument is provided, like "Ajay", it uses that
instead.

5. Function with Multiple Parameters

You can pass multiple parameters to a function.

python

Copy code

def calculate_area(length, width):

return length * width

area = calculate_area(5, 10)

print(f"The area is: {area}")

Explanation:
 The function calculate_area(length, width) calculates the area of a
rectangle by multiplying the two arguments.

 The result is stored in the variable area and printed.

6. Function with Variable-length Arguments (*args)

You can use *args to accept a variable number of positional arguments.

python

Copy code

def sum_numbers(*args):

return sum(args)

print(sum_numbers(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 6

print(sum_numbers(4, 5, 6, 7, 8)) # Output: 30

Explanation:

 The sum_numbers(*args) function accepts any number of arguments

and sums them.

 *args collects all the arguments passed into a tuple.

7. Function with Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

**kwargs allows passing variable-length keyword arguments (key-value pairs)

to the function.

python

Copy code

def display_info(**kwargs):

for key, value in kwargs.items():

print(f"{key}: {value}")

display_info(name="Ajay", age=30, city="Berlin")

Explanation:

 The function display_info(**kwargs) accepts a variable number of

keyword arguments and prints each key-value pair.

 **kwargs collects the keyword arguments into a dictionary.

8. Recursive Function

A recursive function is a function that calls itself. This is useful for problems
like calculating the factorial of a number or traversing a tree structure.

python

Copy code

def factorial(n):

if n == 1:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

Explanation:

 The factorial() function calls itself to compute the factorial of a number.

 The base case is when n == 1, and the recursive case is n * factorial(n

- 1).

9. Higher-Order Function

A higher-order function is a function that either takes another function as an

argument or returns a function.

python

Copy code

def apply_twice(func, value):

return func(func(value))

def double(x):

return x * 2

print(apply_twice(double, 5)) # Output: 20

Explanation:

 The apply_twice() function accepts a function and a value. It applies

the function to the value twice.

 double() doubles the input value, and apply_twice() applies it twice,

resulting in 20.

Docstrings in Functions

A docstring is a string that documents what a function does. It’s placed as

the first statement in the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

"""This function greets the person passed as the argument."""

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

print(greet.__doc__)

Explanation:

 The string inside the function is a docstring. You can access it using the
__doc__ attribute of the function.

 It's useful for explaining the purpose and usage of the function.

Key Features of User-Defined Functions:

1. Reusability: Functions allow you to reuse the same code block
multiple times, reducing redundancy.

2. Modularity: Functions help organize code into smaller, manageable

pieces.

3. Maintainability: Functions make it easier to maintain and update the

code. If changes are required, you only need to update the function.

4. Abstraction: You can use functions to encapsulate complex operations

and only expose an easy-to-use interface.

5. Arguments and Return Values: Functions can accept arguments

and return values to be used elsewhere in the code.

More Advanced Example:

Fibonacci Series Using Recursion

This is a classic example that demonstrates recursion in user-defined

functions.

python

Copy code

def fibonacci(n):

"""Return the nth Fibonacci number."""

if n <= 1:

return n

else:

return fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2)

n_terms = 10

for i in range(n_terms):

print(fibonacci(i), end=" ")

Explanation:
 The function fibonacci(n) returns the nth Fibonacci number using
recursion.

 It calls itself for the two preceding Fibonacci numbers (n - 1 and n - 2).

In summary, user-defined functions in Python allow you to create

reusable, modular blocks of code that can perform specific tasks. They are
flexible, allowing the use of parameters, return values, and support for
variable-length arguments (*args and **kwargs). Functions are essential in
Python for organizing code efficiently and improving maintainability.

4o

User-Defined Functions in Python

A user-defined function in Python is a function created by the programmer

to perform a specific task or set of tasks. These functions are defined using
the def keyword, followed by the function name, parameters (if any), and the
function body. User-defined functions provide a way to organize code into
reusable pieces, which makes the code more modular and easier to maintain.

Basic Structure of a Function

python

Copy code

def function_name(parameters):

"""

Optional docstring to describe the function.

"""

# Code block (function body)

return value # Optional return value

 def: A keyword used to define a function.

 function_name: The name of the function. It should be descriptive

and follow Python's naming conventions (e.g., lowercase letters with
words separated by underscores).
 parameters: Optional. Variables that hold values passed to the
function. You can pass zero or more parameters.

 return: Optional. Specifies what the function should output or return

after executing. If no return is used, the function returns None by
default.

Examples of User-Defined Functions

1. Simple Function Without Parameters

A basic function that performs a task without requiring any input.

python

Copy code

def greet():

print("Hello, welcome to Python!")

greet()

Explanation:

 This function, greet(), prints a greeting message. It doesn't accept any

parameters.

 The function is called by using its name followed by parentheses,

greet().

2. Function with Parameters

A function that takes parameters and uses them within the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet("Ajay")

Explanation:

 The function greet(name) accepts one parameter, name, which is used

inside the function.

 When calling the function, you provide an argument like greet("Ajay"),

and it will output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

3. Function with Return Statement

A function that performs a task and returns a value to the caller.

python

Copy code

def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(5, 7)

print(f"The sum is: {result}")

Explanation:

 add(a, b) takes two arguments and returns their sum.

 The returned value is stored in the variable result and printed.

4. Function with Default Parameters

You can assign default values to function parameters. If an argument is not

provided when the function is called, the default value is used.

python

Copy code

def greet(name="Guest"):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet() # Output: Hello, Guest! Welcome to Python.

greet("Ajay") # Output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

Explanation:

 The function greet(name="Guest") has a default value for the name

parameter.

 If the function is called without an argument, it uses "Guest" as the

default name. If an argument is provided, like "Ajay", it uses that
instead.

5. Function with Multiple Parameters

You can pass multiple parameters to a function.

python

Copy code

def calculate_area(length, width):

return length * width

area = calculate_area(5, 10)

print(f"The area is: {area}")

Explanation:

 The function calculate_area(length, width) calculates the area of a

rectangle by multiplying the two arguments.

 The result is stored in the variable area and printed.

6. Function with Variable-length Arguments (*args)

You can use *args to accept a variable number of positional arguments.

python

Copy code

def sum_numbers(*args):
return sum(args)

print(sum_numbers(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 6

print(sum_numbers(4, 5, 6, 7, 8)) # Output: 30

Explanation:

 The sum_numbers(*args) function accepts any number of arguments

and sums them.

 *args collects all the arguments passed into a tuple.

7. Function with Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

**kwargs allows passing variable-length keyword arguments (key-value pairs)

to the function.

python

Copy code

def display_info(**kwargs):

for key, value in kwargs.items():

print(f"{key}: {value}")

display_info(name="Ajay", age=30, city="Berlin")

Explanation:

 The function display_info(**kwargs) accepts a variable number of

keyword arguments and prints each key-value pair.

 **kwargs collects the keyword arguments into a dictionary.

8. Recursive Function

A recursive function is a function that calls itself. This is useful for problems
like calculating the factorial of a number or traversing a tree structure.

python
Copy code

def factorial(n):

if n == 1:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

Explanation:

 The factorial() function calls itself to compute the factorial of a number.

 The base case is when n == 1, and the recursive case is n * factorial(n

- 1).

9. Higher-Order Function

A higher-order function is a function that either takes another function as an

argument or returns a function.

python

Copy code

def apply_twice(func, value):

return func(func(value))

def double(x):

return x * 2

print(apply_twice(double, 5)) # Output: 20

Explanation:

 The apply_twice() function accepts a function and a value. It applies

the function to the value twice.
 double() doubles the input value, and apply_twice() applies it twice,
resulting in 20.

Docstrings in Functions

A docstring is a string that documents what a function does. It’s placed as

the first statement in the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

"""This function greets the person passed as the argument."""

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

print(greet.__doc__)

Explanation:

 The string inside the function is a docstring. You can access it using the
__doc__ attribute of the function.

 It's useful for explaining the purpose and usage of the function.

Key Features of User-Defined Functions:

1. Reusability: Functions allow you to reuse the same code block

multiple times, reducing redundancy.

2. Modularity: Functions help organize code into smaller, manageable

pieces.

3. Maintainability: Functions make it easier to maintain and update the

code. If changes are required, you only need to update the function.

4. Abstraction: You can use functions to encapsulate complex operations

and only expose an easy-to-use interface.

5. Arguments and Return Values: Functions can accept arguments

and return values to be used elsewhere in the code.
More Advanced Example:

Fibonacci Series Using Recursion

This is a classic example that demonstrates recursion in user-defined

functions.

python

Copy code

def fibonacci(n):

"""Return the nth Fibonacci number."""

if n <= 1:

return n

else:

return fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2)

n_terms = 10

for i in range(n_terms):

print(fibonacci(i), end=" ")

Explanation:

 The function fibonacci(n) returns the nth Fibonacci number using

recursion.

 It calls itself for the two preceding Fibonacci numbers (n - 1 and n - 2).

In summary, user-defined functions in Python allow you to create

reusable, modular blocks of code that can perform specific tasks. They are
flexible, allowing the use of parameters, return values, and support for
variable-length arguments (*args and **kwargs). Functions are essential in
Python for organizing code efficiently and improving maintainability.

4o

User-Defined Functions in Python

A user-defined function in Python is a function created by the programmer
to perform a specific task or set of tasks. These functions are defined using
the def keyword, followed by the function name, parameters (if any), and the
function body. User-defined functions provide a way to organize code into
reusable pieces, which makes the code more modular and easier to maintain.

Basic Structure of a Function

python

Copy code

def function_name(parameters):

"""

Optional docstring to describe the function.

"""

# Code block (function body)

return value # Optional return value

 def: A keyword used to define a function.

 function_name: The name of the function. It should be descriptive

and follow Python's naming conventions (e.g., lowercase letters with
words separated by underscores).

 parameters: Optional. Variables that hold values passed to the

function. You can pass zero or more parameters.

 return: Optional. Specifies what the function should output or return

after executing. If no return is used, the function returns None by
default.

Examples of User-Defined Functions

1. Simple Function Without Parameters

A basic function that performs a task without requiring any input.

python

Copy code
def greet():

print("Hello, welcome to Python!")

greet()

Explanation:

 This function, greet(), prints a greeting message. It doesn't accept any

parameters.

 The function is called by using its name followed by parentheses,

greet().

2. Function with Parameters

A function that takes parameters and uses them within the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet("Ajay")

Explanation:

 The function greet(name) accepts one parameter, name, which is used

inside the function.

 When calling the function, you provide an argument like greet("Ajay"),

and it will output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

3. Function with Return Statement

A function that performs a task and returns a value to the caller.

python

Copy code
def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(5, 7)

print(f"The sum is: {result}")

Explanation:

 add(a, b) takes two arguments and returns their sum.

 The returned value is stored in the variable result and printed.

4. Function with Default Parameters

You can assign default values to function parameters. If an argument is not

provided when the function is called, the default value is used.

python

Copy code

def greet(name="Guest"):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet() # Output: Hello, Guest! Welcome to Python.

greet("Ajay") # Output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

Explanation:

 The function greet(name="Guest") has a default value for the name

parameter.

 If the function is called without an argument, it uses "Guest" as the

default name. If an argument is provided, like "Ajay", it uses that
instead.

5. Function with Multiple Parameters

You can pass multiple parameters to a function.

python

Copy code

def calculate_area(length, width):

return length * width

area = calculate_area(5, 10)

print(f"The area is: {area}")

Explanation:

 The function calculate_area(length, width) calculates the area of a

rectangle by multiplying the two arguments.

 The result is stored in the variable area and printed.

6. Function with Variable-length Arguments (*args)

You can use *args to accept a variable number of positional arguments.

python

Copy code

def sum_numbers(*args):

return sum(args)

print(sum_numbers(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 6

print(sum_numbers(4, 5, 6, 7, 8)) # Output: 30

Explanation:

 The sum_numbers(*args) function accepts any number of arguments

and sums them.

 *args collects all the arguments passed into a tuple.

7. Function with Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

**kwargs allows passing variable-length keyword arguments (key-value pairs)
to the function.

python

Copy code

def display_info(**kwargs):

for key, value in kwargs.items():

print(f"{key}: {value}")

display_info(name="Ajay", age=30, city="Berlin")

Explanation:

 The function display_info(**kwargs) accepts a variable number of

keyword arguments and prints each key-value pair.

 **kwargs collects the keyword arguments into a dictionary.

8. Recursive Function

A recursive function is a function that calls itself. This is useful for problems
like calculating the factorial of a number or traversing a tree structure.

python

Copy code

def factorial(n):

if n == 1:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

Explanation:

 The factorial() function calls itself to compute the factorial of a number.

 The base case is when n == 1, and the recursive case is n * factorial(n
- 1).

9. Higher-Order Function

A higher-order function is a function that either takes another function as an

argument or returns a function.

python

Copy code

def apply_twice(func, value):

return func(func(value))

def double(x):

return x * 2

print(apply_twice(double, 5)) # Output: 20

Explanation:

 The apply_twice() function accepts a function and a value. It applies

the function to the value twice.

 double() doubles the input value, and apply_twice() applies it twice,

resulting in 20.

Docstrings in Functions

A docstring is a string that documents what a function does. It’s placed as

the first statement in the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

"""This function greets the person passed as the argument."""

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

print(greet.__doc__)

Explanation:

 The string inside the function is a docstring. You can access it using the
__doc__ attribute of the function.

 It's useful for explaining the purpose and usage of the function.

Key Features of User-Defined Functions:

1. Reusability: Functions allow you to reuse the same code block

multiple times, reducing redundancy.

2. Modularity: Functions help organize code into smaller, manageable

pieces.

3. Maintainability: Functions make it easier to maintain and update the

code. If changes are required, you only need to update the function.

4. Abstraction: You can use functions to encapsulate complex operations

and only expose an easy-to-use interface.

5. Arguments and Return Values: Functions can accept arguments

and return values to be used elsewhere in the code.

More Advanced Example:

Fibonacci Series Using Recursion

This is a classic example that demonstrates recursion in user-defined

functions.

python

Copy code

def fibonacci(n):

"""Return the nth Fibonacci number."""

if n <= 1:
return n

else:

return fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2)

n_terms = 10

for i in range(n_terms):

print(fibonacci(i), end=" ")

Explanation:

 The function fibonacci(n) returns the nth Fibonacci number using

recursion.

 It calls itself for the two preceding Fibonacci numbers (n - 1 and n - 2).

In summary, user-defined functions in Python allow you to create

reusable, modular blocks of code that can perform specific tasks. They are
flexible, allowing the use of parameters, return values, and support for
variable-length arguments (*args and **kwargs). Functions are essential in
Python for organizing code efficiently and improving maintainability.

4o

User-Defined Functions in Python

A user-defined function in Python is a function created by the programmer

to perform a specific task or set of tasks. These functions are defined using
the def keyword, followed by the function name, parameters (if any), and the
function body. User-defined functions provide a way to organize code into
reusable pieces, which makes the code more modular and easier to maintain.

Basic Structure of a Function

python

Copy code

def function_name(parameters):

"""
Optional docstring to describe the function.

"""

# Code block (function body)

return value # Optional return value

 def: A keyword used to define a function.

 function_name: The name of the function. It should be descriptive

and follow Python's naming conventions (e.g., lowercase letters with
words separated by underscores).

 parameters: Optional. Variables that hold values passed to the

function. You can pass zero or more parameters.

 return: Optional. Specifies what the function should output or return

after executing. If no return is used, the function returns None by
default.

Examples of User-Defined Functions

1. Simple Function Without Parameters

A basic function that performs a task without requiring any input.

python

Copy code

def greet():

print("Hello, welcome to Python!")

greet()

Explanation:

 This function, greet(), prints a greeting message. It doesn't accept any

parameters.

 The function is called by using its name followed by parentheses,

greet().
2. Function with Parameters

A function that takes parameters and uses them within the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet("Ajay")

Explanation:

 The function greet(name) accepts one parameter, name, which is used

inside the function.

 When calling the function, you provide an argument like greet("Ajay"),

and it will output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

3. Function with Return Statement

A function that performs a task and returns a value to the caller.

python

Copy code

def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(5, 7)

print(f"The sum is: {result}")

Explanation:

 add(a, b) takes two arguments and returns their sum.

 The returned value is stored in the variable result and printed.

4. Function with Default Parameters

You can assign default values to function parameters. If an argument is not

provided when the function is called, the default value is used.

python

Copy code

def greet(name="Guest"):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet() # Output: Hello, Guest! Welcome to Python.

greet("Ajay") # Output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

Explanation:

 The function greet(name="Guest") has a default value for the name

parameter.

 If the function is called without an argument, it uses "Guest" as the

default name. If an argument is provided, like "Ajay", it uses that
instead.

5. Function with Multiple Parameters

You can pass multiple parameters to a function.

python

Copy code

def calculate_area(length, width):

return length * width

area = calculate_area(5, 10)

print(f"The area is: {area}")

Explanation:
 The function calculate_area(length, width) calculates the area of a
rectangle by multiplying the two arguments.

 The result is stored in the variable area and printed.

6. Function with Variable-length Arguments (*args)

You can use *args to accept a variable number of positional arguments.

python

Copy code

def sum_numbers(*args):

return sum(args)

print(sum_numbers(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 6

print(sum_numbers(4, 5, 6, 7, 8)) # Output: 30

Explanation:

 The sum_numbers(*args) function accepts any number of arguments

and sums them.

 *args collects all the arguments passed into a tuple.

7. Function with Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

**kwargs allows passing variable-length keyword arguments (key-value pairs)

to the function.

python

Copy code

def display_info(**kwargs):

for key, value in kwargs.items():

print(f"{key}: {value}")

display_info(name="Ajay", age=30, city="Berlin")

Explanation:

 The function display_info(**kwargs) accepts a variable number of

keyword arguments and prints each key-value pair.

 **kwargs collects the keyword arguments into a dictionary.

8. Recursive Function

A recursive function is a function that calls itself. This is useful for problems
like calculating the factorial of a number or traversing a tree structure.

python

Copy code

def factorial(n):

if n == 1:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

Explanation:

 The factorial() function calls itself to compute the factorial of a number.

 The base case is when n == 1, and the recursive case is n * factorial(n

- 1).

9. Higher-Order Function

A higher-order function is a function that either takes another function as an

argument or returns a function.

python

Copy code

def apply_twice(func, value):

return func(func(value))

def double(x):

return x * 2

print(apply_twice(double, 5)) # Output: 20

Explanation:

 The apply_twice() function accepts a function and a value. It applies

the function to the value twice.

 double() doubles the input value, and apply_twice() applies it twice,

resulting in 20.

Docstrings in Functions

A docstring is a string that documents what a function does. It’s placed as

the first statement in the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

"""This function greets the person passed as the argument."""

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

print(greet.__doc__)

Explanation:

 The string inside the function is a docstring. You can access it using the
__doc__ attribute of the function.

 It's useful for explaining the purpose and usage of the function.

Key Features of User-Defined Functions:

1. Reusability: Functions allow you to reuse the same code block
multiple times, reducing redundancy.

2. Modularity: Functions help organize code into smaller, manageable

pieces.

3. Maintainability: Functions make it easier to maintain and update the

code. If changes are required, you only need to update the function.

4. Abstraction: You can use functions to encapsulate complex operations

and only expose an easy-to-use interface.

5. Arguments and Return Values: Functions can accept arguments

and return values to be used elsewhere in the code.

More Advanced Example:

Fibonacci Series Using Recursion

This is a classic example that demonstrates recursion in user-defined

functions.

python

Copy code

def fibonacci(n):

"""Return the nth Fibonacci number."""

if n <= 1:

return n

else:

return fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2)

n_terms = 10

for i in range(n_terms):

print(fibonacci(i), end=" ")

Explanation:
 The function fibonacci(n) returns the nth Fibonacci number using
recursion.

 It calls itself for the two preceding Fibonacci numbers (n - 1 and n - 2).

In summary, user-defined functions in Python allow you to create

reusable, modular blocks of code that can perform specific tasks. They are
flexible, allowing the use of parameters, return values, and support for
variable-length arguments (*args and **kwargs). Functions are essential in
Python for organizing code efficiently and improving maintainability.

4o

User-Defined Functions in Python

A user-defined function in Python is a function created by the programmer

to perform a specific task or set of tasks. These functions are defined using
the def keyword, followed by the function name, parameters (if any), and the
function body. User-defined functions provide a way to organize code into
reusable pieces, which makes the code more modular and easier to maintain.

Basic Structure of a Function

python

Copy code

def function_name(parameters):

"""

Optional docstring to describe the function.

"""

# Code block (function body)

return value # Optional return value

 def: A keyword used to define a function.

 function_name: The name of the function. It should be descriptive

and follow Python's naming conventions (e.g., lowercase letters with
words separated by underscores).
 parameters: Optional. Variables that hold values passed to the
function. You can pass zero or more parameters.

 return: Optional. Specifies what the function should output or return

after executing. If no return is used, the function returns None by
default.

Examples of User-Defined Functions

1. Simple Function Without Parameters

A basic function that performs a task without requiring any input.

python

Copy code

def greet():

print("Hello, welcome to Python!")

greet()

Explanation:

 This function, greet(), prints a greeting message. It doesn't accept any

parameters.

 The function is called by using its name followed by parentheses,

greet().

2. Function with Parameters

A function that takes parameters and uses them within the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet("Ajay")

Explanation:

 The function greet(name) accepts one parameter, name, which is used

inside the function.

 When calling the function, you provide an argument like greet("Ajay"),

and it will output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

3. Function with Return Statement

A function that performs a task and returns a value to the caller.

python

Copy code

def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(5, 7)

print(f"The sum is: {result}")

Explanation:

 add(a, b) takes two arguments and returns their sum.

 The returned value is stored in the variable result and printed.

4. Function with Default Parameters

You can assign default values to function parameters. If an argument is not

provided when the function is called, the default value is used.

python

Copy code

def greet(name="Guest"):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet() # Output: Hello, Guest! Welcome to Python.

greet("Ajay") # Output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

Explanation:

 The function greet(name="Guest") has a default value for the name

parameter.

 If the function is called without an argument, it uses "Guest" as the

default name. If an argument is provided, like "Ajay", it uses that
instead.

5. Function with Multiple Parameters

You can pass multiple parameters to a function.

python

Copy code

def calculate_area(length, width):

return length * width

area = calculate_area(5, 10)

print(f"The area is: {area}")

Explanation:

 The function calculate_area(length, width) calculates the area of a

rectangle by multiplying the two arguments.

 The result is stored in the variable area and printed.

6. Function with Variable-length Arguments (*args)

You can use *args to accept a variable number of positional arguments.

python

Copy code

def sum_numbers(*args):
return sum(args)

print(sum_numbers(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 6

print(sum_numbers(4, 5, 6, 7, 8)) # Output: 30

Explanation:

 The sum_numbers(*args) function accepts any number of arguments

and sums them.

 *args collects all the arguments passed into a tuple.

7. Function with Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

**kwargs allows passing variable-length keyword arguments (key-value pairs)

to the function.

python

Copy code

def display_info(**kwargs):

for key, value in kwargs.items():

print(f"{key}: {value}")

display_info(name="Ajay", age=30, city="Berlin")

Explanation:

 The function display_info(**kwargs) accepts a variable number of

keyword arguments and prints each key-value pair.

 **kwargs collects the keyword arguments into a dictionary.

8. Recursive Function

A recursive function is a function that calls itself. This is useful for problems
like calculating the factorial of a number or traversing a tree structure.

python
Copy code

def factorial(n):

if n == 1:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

Explanation:

 The factorial() function calls itself to compute the factorial of a number.

 The base case is when n == 1, and the recursive case is n * factorial(n

- 1).

9. Higher-Order Function

A higher-order function is a function that either takes another function as an

argument or returns a function.

python

Copy code

def apply_twice(func, value):

return func(func(value))

def double(x):

return x * 2

print(apply_twice(double, 5)) # Output: 20

Explanation:

 The apply_twice() function accepts a function and a value. It applies

the function to the value twice.
 double() doubles the input value, and apply_twice() applies it twice,
resulting in 20.

Docstrings in Functions

A docstring is a string that documents what a function does. It’s placed as

the first statement in the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

"""This function greets the person passed as the argument."""

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

print(greet.__doc__)

Explanation:

 The string inside the function is a docstring. You can access it using the
__doc__ attribute of the function.

 It's useful for explaining the purpose and usage of the function.

Key Features of User-Defined Functions:

1. Reusability: Functions allow you to reuse the same code block

multiple times, reducing redundancy.

2. Modularity: Functions help organize code into smaller, manageable

pieces.

3. Maintainability: Functions make it easier to maintain and update the

code. If changes are required, you only need to update the function.

4. Abstraction: You can use functions to encapsulate complex operations

and only expose an easy-to-use interface.

5. Arguments and Return Values: Functions can accept arguments

and return values to be used elsewhere in the code.
More Advanced Example:

Fibonacci Series Using Recursion

This is a classic example that demonstrates recursion in user-defined

functions.

python

Copy code

def fibonacci(n):

"""Return the nth Fibonacci number."""

if n <= 1:

return n

else:

return fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2)

n_terms = 10

for i in range(n_terms):

print(fibonacci(i), end=" ")

Explanation:

 The function fibonacci(n) returns the nth Fibonacci number using

recursion.

 It calls itself for the two preceding Fibonacci numbers (n - 1 and n - 2).

In summary, user-defined functions in Python allow you to create

reusable, modular blocks of code that can perform specific tasks. They are
flexible, allowing the use of parameters, return values, and support for
variable-length arguments (*args and **kwargs). Functions are essential in
Python for organizing code efficiently and improving maintainability.

4o

User-Defined Functions in Python

A user-defined function in Python is a function created by the programmer
to perform a specific task or set of tasks. These functions are defined using
the def keyword, followed by the function name, parameters (if any), and the
function body. User-defined functions provide a way to organize code into
reusable pieces, which makes the code more modular and easier to maintain.

Basic Structure of a Function

python

Copy code

def function_name(parameters):

"""

Optional docstring to describe the function.

"""

# Code block (function body)

return value # Optional return value

 def: A keyword used to define a function.

 function_name: The name of the function. It should be descriptive

and follow Python's naming conventions (e.g., lowercase letters with
words separated by underscores).

 parameters: Optional. Variables that hold values passed to the

function. You can pass zero or more parameters.

 return: Optional. Specifies what the function should output or return

after executing. If no return is used, the function returns None by
default.

Examples of User-Defined Functions

1. Simple Function Without Parameters

A basic function that performs a task without requiring any input.

python

Copy code
def greet():

print("Hello, welcome to Python!")

greet()

Explanation:

 This function, greet(), prints a greeting message. It doesn't accept any

parameters.

 The function is called by using its name followed by parentheses,

greet().

2. Function with Parameters

A function that takes parameters and uses them within the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet("Ajay")

Explanation:

 The function greet(name) accepts one parameter, name, which is used

inside the function.

 When calling the function, you provide an argument like greet("Ajay"),

and it will output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

3. Function with Return Statement

A function that performs a task and returns a value to the caller.

python

Copy code
def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(5, 7)

print(f"The sum is: {result}")

Explanation:

 add(a, b) takes two arguments and returns their sum.

 The returned value is stored in the variable result and printed.

4. Function with Default Parameters

You can assign default values to function parameters. If an argument is not

provided when the function is called, the default value is used.

python

Copy code

def greet(name="Guest"):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet() # Output: Hello, Guest! Welcome to Python.

greet("Ajay") # Output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

Explanation:

 The function greet(name="Guest") has a default value for the name

parameter.

 If the function is called without an argument, it uses "Guest" as the

default name. If an argument is provided, like "Ajay", it uses that
instead.

5. Function with Multiple Parameters

You can pass multiple parameters to a function.

python

Copy code

def calculate_area(length, width):

return length * width

area = calculate_area(5, 10)

print(f"The area is: {area}")

Explanation:

 The function calculate_area(length, width) calculates the area of a

rectangle by multiplying the two arguments.

 The result is stored in the variable area and printed.

6. Function with Variable-length Arguments (*args)

You can use *args to accept a variable number of positional arguments.

python

Copy code

def sum_numbers(*args):

return sum(args)

print(sum_numbers(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 6

print(sum_numbers(4, 5, 6, 7, 8)) # Output: 30

Explanation:

 The sum_numbers(*args) function accepts any number of arguments

and sums them.

 *args collects all the arguments passed into a tuple.

7. Function with Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

**kwargs allows passing variable-length keyword arguments (key-value pairs)
to the function.

python

Copy code

def display_info(**kwargs):

for key, value in kwargs.items():

print(f"{key}: {value}")

display_info(name="Ajay", age=30, city="Berlin")

Explanation:

 The function display_info(**kwargs) accepts a variable number of

keyword arguments and prints each key-value pair.

 **kwargs collects the keyword arguments into a dictionary.

8. Recursive Function

A recursive function is a function that calls itself. This is useful for problems
like calculating the factorial of a number or traversing a tree structure.

python

Copy code

def factorial(n):

if n == 1:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

Explanation:

 The factorial() function calls itself to compute the factorial of a number.

 The base case is when n == 1, and the recursive case is n * factorial(n
- 1).

9. Higher-Order Function

A higher-order function is a function that either takes another function as an

argument or returns a function.

python

Copy code

def apply_twice(func, value):

return func(func(value))

def double(x):

return x * 2

print(apply_twice(double, 5)) # Output: 20

Explanation:

 The apply_twice() function accepts a function and a value. It applies

the function to the value twice.

 double() doubles the input value, and apply_twice() applies it twice,

resulting in 20.

Docstrings in Functions

A docstring is a string that documents what a function does. It’s placed as

the first statement in the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

"""This function greets the person passed as the argument."""

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

print(greet.__doc__)

Explanation:

 The string inside the function is a docstring. You can access it using the
__doc__ attribute of the function.

 It's useful for explaining the purpose and usage of the function.

Key Features of User-Defined Functions:

1. Reusability: Functions allow you to reuse the same code block

multiple times, reducing redundancy.

2. Modularity: Functions help organize code into smaller, manageable

pieces.

3. Maintainability: Functions make it easier to maintain and update the

code. If changes are required, you only need to update the function.

4. Abstraction: You can use functions to encapsulate complex operations

and only expose an easy-to-use interface.

5. Arguments and Return Values: Functions can accept arguments

and return values to be used elsewhere in the code.

More Advanced Example:

Fibonacci Series Using Recursion

This is a classic example that demonstrates recursion in user-defined

functions.

python

Copy code

def fibonacci(n):

"""Return the nth Fibonacci number."""

if n <= 1:
return n

else:

return fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2)

n_terms = 10

for i in range(n_terms):

print(fibonacci(i), end=" ")

Explanation:

 The function fibonacci(n) returns the nth Fibonacci number using

recursion.

 It calls itself for the two preceding Fibonacci numbers (n - 1 and n - 2).

In summary, user-defined functions in Python allow you to create

reusable, modular blocks of code that can perform specific tasks. They are
flexible, allowing the use of parameters, return values, and support for
variable-length arguments (*args and **kwargs). Functions are essential in
Python for organizing code efficiently and improving maintainability.

4o

User-Defined Functions in Python

A user-defined function in Python is a function created by the programmer

to perform a specific task or set of tasks. These functions are defined using
the def keyword, followed by the function name, parameters (if any), and the
function body. User-defined functions provide a way to organize code into
reusable pieces, which makes the code more modular and easier to maintain.

Basic Structure of a Function

python

Copy code

def function_name(parameters):

"""
Optional docstring to describe the function.

"""

# Code block (function body)

return value # Optional return value

 def: A keyword used to define a function.

 function_name: The name of the function. It should be descriptive

and follow Python's naming conventions (e.g., lowercase letters with
words separated by underscores).

 parameters: Optional. Variables that hold values passed to the

function. You can pass zero or more parameters.

 return: Optional. Specifies what the function should output or return

after executing. If no return is used, the function returns None by
default.

Examples of User-Defined Functions

1. Simple Function Without Parameters

A basic function that performs a task without requiring any input.

python

Copy code

def greet():

print("Hello, welcome to Python!")

greet()

Explanation:

 This function, greet(), prints a greeting message. It doesn't accept any

parameters.

 The function is called by using its name followed by parentheses,

greet().
2. Function with Parameters

A function that takes parameters and uses them within the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet("Ajay")

Explanation:

 The function greet(name) accepts one parameter, name, which is used

inside the function.

 When calling the function, you provide an argument like greet("Ajay"),

and it will output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

3. Function with Return Statement

A function that performs a task and returns a value to the caller.

python

Copy code

def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(5, 7)

print(f"The sum is: {result}")

Explanation:

 add(a, b) takes two arguments and returns their sum.

 The returned value is stored in the variable result and printed.

4. Function with Default Parameters

You can assign default values to function parameters. If an argument is not

provided when the function is called, the default value is used.

python

Copy code

def greet(name="Guest"):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet() # Output: Hello, Guest! Welcome to Python.

greet("Ajay") # Output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

Explanation:

 The function greet(name="Guest") has a default value for the name

parameter.

 If the function is called without an argument, it uses "Guest" as the

default name. If an argument is provided, like "Ajay", it uses that
instead.

5. Function with Multiple Parameters

You can pass multiple parameters to a function.

python

Copy code

def calculate_area(length, width):

return length * width

area = calculate_area(5, 10)

print(f"The area is: {area}")

Explanation:
 The function calculate_area(length, width) calculates the area of a
rectangle by multiplying the two arguments.

 The result is stored in the variable area and printed.

6. Function with Variable-length Arguments (*args)

You can use *args to accept a variable number of positional arguments.

python

Copy code

def sum_numbers(*args):

return sum(args)

print(sum_numbers(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 6

print(sum_numbers(4, 5, 6, 7, 8)) # Output: 30

Explanation:

 The sum_numbers(*args) function accepts any number of arguments

and sums them.

 *args collects all the arguments passed into a tuple.

7. Function with Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

**kwargs allows passing variable-length keyword arguments (key-value pairs)

to the function.

python

Copy code

def display_info(**kwargs):

for key, value in kwargs.items():

print(f"{key}: {value}")

display_info(name="Ajay", age=30, city="Berlin")

Explanation:

 The function display_info(**kwargs) accepts a variable number of

keyword arguments and prints each key-value pair.

 **kwargs collects the keyword arguments into a dictionary.

8. Recursive Function

A recursive function is a function that calls itself. This is useful for problems
like calculating the factorial of a number or traversing a tree structure.

python

Copy code

def factorial(n):

if n == 1:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

Explanation:

 The factorial() function calls itself to compute the factorial of a number.

 The base case is when n == 1, and the recursive case is n * factorial(n

- 1).

9. Higher-Order Function

A higher-order function is a function that either takes another function as an

argument or returns a function.

python

Copy code

def apply_twice(func, value):

return func(func(value))

def double(x):

return x * 2

print(apply_twice(double, 5)) # Output: 20

Explanation:

 The apply_twice() function accepts a function and a value. It applies

the function to the value twice.

 double() doubles the input value, and apply_twice() applies it twice,

resulting in 20.

Docstrings in Functions

A docstring is a string that documents what a function does. It’s placed as

the first statement in the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

"""This function greets the person passed as the argument."""

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

print(greet.__doc__)

Explanation:

 The string inside the function is a docstring. You can access it using the
__doc__ attribute of the function.

 It's useful for explaining the purpose and usage of the function.

Key Features of User-Defined Functions:

1. Reusability: Functions allow you to reuse the same code block
multiple times, reducing redundancy.

2. Modularity: Functions help organize code into smaller, manageable

pieces.

3. Maintainability: Functions make it easier to maintain and update the

code. If changes are required, you only need to update the function.

4. Abstraction: You can use functions to encapsulate complex operations

and only expose an easy-to-use interface.

5. Arguments and Return Values: Functions can accept arguments

and return values to be used elsewhere in the code.

More Advanced Example:

Fibonacci Series Using Recursion

This is a classic example that demonstrates recursion in user-defined

functions.

python

Copy code

def fibonacci(n):

"""Return the nth Fibonacci number."""

if n <= 1:

return n

else:

return fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2)

n_terms = 10

for i in range(n_terms):

print(fibonacci(i), end=" ")

Explanation:
 The function fibonacci(n) returns the nth Fibonacci number using
recursion.

 It calls itself for the two preceding Fibonacci numbers (n - 1 and n - 2).

In summary, user-defined functions in Python allow you to create

reusable, modular blocks of code that can perform specific tasks. They are
flexible, allowing the use of parameters, return values, and support for
variable-length arguments (*args and **kwargs). Functions are essential in
Python for organizing code efficiently and improving maintainability.

4o

User-Defined Functions in Python

A user-defined function in Python is a function created by the programmer

to perform a specific task or set of tasks. These functions are defined using
the def keyword, followed by the function name, parameters (if any), and the
function body. User-defined functions provide a way to organize code into
reusable pieces, which makes the code more modular and easier to maintain.

Basic Structure of a Function

python

Copy code

def function_name(parameters):

"""

Optional docstring to describe the function.

"""

# Code block (function body)

return value # Optional return value

 def: A keyword used to define a function.

 function_name: The name of the function. It should be descriptive

and follow Python's naming conventions (e.g., lowercase letters with
words separated by underscores).
 parameters: Optional. Variables that hold values passed to the
function. You can pass zero or more parameters.

 return: Optional. Specifies what the function should output or return

after executing. If no return is used, the function returns None by
default.

Examples of User-Defined Functions

1. Simple Function Without Parameters

A basic function that performs a task without requiring any input.

python

Copy code

def greet():

print("Hello, welcome to Python!")

greet()

Explanation:

 This function, greet(), prints a greeting message. It doesn't accept any

parameters.

 The function is called by using its name followed by parentheses,

greet().

2. Function with Parameters

A function that takes parameters and uses them within the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet("Ajay")

Explanation:

 The function greet(name) accepts one parameter, name, which is used

inside the function.

 When calling the function, you provide an argument like greet("Ajay"),

and it will output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

3. Function with Return Statement

A function that performs a task and returns a value to the caller.

python

Copy code

def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(5, 7)

print(f"The sum is: {result}")

Explanation:

 add(a, b) takes two arguments and returns their sum.

 The returned value is stored in the variable result and printed.

4. Function with Default Parameters

You can assign default values to function parameters. If an argument is not

provided when the function is called, the default value is used.

python

Copy code

def greet(name="Guest"):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet() # Output: Hello, Guest! Welcome to Python.

greet("Ajay") # Output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

Explanation:

 The function greet(name="Guest") has a default value for the name

parameter.

 If the function is called without an argument, it uses "Guest" as the

default name. If an argument is provided, like "Ajay", it uses that
instead.

5. Function with Multiple Parameters

You can pass multiple parameters to a function.

python

Copy code

def calculate_area(length, width):

return length * width

area = calculate_area(5, 10)

print(f"The area is: {area}")

Explanation:

 The function calculate_area(length, width) calculates the area of a

rectangle by multiplying the two arguments.

 The result is stored in the variable area and printed.

6. Function with Variable-length Arguments (*args)

You can use *args to accept a variable number of positional arguments.

python

Copy code

def sum_numbers(*args):
return sum(args)

print(sum_numbers(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 6

print(sum_numbers(4, 5, 6, 7, 8)) # Output: 30

Explanation:

 The sum_numbers(*args) function accepts any number of arguments

and sums them.

 *args collects all the arguments passed into a tuple.

7. Function with Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

**kwargs allows passing variable-length keyword arguments (key-value pairs)

to the function.

python

Copy code

def display_info(**kwargs):

for key, value in kwargs.items():

print(f"{key}: {value}")

display_info(name="Ajay", age=30, city="Berlin")

Explanation:

 The function display_info(**kwargs) accepts a variable number of

keyword arguments and prints each key-value pair.

 **kwargs collects the keyword arguments into a dictionary.

8. Recursive Function

A recursive function is a function that calls itself. This is useful for problems
like calculating the factorial of a number or traversing a tree structure.

python
Copy code

def factorial(n):

if n == 1:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

Explanation:

 The factorial() function calls itself to compute the factorial of a number.

 The base case is when n == 1, and the recursive case is n * factorial(n

- 1).

9. Higher-Order Function

A higher-order function is a function that either takes another function as an

argument or returns a function.

python

Copy code

def apply_twice(func, value):

return func(func(value))

def double(x):

return x * 2

print(apply_twice(double, 5)) # Output: 20

Explanation:

 The apply_twice() function accepts a function and a value. It applies

the function to the value twice.
 double() doubles the input value, and apply_twice() applies it twice,
resulting in 20.

Docstrings in Functions

A docstring is a string that documents what a function does. It’s placed as

the first statement in the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

"""This function greets the person passed as the argument."""

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

print(greet.__doc__)

Explanation:

 The string inside the function is a docstring. You can access it using the
__doc__ attribute of the function.

 It's useful for explaining the purpose and usage of the function.

Key Features of User-Defined Functions:

1. Reusability: Functions allow you to reuse the same code block

multiple times, reducing redundancy.

2. Modularity: Functions help organize code into smaller, manageable

pieces.

3. Maintainability: Functions make it easier to maintain and update the

code. If changes are required, you only need to update the function.

4. Abstraction: You can use functions to encapsulate complex operations

and only expose an easy-to-use interface.

5. Arguments and Return Values: Functions can accept arguments

and return values to be used elsewhere in the code.
More Advanced Example:

Fibonacci Series Using Recursion

This is a classic example that demonstrates recursion in user-defined

functions.

python

Copy code

def fibonacci(n):

"""Return the nth Fibonacci number."""

if n <= 1:

return n

else:

return fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2)

n_terms = 10

for i in range(n_terms):

print(fibonacci(i), end=" ")

Explanation:

 The function fibonacci(n) returns the nth Fibonacci number using

recursion.

 It calls itself for the two preceding Fibonacci numbers (n - 1 and n - 2).

In summary, user-defined functions in Python allow you to create

reusable, modular blocks of code that can perform specific tasks. They are
flexible, allowing the use of parameters, return values, and support for
variable-length arguments (*args and **kwargs). Functions are essential in
Python for organizing code efficiently and improving maintainability.

4o

User-Defined Functions in Python

A user-defined function in Python is a function created by the programmer
to perform a specific task or set of tasks. These functions are defined using
the def keyword, followed by the function name, parameters (if any), and the
function body. User-defined functions provide a way to organize code into
reusable pieces, which makes the code more modular and easier to maintain.

Basic Structure of a Function

python

Copy code

def function_name(parameters):

"""

Optional docstring to describe the function.

"""

# Code block (function body)

return value # Optional return value

 def: A keyword used to define a function.

 function_name: The name of the function. It should be descriptive

and follow Python's naming conventions (e.g., lowercase letters with
words separated by underscores).

 parameters: Optional. Variables that hold values passed to the

function. You can pass zero or more parameters.

 return: Optional. Specifies what the function should output or return

after executing. If no return is used, the function returns None by
default.

Examples of User-Defined Functions

1. Simple Function Without Parameters

A basic function that performs a task without requiring any input.

python

Copy code
def greet():

print("Hello, welcome to Python!")

greet()

Explanation:

 This function, greet(), prints a greeting message. It doesn't accept any

parameters.

 The function is called by using its name followed by parentheses,

greet().

2. Function with Parameters

A function that takes parameters and uses them within the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet("Ajay")

Explanation:

 The function greet(name) accepts one parameter, name, which is used

inside the function.

 When calling the function, you provide an argument like greet("Ajay"),

and it will output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

3. Function with Return Statement

A function that performs a task and returns a value to the caller.

python

Copy code
def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(5, 7)

print(f"The sum is: {result}")

Explanation:

 add(a, b) takes two arguments and returns their sum.

 The returned value is stored in the variable result and printed.

4. Function with Default Parameters

You can assign default values to function parameters. If an argument is not

provided when the function is called, the default value is used.

python

Copy code

def greet(name="Guest"):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet() # Output: Hello, Guest! Welcome to Python.

greet("Ajay") # Output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

Explanation:

 The function greet(name="Guest") has a default value for the name

parameter.

 If the function is called without an argument, it uses "Guest" as the

default name. If an argument is provided, like "Ajay", it uses that
instead.

5. Function with Multiple Parameters

You can pass multiple parameters to a function.

python

Copy code

def calculate_area(length, width):

return length * width

area = calculate_area(5, 10)

print(f"The area is: {area}")

Explanation:

 The function calculate_area(length, width) calculates the area of a

rectangle by multiplying the two arguments.

 The result is stored in the variable area and printed.

6. Function with Variable-length Arguments (*args)

You can use *args to accept a variable number of positional arguments.

python

Copy code

def sum_numbers(*args):

return sum(args)

print(sum_numbers(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 6

print(sum_numbers(4, 5, 6, 7, 8)) # Output: 30

Explanation:

 The sum_numbers(*args) function accepts any number of arguments

and sums them.

 *args collects all the arguments passed into a tuple.

7. Function with Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

**kwargs allows passing variable-length keyword arguments (key-value pairs)
to the function.

python

Copy code

def display_info(**kwargs):

for key, value in kwargs.items():

print(f"{key}: {value}")

display_info(name="Ajay", age=30, city="Berlin")

Explanation:

 The function display_info(**kwargs) accepts a variable number of

keyword arguments and prints each key-value pair.

 **kwargs collects the keyword arguments into a dictionary.

8. Recursive Function

A recursive function is a function that calls itself. This is useful for problems
like calculating the factorial of a number or traversing a tree structure.

python

Copy code

def factorial(n):

if n == 1:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

Explanation:

 The factorial() function calls itself to compute the factorial of a number.

 The base case is when n == 1, and the recursive case is n * factorial(n
- 1).

9. Higher-Order Function

A higher-order function is a function that either takes another function as an

argument or returns a function.

python

Copy code

def apply_twice(func, value):

return func(func(value))

def double(x):

return x * 2

print(apply_twice(double, 5)) # Output: 20

Explanation:

 The apply_twice() function accepts a function and a value. It applies

the function to the value twice.

 double() doubles the input value, and apply_twice() applies it twice,

resulting in 20.

Docstrings in Functions

A docstring is a string that documents what a function does. It’s placed as

the first statement in the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

"""This function greets the person passed as the argument."""

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

print(greet.__doc__)

Explanation:

 The string inside the function is a docstring. You can access it using the
__doc__ attribute of the function.

 It's useful for explaining the purpose and usage of the function.

Key Features of User-Defined Functions:

1. Reusability: Functions allow you to reuse the same code block

multiple times, reducing redundancy.

2. Modularity: Functions help organize code into smaller, manageable

pieces.

3. Maintainability: Functions make it easier to maintain and update the

code. If changes are required, you only need to update the function.

4. Abstraction: You can use functions to encapsulate complex operations

and only expose an easy-to-use interface.

5. Arguments and Return Values: Functions can accept arguments

and return values to be used elsewhere in the code.

More Advanced Example:

Fibonacci Series Using Recursion

This is a classic example that demonstrates recursion in user-defined

functions.

python

Copy code

def fibonacci(n):

"""Return the nth Fibonacci number."""

if n <= 1:
return n

else:

return fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2)

n_terms = 10

for i in range(n_terms):

print(fibonacci(i), end=" ")

Explanation:

 The function fibonacci(n) returns the nth Fibonacci number using

recursion.

 It calls itself for the two preceding Fibonacci numbers (n - 1 and n - 2).

In summary, user-defined functions in Python allow you to create

reusable, modular blocks of code that can perform specific tasks. They are
flexible, allowing the use of parameters, return values, and support for
variable-length arguments (*args and **kwargs). Functions are essential in
Python for organizing code efficiently and improving maintainability.

4o

User-Defined Functions in Python

A user-defined function in Python is a function created by the programmer

to perform a specific task or set of tasks. These functions are defined using
the def keyword, followed by the function name, parameters (if any), and the
function body. User-defined functions provide a way to organize code into
reusable pieces, which makes the code more modular and easier to maintain.

Basic Structure of a Function

python

Copy code

def function_name(parameters):

"""
Optional docstring to describe the function.

"""

# Code block (function body)

return value # Optional return value

 def: A keyword used to define a function.

 function_name: The name of the function. It should be descriptive

and follow Python's naming conventions (e.g., lowercase letters with
words separated by underscores).

 parameters: Optional. Variables that hold values passed to the

function. You can pass zero or more parameters.

 return: Optional. Specifies what the function should output or return

after executing. If no return is used, the function returns None by
default.

Examples of User-Defined Functions

1. Simple Function Without Parameters

A basic function that performs a task without requiring any input.

python

Copy code

def greet():

print("Hello, welcome to Python!")

greet()

Explanation:

 This function, greet(), prints a greeting message. It doesn't accept any

parameters.

 The function is called by using its name followed by parentheses,

greet().
2. Function with Parameters

A function that takes parameters and uses them within the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet("Ajay")

Explanation:

 The function greet(name) accepts one parameter, name, which is used

inside the function.

 When calling the function, you provide an argument like greet("Ajay"),

and it will output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

3. Function with Return Statement

A function that performs a task and returns a value to the caller.

python

Copy code

def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(5, 7)

print(f"The sum is: {result}")

Explanation:

 add(a, b) takes two arguments and returns their sum.

 The returned value is stored in the variable result and printed.

4. Function with Default Parameters

You can assign default values to function parameters. If an argument is not

provided when the function is called, the default value is used.

python

Copy code

def greet(name="Guest"):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet() # Output: Hello, Guest! Welcome to Python.

greet("Ajay") # Output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

Explanation:

 The function greet(name="Guest") has a default value for the name

parameter.

 If the function is called without an argument, it uses "Guest" as the

default name. If an argument is provided, like "Ajay", it uses that
instead.

5. Function with Multiple Parameters

You can pass multiple parameters to a function.

python

Copy code

def calculate_area(length, width):

return length * width

area = calculate_area(5, 10)

print(f"The area is: {area}")

Explanation:
 The function calculate_area(length, width) calculates the area of a
rectangle by multiplying the two arguments.

 The result is stored in the variable area and printed.

6. Function with Variable-length Arguments (*args)

You can use *args to accept a variable number of positional arguments.

python

Copy code

def sum_numbers(*args):

return sum(args)

print(sum_numbers(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 6

print(sum_numbers(4, 5, 6, 7, 8)) # Output: 30

Explanation:

 The sum_numbers(*args) function accepts any number of arguments

and sums them.

 *args collects all the arguments passed into a tuple.

7. Function with Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

**kwargs allows passing variable-length keyword arguments (key-value pairs)

to the function.

python

Copy code

def display_info(**kwargs):

for key, value in kwargs.items():

print(f"{key}: {value}")

display_info(name="Ajay", age=30, city="Berlin")

Explanation:

 The function display_info(**kwargs) accepts a variable number of

keyword arguments and prints each key-value pair.

 **kwargs collects the keyword arguments into a dictionary.

8. Recursive Function

A recursive function is a function that calls itself. This is useful for problems
like calculating the factorial of a number or traversing a tree structure.

python

Copy code

def factorial(n):

if n == 1:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

Explanation:

 The factorial() function calls itself to compute the factorial of a number.

 The base case is when n == 1, and the recursive case is n * factorial(n

- 1).

9. Higher-Order Function

A higher-order function is a function that either takes another function as an

argument or returns a function.

python

Copy code

def apply_twice(func, value):

return func(func(value))

def double(x):

return x * 2

print(apply_twice(double, 5)) # Output: 20

Explanation:

 The apply_twice() function accepts a function and a value. It applies

the function to the value twice.

 double() doubles the input value, and apply_twice() applies it twice,

resulting in 20.

Docstrings in Functions

A docstring is a string that documents what a function does. It’s placed as

the first statement in the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

"""This function greets the person passed as the argument."""

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

print(greet.__doc__)

Explanation:

 The string inside the function is a docstring. You can access it using the
__doc__ attribute of the function.

 It's useful for explaining the purpose and usage of the function.

Key Features of User-Defined Functions:

1. Reusability: Functions allow you to reuse the same code block
multiple times, reducing redundancy.

2. Modularity: Functions help organize code into smaller, manageable

pieces.

3. Maintainability: Functions make it easier to maintain and update the

code. If changes are required, you only need to update the function.

4. Abstraction: You can use functions to encapsulate complex operations

and only expose an easy-to-use interface.

5. Arguments and Return Values: Functions can accept arguments

and return values to be used elsewhere in the code.

More Advanced Example:

Fibonacci Series Using Recursion

This is a classic example that demonstrates recursion in user-defined

functions.

python

Copy code

def fibonacci(n):

"""Return the nth Fibonacci number."""

if n <= 1:

return n

else:

return fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2)

n_terms = 10

for i in range(n_terms):

print(fibonacci(i), end=" ")

Explanation:
 The function fibonacci(n) returns the nth Fibonacci number using
recursion.

 It calls itself for the two preceding Fibonacci numbers (n - 1 and n - 2).

In summary, user-defined functions in Python allow you to create

reusable, modular blocks of code that can perform specific tasks. They are
flexible, allowing the use of parameters, return values, and support for
variable-length arguments (*args and **kwargs). Functions are essential in
Python for organizing code efficiently and improving maintainability.

4o

User-Defined Functions in Python

A user-defined function in Python is a function created by the programmer

to perform a specific task or set of tasks. These functions are defined using
the def keyword, followed by the function name, parameters (if any), and the
function body. User-defined functions provide a way to organize code into
reusable pieces, which makes the code more modular and easier to maintain.

Basic Structure of a Function

python

Copy code

def function_name(parameters):

"""

Optional docstring to describe the function.

"""

# Code block (function body)

return value # Optional return value

 def: A keyword used to define a function.

 function_name: The name of the function. It should be descriptive

and follow Python's naming conventions (e.g., lowercase letters with
words separated by underscores).
 parameters: Optional. Variables that hold values passed to the
function. You can pass zero or more parameters.

 return: Optional. Specifies what the function should output or return

after executing. If no return is used, the function returns None by
default.

Examples of User-Defined Functions

1. Simple Function Without Parameters

A basic function that performs a task without requiring any input.

python

Copy code

def greet():

print("Hello, welcome to Python!")

greet()

Explanation:

 This function, greet(), prints a greeting message. It doesn't accept any

parameters.

 The function is called by using its name followed by parentheses,

greet().

2. Function with Parameters

A function that takes parameters and uses them within the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet("Ajay")

Explanation:

 The function greet(name) accepts one parameter, name, which is used

inside the function.

 When calling the function, you provide an argument like greet("Ajay"),

and it will output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

3. Function with Return Statement

A function that performs a task and returns a value to the caller.

python

Copy code

def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(5, 7)

print(f"The sum is: {result}")

Explanation:

 add(a, b) takes two arguments and returns their sum.

 The returned value is stored in the variable result and printed.

4. Function with Default Parameters

You can assign default values to function parameters. If an argument is not

provided when the function is called, the default value is used.

python

Copy code

def greet(name="Guest"):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet() # Output: Hello, Guest! Welcome to Python.

greet("Ajay") # Output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

Explanation:

 The function greet(name="Guest") has a default value for the name

parameter.

 If the function is called without an argument, it uses "Guest" as the

default name. If an argument is provided, like "Ajay", it uses that
instead.

5. Function with Multiple Parameters

You can pass multiple parameters to a function.

python

Copy code

def calculate_area(length, width):

return length * width

area = calculate_area(5, 10)

print(f"The area is: {area}")

Explanation:

 The function calculate_area(length, width) calculates the area of a

rectangle by multiplying the two arguments.

 The result is stored in the variable area and printed.

6. Function with Variable-length Arguments (*args)

You can use *args to accept a variable number of positional arguments.

python

Copy code

def sum_numbers(*args):
return sum(args)

print(sum_numbers(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 6

print(sum_numbers(4, 5, 6, 7, 8)) # Output: 30

Explanation:

 The sum_numbers(*args) function accepts any number of arguments

and sums them.

 *args collects all the arguments passed into a tuple.

7. Function with Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

**kwargs allows passing variable-length keyword arguments (key-value pairs)

to the function.

python

Copy code

def display_info(**kwargs):

for key, value in kwargs.items():

print(f"{key}: {value}")

display_info(name="Ajay", age=30, city="Berlin")

Explanation:

 The function display_info(**kwargs) accepts a variable number of

keyword arguments and prints each key-value pair.

 **kwargs collects the keyword arguments into a dictionary.

8. Recursive Function

A recursive function is a function that calls itself. This is useful for problems
like calculating the factorial of a number or traversing a tree structure.

python
Copy code

def factorial(n):

if n == 1:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

Explanation:

 The factorial() function calls itself to compute the factorial of a number.

 The base case is when n == 1, and the recursive case is n * factorial(n

- 1).

9. Higher-Order Function

A higher-order function is a function that either takes another function as an

argument or returns a function.

python

Copy code

def apply_twice(func, value):

return func(func(value))

def double(x):

return x * 2

print(apply_twice(double, 5)) # Output: 20

Explanation:

 The apply_twice() function accepts a function and a value. It applies

the function to the value twice.
 double() doubles the input value, and apply_twice() applies it twice,
resulting in 20.

Docstrings in Functions

A docstring is a string that documents what a function does. It’s placed as

the first statement in the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

"""This function greets the person passed as the argument."""

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

print(greet.__doc__)

Explanation:

 The string inside the function is a docstring. You can access it using the
__doc__ attribute of the function.

 It's useful for explaining the purpose and usage of the function.

Key Features of User-Defined Functions:

1. Reusability: Functions allow you to reuse the same code block

multiple times, reducing redundancy.

2. Modularity: Functions help organize code into smaller, manageable

pieces.

3. Maintainability: Functions make it easier to maintain and update the

code. If changes are required, you only need to update the function.

4. Abstraction: You can use functions to encapsulate complex operations

and only expose an easy-to-use interface.

5. Arguments and Return Values: Functions can accept arguments

and return values to be used elsewhere in the code.
More Advanced Example:

Fibonacci Series Using Recursion

This is a classic example that demonstrates recursion in user-defined

functions.

python

Copy code

def fibonacci(n):

"""Return the nth Fibonacci number."""

if n <= 1:

return n

else:

return fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2)

n_terms = 10

for i in range(n_terms):

print(fibonacci(i), end=" ")

Explanation:

 The function fibonacci(n) returns the nth Fibonacci number using

recursion.

 It calls itself for the two preceding Fibonacci numbers (n - 1 and n - 2).

In summary, user-defined functions in Python allow you to create

reusable, modular blocks of code that can perform specific tasks. They are
flexible, allowing the use of parameters, return values, and support for
variable-length arguments (*args and **kwargs). Functions are essential in
Python for organizing code efficiently and improving maintainability.

4o

User-Defined Functions in Python

A user-defined function in Python is a function created by the programmer
to perform a specific task or set of tasks. These functions are defined using
the def keyword, followed by the function name, parameters (if any), and the
function body. User-defined functions provide a way to organize code into
reusable pieces, which makes the code more modular and easier to maintain.

Basic Structure of a Function

python

Copy code

def function_name(parameters):

"""

Optional docstring to describe the function.

"""

# Code block (function body)

return value # Optional return value

 def: A keyword used to define a function.

 function_name: The name of the function. It should be descriptive

and follow Python's naming conventions (e.g., lowercase letters with
words separated by underscores).

 parameters: Optional. Variables that hold values passed to the

function. You can pass zero or more parameters.

 return: Optional. Specifies what the function should output or return

after executing. If no return is used, the function returns None by
default.

Examples of User-Defined Functions

1. Simple Function Without Parameters

A basic function that performs a task without requiring any input.

python

Copy code
def greet():

print("Hello, welcome to Python!")

greet()

Explanation:

 This function, greet(), prints a greeting message. It doesn't accept any

parameters.

 The function is called by using its name followed by parentheses,

greet().

2. Function with Parameters

A function that takes parameters and uses them within the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet("Ajay")

Explanation:

 The function greet(name) accepts one parameter, name, which is used

inside the function.

 When calling the function, you provide an argument like greet("Ajay"),

and it will output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

3. Function with Return Statement

A function that performs a task and returns a value to the caller.

python

Copy code
def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(5, 7)

print(f"The sum is: {result}")

Explanation:

 add(a, b) takes two arguments and returns their sum.

 The returned value is stored in the variable result and printed.

4. Function with Default Parameters

You can assign default values to function parameters. If an argument is not

provided when the function is called, the default value is used.

python

Copy code

def greet(name="Guest"):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet() # Output: Hello, Guest! Welcome to Python.

greet("Ajay") # Output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

Explanation:

 The function greet(name="Guest") has a default value for the name

parameter.

 If the function is called without an argument, it uses "Guest" as the

default name. If an argument is provided, like "Ajay", it uses that
instead.

5. Function with Multiple Parameters

You can pass multiple parameters to a function.

python

Copy code

def calculate_area(length, width):

return length * width

area = calculate_area(5, 10)

print(f"The area is: {area}")

Explanation:

 The function calculate_area(length, width) calculates the area of a

rectangle by multiplying the two arguments.

 The result is stored in the variable area and printed.

6. Function with Variable-length Arguments (*args)

You can use *args to accept a variable number of positional arguments.

python

Copy code

def sum_numbers(*args):

return sum(args)

print(sum_numbers(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 6

print(sum_numbers(4, 5, 6, 7, 8)) # Output: 30

Explanation:

 The sum_numbers(*args) function accepts any number of arguments

and sums them.

 *args collects all the arguments passed into a tuple.

7. Function with Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

**kwargs allows passing variable-length keyword arguments (key-value pairs)
to the function.

python

Copy code

def display_info(**kwargs):

for key, value in kwargs.items():

print(f"{key}: {value}")

display_info(name="Ajay", age=30, city="Berlin")

Explanation:

 The function display_info(**kwargs) accepts a variable number of

keyword arguments and prints each key-value pair.

 **kwargs collects the keyword arguments into a dictionary.

8. Recursive Function

A recursive function is a function that calls itself. This is useful for problems
like calculating the factorial of a number or traversing a tree structure.

python

Copy code

def factorial(n):

if n == 1:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

Explanation:

 The factorial() function calls itself to compute the factorial of a number.

 The base case is when n == 1, and the recursive case is n * factorial(n
- 1).

9. Higher-Order Function

A higher-order function is a function that either takes another function as an

argument or returns a function.

python

Copy code

def apply_twice(func, value):

return func(func(value))

def double(x):

return x * 2

print(apply_twice(double, 5)) # Output: 20

Explanation:

 The apply_twice() function accepts a function and a value. It applies

the function to the value twice.

 double() doubles the input value, and apply_twice() applies it twice,

resulting in 20.

Docstrings in Functions

A docstring is a string that documents what a function does. It’s placed as

the first statement in the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

"""This function greets the person passed as the argument."""

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

print(greet.__doc__)

Explanation:

 The string inside the function is a docstring. You can access it using the
__doc__ attribute of the function.

 It's useful for explaining the purpose and usage of the function.

Key Features of User-Defined Functions:

1. Reusability: Functions allow you to reuse the same code block

multiple times, reducing redundancy.

2. Modularity: Functions help organize code into smaller, manageable

pieces.

3. Maintainability: Functions make it easier to maintain and update the

code. If changes are required, you only need to update the function.

4. Abstraction: You can use functions to encapsulate complex operations

and only expose an easy-to-use interface.

5. Arguments and Return Values: Functions can accept arguments

and return values to be used elsewhere in the code.

More Advanced Example:

Fibonacci Series Using Recursion

This is a classic example that demonstrates recursion in user-defined

functions.

python

Copy code

def fibonacci(n):

"""Return the nth Fibonacci number."""

if n <= 1:
return n

else:

return fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2)

n_terms = 10

for i in range(n_terms):

print(fibonacci(i), end=" ")

Explanation:

 The function fibonacci(n) returns the nth Fibonacci number using

recursion.

 It calls itself for the two preceding Fibonacci numbers (n - 1 and n - 2).

In summary, user-defined functions in Python allow you to create

reusable, modular blocks of code that can perform specific tasks. They are
flexible, allowing the use of parameters, return values, and support for
variable-length arguments (*args and **kwargs). Functions are essential in
Python for organizing code efficiently and improving maintainability.

4o

User-Defined Functions in Python

A user-defined function in Python is a function created by the programmer

to perform a specific task or set of tasks. These functions are defined using
the def keyword, followed by the function name, parameters (if any), and the
function body. User-defined functions provide a way to organize code into
reusable pieces, which makes the code more modular and easier to maintain.

Basic Structure of a Function

python

Copy code

def function_name(parameters):

"""
Optional docstring to describe the function.

"""

# Code block (function body)

return value # Optional return value

 def: A keyword used to define a function.

 function_name: The name of the function. It should be descriptive

and follow Python's naming conventions (e.g., lowercase letters with
words separated by underscores).

 parameters: Optional. Variables that hold values passed to the

function. You can pass zero or more parameters.

 return: Optional. Specifies what the function should output or return

after executing. If no return is used, the function returns None by
default.

Examples of User-Defined Functions

1. Simple Function Without Parameters

A basic function that performs a task without requiring any input.

python

Copy code

def greet():

print("Hello, welcome to Python!")

greet()

Explanation:

 This function, greet(), prints a greeting message. It doesn't accept any

parameters.

 The function is called by using its name followed by parentheses,

greet().
2. Function with Parameters

A function that takes parameters and uses them within the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet("Ajay")

Explanation:

 The function greet(name) accepts one parameter, name, which is used

inside the function.

 When calling the function, you provide an argument like greet("Ajay"),

and it will output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

3. Function with Return Statement

A function that performs a task and returns a value to the caller.

python

Copy code

def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(5, 7)

print(f"The sum is: {result}")

Explanation:

 add(a, b) takes two arguments and returns their sum.

 The returned value is stored in the variable result and printed.

4. Function with Default Parameters

You can assign default values to function parameters. If an argument is not

provided when the function is called, the default value is used.

python

Copy code

def greet(name="Guest"):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet() # Output: Hello, Guest! Welcome to Python.

greet("Ajay") # Output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

Explanation:

 The function greet(name="Guest") has a default value for the name

parameter.

 If the function is called without an argument, it uses "Guest" as the

default name. If an argument is provided, like "Ajay", it uses that
instead.

5. Function with Multiple Parameters

You can pass multiple parameters to a function.

python

Copy code

def calculate_area(length, width):

return length * width

area = calculate_area(5, 10)

print(f"The area is: {area}")

Explanation:
 The function calculate_area(length, width) calculates the area of a
rectangle by multiplying the two arguments.

 The result is stored in the variable area and printed.

6. Function with Variable-length Arguments (*args)

You can use *args to accept a variable number of positional arguments.

python

Copy code

def sum_numbers(*args):

return sum(args)

print(sum_numbers(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 6

print(sum_numbers(4, 5, 6, 7, 8)) # Output: 30

Explanation:

 The sum_numbers(*args) function accepts any number of arguments

and sums them.

 *args collects all the arguments passed into a tuple.

7. Function with Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

**kwargs allows passing variable-length keyword arguments (key-value pairs)

to the function.

python

Copy code

def display_info(**kwargs):

for key, value in kwargs.items():

print(f"{key}: {value}")

display_info(name="Ajay", age=30, city="Berlin")

Explanation:

 The function display_info(**kwargs) accepts a variable number of

keyword arguments and prints each key-value pair.

 **kwargs collects the keyword arguments into a dictionary.

8. Recursive Function

A recursive function is a function that calls itself. This is useful for problems
like calculating the factorial of a number or traversing a tree structure.

python

Copy code

def factorial(n):

if n == 1:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

Explanation:

 The factorial() function calls itself to compute the factorial of a number.

 The base case is when n == 1, and the recursive case is n * factorial(n

- 1).

9. Higher-Order Function

A higher-order function is a function that either takes another function as an

argument or returns a function.

python

Copy code

def apply_twice(func, value):

return func(func(value))

def double(x):

return x * 2

print(apply_twice(double, 5)) # Output: 20

Explanation:

 The apply_twice() function accepts a function and a value. It applies

the function to the value twice.

 double() doubles the input value, and apply_twice() applies it twice,

resulting in 20.

Docstrings in Functions

A docstring is a string that documents what a function does. It’s placed as

the first statement in the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

"""This function greets the person passed as the argument."""

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

print(greet.__doc__)

Explanation:

 The string inside the function is a docstring. You can access it using the
__doc__ attribute of the function.

 It's useful for explaining the purpose and usage of the function.

Key Features of User-Defined Functions:

1. Reusability: Functions allow you to reuse the same code block
multiple times, reducing redundancy.

2. Modularity: Functions help organize code into smaller, manageable

pieces.

3. Maintainability: Functions make it easier to maintain and update the

code. If changes are required, you only need to update the function.

4. Abstraction: You can use functions to encapsulate complex operations

and only expose an easy-to-use interface.

5. Arguments and Return Values: Functions can accept arguments

and return values to be used elsewhere in the code.

More Advanced Example:

Fibonacci Series Using Recursion

This is a classic example that demonstrates recursion in user-defined

functions.

python

Copy code

def fibonacci(n):

"""Return the nth Fibonacci number."""

if n <= 1:

return n

else:

return fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2)

n_terms = 10

for i in range(n_terms):

print(fibonacci(i), end=" ")

Explanation:
 The function fibonacci(n) returns the nth Fibonacci number using
recursion.

 It calls itself for the two preceding Fibonacci numbers (n - 1 and n - 2).

In summary, user-defined functions in Python allow you to create

reusable, modular blocks of code that can perform specific tasks. They are
flexible, allowing the use of parameters, return values, and support for
variable-length arguments (*args and **kwargs). Functions are essential in
Python for organizing code efficiently and improving maintainability.

4o

User-Defined Functions in Python

A user-defined function in Python is a function created by the programmer

to perform a specific task or set of tasks. These functions are defined using
the def keyword, followed by the function name, parameters (if any), and the
function body. User-defined functions provide a way to organize code into
reusable pieces, which makes the code more modular and easier to maintain.

Basic Structure of a Function

python

Copy code

def function_name(parameters):

"""

Optional docstring to describe the function.

"""

# Code block (function body)

return value # Optional return value

 def: A keyword used to define a function.

 function_name: The name of the function. It should be descriptive

and follow Python's naming conventions (e.g., lowercase letters with
words separated by underscores).
 parameters: Optional. Variables that hold values passed to the
function. You can pass zero or more parameters.

 return: Optional. Specifies what the function should output or return

after executing. If no return is used, the function returns None by
default.

Examples of User-Defined Functions

1. Simple Function Without Parameters

A basic function that performs a task without requiring any input.

python

Copy code

def greet():

print("Hello, welcome to Python!")

greet()

Explanation:

 This function, greet(), prints a greeting message. It doesn't accept any

parameters.

 The function is called by using its name followed by parentheses,

greet().

2. Function with Parameters

A function that takes parameters and uses them within the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet("Ajay")

Explanation:

 The function greet(name) accepts one parameter, name, which is used

inside the function.

 When calling the function, you provide an argument like greet("Ajay"),

and it will output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

3. Function with Return Statement

A function that performs a task and returns a value to the caller.

python

Copy code

def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(5, 7)

print(f"The sum is: {result}")

Explanation:

 add(a, b) takes two arguments and returns their sum.

 The returned value is stored in the variable result and printed.

4. Function with Default Parameters

You can assign default values to function parameters. If an argument is not

provided when the function is called, the default value is used.

python

Copy code

def greet(name="Guest"):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet() # Output: Hello, Guest! Welcome to Python.

greet("Ajay") # Output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

Explanation:

 The function greet(name="Guest") has a default value for the name

parameter.

 If the function is called without an argument, it uses "Guest" as the

default name. If an argument is provided, like "Ajay", it uses that
instead.

5. Function with Multiple Parameters

You can pass multiple parameters to a function.

python

Copy code

def calculate_area(length, width):

return length * width

area = calculate_area(5, 10)

print(f"The area is: {area}")

Explanation:

 The function calculate_area(length, width) calculates the area of a

rectangle by multiplying the two arguments.

 The result is stored in the variable area and printed.

6. Function with Variable-length Arguments (*args)

You can use *args to accept a variable number of positional arguments.

python

Copy code

def sum_numbers(*args):
return sum(args)

print(sum_numbers(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 6

print(sum_numbers(4, 5, 6, 7, 8)) # Output: 30

Explanation:

 The sum_numbers(*args) function accepts any number of arguments

and sums them.

 *args collects all the arguments passed into a tuple.

7. Function with Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

**kwargs allows passing variable-length keyword arguments (key-value pairs)

to the function.

python

Copy code

def display_info(**kwargs):

for key, value in kwargs.items():

print(f"{key}: {value}")

display_info(name="Ajay", age=30, city="Berlin")

Explanation:

 The function display_info(**kwargs) accepts a variable number of

keyword arguments and prints each key-value pair.

 **kwargs collects the keyword arguments into a dictionary.

8. Recursive Function

A recursive function is a function that calls itself. This is useful for problems
like calculating the factorial of a number or traversing a tree structure.

python
Copy code

def factorial(n):

if n == 1:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

Explanation:

 The factorial() function calls itself to compute the factorial of a number.

 The base case is when n == 1, and the recursive case is n * factorial(n

- 1).

9. Higher-Order Function

A higher-order function is a function that either takes another function as an

argument or returns a function.

python

Copy code

def apply_twice(func, value):

return func(func(value))

def double(x):

return x * 2

print(apply_twice(double, 5)) # Output: 20

Explanation:

 The apply_twice() function accepts a function and a value. It applies

the function to the value twice.
 double() doubles the input value, and apply_twice() applies it twice,
resulting in 20.

Docstrings in Functions

A docstring is a string that documents what a function does. It’s placed as

the first statement in the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

"""This function greets the person passed as the argument."""

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

print(greet.__doc__)

Explanation:

 The string inside the function is a docstring. You can access it using the
__doc__ attribute of the function.

 It's useful for explaining the purpose and usage of the function.

Key Features of User-Defined Functions:

1. Reusability: Functions allow you to reuse the same code block

multiple times, reducing redundancy.

2. Modularity: Functions help organize code into smaller, manageable

pieces.

3. Maintainability: Functions make it easier to maintain and update the

code. If changes are required, you only need to update the function.

4. Abstraction: You can use functions to encapsulate complex operations

and only expose an easy-to-use interface.

5. Arguments and Return Values: Functions can accept arguments

and return values to be used elsewhere in the code.
More Advanced Example:

Fibonacci Series Using Recursion

This is a classic example that demonstrates recursion in user-defined

functions.

python

Copy code

def fibonacci(n):

"""Return the nth Fibonacci number."""

if n <= 1:

return n

else:

return fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2)

n_terms = 10

for i in range(n_terms):

print(fibonacci(i), end=" ")

Explanation:

 The function fibonacci(n) returns the nth Fibonacci number using

recursion.

 It calls itself for the two preceding Fibonacci numbers (n - 1 and n - 2).

In summary, user-defined functions in Python allow you to create

reusable, modular blocks of code that can perform specific tasks. They are
flexible, allowing the use of parameters, return values, and support for
variable-length arguments (*args and **kwargs). Functions are essential in
Python for organizing code efficiently and improving maintainability.

4o

User-Defined Functions in Python

A user-defined function in Python is a function created by the programmer
to perform a specific task or set of tasks. These functions are defined using
the def keyword, followed by the function name, parameters (if any), and the
function body. User-defined functions provide a way to organize code into
reusable pieces, which makes the code more modular and easier to maintain.

Basic Structure of a Function

python

Copy code

def function_name(parameters):

"""

Optional docstring to describe the function.

"""

# Code block (function body)

return value # Optional return value

 def: A keyword used to define a function.

 function_name: The name of the function. It should be descriptive

and follow Python's naming conventions (e.g., lowercase letters with
words separated by underscores).

 parameters: Optional. Variables that hold values passed to the

function. You can pass zero or more parameters.

 return: Optional. Specifies what the function should output or return

after executing. If no return is used, the function returns None by
default.

Examples of User-Defined Functions

1. Simple Function Without Parameters

A basic function that performs a task without requiring any input.

python

Copy code
def greet():

print("Hello, welcome to Python!")

greet()

Explanation:

 This function, greet(), prints a greeting message. It doesn't accept any

parameters.

 The function is called by using its name followed by parentheses,

greet().

2. Function with Parameters

A function that takes parameters and uses them within the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet("Ajay")

Explanation:

 The function greet(name) accepts one parameter, name, which is used

inside the function.

 When calling the function, you provide an argument like greet("Ajay"),

and it will output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

3. Function with Return Statement

A function that performs a task and returns a value to the caller.

python

Copy code
def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(5, 7)

print(f"The sum is: {result}")

Explanation:

 add(a, b) takes two arguments and returns their sum.

 The returned value is stored in the variable result and printed.

4. Function with Default Parameters

You can assign default values to function parameters. If an argument is not

provided when the function is called, the default value is used.

python

Copy code

def greet(name="Guest"):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet() # Output: Hello, Guest! Welcome to Python.

greet("Ajay") # Output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

Explanation:

 The function greet(name="Guest") has a default value for the name

parameter.

 If the function is called without an argument, it uses "Guest" as the

default name. If an argument is provided, like "Ajay", it uses that
instead.

5. Function with Multiple Parameters

You can pass multiple parameters to a function.

python

Copy code

def calculate_area(length, width):

return length * width

area = calculate_area(5, 10)

print(f"The area is: {area}")

Explanation:

 The function calculate_area(length, width) calculates the area of a

rectangle by multiplying the two arguments.

 The result is stored in the variable area and printed.

6. Function with Variable-length Arguments (*args)

You can use *args to accept a variable number of positional arguments.

python

Copy code

def sum_numbers(*args):

return sum(args)

print(sum_numbers(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 6

print(sum_numbers(4, 5, 6, 7, 8)) # Output: 30

Explanation:

 The sum_numbers(*args) function accepts any number of arguments

and sums them.

 *args collects all the arguments passed into a tuple.

7. Function with Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

**kwargs allows passing variable-length keyword arguments (key-value pairs)
to the function.

python

Copy code

def display_info(**kwargs):

for key, value in kwargs.items():

print(f"{key}: {value}")

display_info(name="Ajay", age=30, city="Berlin")

Explanation:

 The function display_info(**kwargs) accepts a variable number of

keyword arguments and prints each key-value pair.

 **kwargs collects the keyword arguments into a dictionary.

8. Recursive Function

A recursive function is a function that calls itself. This is useful for problems
like calculating the factorial of a number or traversing a tree structure.

python

Copy code

def factorial(n):

if n == 1:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

Explanation:

 The factorial() function calls itself to compute the factorial of a number.

 The base case is when n == 1, and the recursive case is n * factorial(n
- 1).

9. Higher-Order Function

A higher-order function is a function that either takes another function as an

argument or returns a function.

python

Copy code

def apply_twice(func, value):

return func(func(value))

def double(x):

return x * 2

print(apply_twice(double, 5)) # Output: 20

Explanation:

 The apply_twice() function accepts a function and a value. It applies

the function to the value twice.

 double() doubles the input value, and apply_twice() applies it twice,

resulting in 20.

Docstrings in Functions

A docstring is a string that documents what a function does. It’s placed as

the first statement in the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

"""This function greets the person passed as the argument."""

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

print(greet.__doc__)

Explanation:

 The string inside the function is a docstring. You can access it using the
__doc__ attribute of the function.

 It's useful for explaining the purpose and usage of the function.

Key Features of User-Defined Functions:

1. Reusability: Functions allow you to reuse the same code block

multiple times, reducing redundancy.

2. Modularity: Functions help organize code into smaller, manageable

pieces.

3. Maintainability: Functions make it easier to maintain and update the

code. If changes are required, you only need to update the function.

4. Abstraction: You can use functions to encapsulate complex operations

and only expose an easy-to-use interface.

5. Arguments and Return Values: Functions can accept arguments

and return values to be used elsewhere in the code.

More Advanced Example:

Fibonacci Series Using Recursion

This is a classic example that demonstrates recursion in user-defined

functions.

python

Copy code

def fibonacci(n):

"""Return the nth Fibonacci number."""

if n <= 1:
return n

else:

return fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2)

n_terms = 10

for i in range(n_terms):

print(fibonacci(i), end=" ")

Explanation:

 The function fibonacci(n) returns the nth Fibonacci number using

recursion.

 It calls itself for the two preceding Fibonacci numbers (n - 1 and n - 2).

In summary, user-defined functions in Python allow you to create

reusable, modular blocks of code that can perform specific tasks. They are
flexible, allowing the use of parameters, return values, and support for
variable-length arguments (*args and **kwargs). Functions are essential in
Python for organizing code efficiently and improving maintainability.

4o

User-Defined Functions in Python

A user-defined function in Python is a function created by the programmer

to perform a specific task or set of tasks. These functions are defined using
the def keyword, followed by the function name, parameters (if any), and the
function body. User-defined functions provide a way to organize code into
reusable pieces, which makes the code more modular and easier to maintain.

Basic Structure of a Function

python

Copy code

def function_name(parameters):

"""
Optional docstring to describe the function.

"""

# Code block (function body)

return value # Optional return value

 def: A keyword used to define a function.

 function_name: The name of the function. It should be descriptive

and follow Python's naming conventions (e.g., lowercase letters with
words separated by underscores).

 parameters: Optional. Variables that hold values passed to the

function. You can pass zero or more parameters.

 return: Optional. Specifies what the function should output or return

after executing. If no return is used, the function returns None by
default.

Examples of User-Defined Functions

1. Simple Function Without Parameters

A basic function that performs a task without requiring any input.

python

Copy code

def greet():

print("Hello, welcome to Python!")

greet()

Explanation:

 This function, greet(), prints a greeting message. It doesn't accept any

parameters.

 The function is called by using its name followed by parentheses,

greet().
2. Function with Parameters

A function that takes parameters and uses them within the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet("Ajay")

Explanation:

 The function greet(name) accepts one parameter, name, which is used

inside the function.

 When calling the function, you provide an argument like greet("Ajay"),

and it will output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

3. Function with Return Statement

A function that performs a task and returns a value to the caller.

python

Copy code

def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(5, 7)

print(f"The sum is: {result}")

Explanation:

 add(a, b) takes two arguments and returns their sum.

 The returned value is stored in the variable result and printed.

4. Function with Default Parameters

You can assign default values to function parameters. If an argument is not

provided when the function is called, the default value is used.

python

Copy code

def greet(name="Guest"):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet() # Output: Hello, Guest! Welcome to Python.

greet("Ajay") # Output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

Explanation:

 The function greet(name="Guest") has a default value for the name

parameter.

 If the function is called without an argument, it uses "Guest" as the

default name. If an argument is provided, like "Ajay", it uses that
instead.

5. Function with Multiple Parameters

You can pass multiple parameters to a function.

python

Copy code

def calculate_area(length, width):

return length * width

area = calculate_area(5, 10)

print(f"The area is: {area}")

Explanation:
 The function calculate_area(length, width) calculates the area of a
rectangle by multiplying the two arguments.

 The result is stored in the variable area and printed.

6. Function with Variable-length Arguments (*args)

You can use *args to accept a variable number of positional arguments.

python

Copy code

def sum_numbers(*args):

return sum(args)

print(sum_numbers(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 6

print(sum_numbers(4, 5, 6, 7, 8)) # Output: 30

Explanation:

 The sum_numbers(*args) function accepts any number of arguments

and sums them.

 *args collects all the arguments passed into a tuple.

7. Function with Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

**kwargs allows passing variable-length keyword arguments (key-value pairs)

to the function.

python

Copy code

def display_info(**kwargs):

for key, value in kwargs.items():

print(f"{key}: {value}")

display_info(name="Ajay", age=30, city="Berlin")

Explanation:

 The function display_info(**kwargs) accepts a variable number of

keyword arguments and prints each key-value pair.

 **kwargs collects the keyword arguments into a dictionary.

8. Recursive Function

A recursive function is a function that calls itself. This is useful for problems
like calculating the factorial of a number or traversing a tree structure.

python

Copy code

def factorial(n):

if n == 1:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

Explanation:

 The factorial() function calls itself to compute the factorial of a number.

 The base case is when n == 1, and the recursive case is n * factorial(n

- 1).

9. Higher-Order Function

A higher-order function is a function that either takes another function as an

argument or returns a function.

python

Copy code

def apply_twice(func, value):

return func(func(value))

def double(x):

return x * 2

print(apply_twice(double, 5)) # Output: 20

Explanation:

 The apply_twice() function accepts a function and a value. It applies

the function to the value twice.

 double() doubles the input value, and apply_twice() applies it twice,

resulting in 20.

Docstrings in Functions

A docstring is a string that documents what a function does. It’s placed as

the first statement in the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

"""This function greets the person passed as the argument."""

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

print(greet.__doc__)

Explanation:

 The string inside the function is a docstring. You can access it using the
__doc__ attribute of the function.

 It's useful for explaining the purpose and usage of the function.

Key Features of User-Defined Functions:

1. Reusability: Functions allow you to reuse the same code block
multiple times, reducing redundancy.

2. Modularity: Functions help organize code into smaller, manageable

pieces.

3. Maintainability: Functions make it easier to maintain and update the

code. If changes are required, you only need to update the function.

4. Abstraction: You can use functions to encapsulate complex operations

and only expose an easy-to-use interface.

5. Arguments and Return Values: Functions can accept arguments

and return values to be used elsewhere in the code.

More Advanced Example:

Fibonacci Series Using Recursion

This is a classic example that demonstrates recursion in user-defined

functions.

python

Copy code

def fibonacci(n):

"""Return the nth Fibonacci number."""

if n <= 1:

return n

else:

return fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2)

n_terms = 10

for i in range(n_terms):

print(fibonacci(i), end=" ")

Explanation:
 The function fibonacci(n) returns the nth Fibonacci number using
recursion.

 It calls itself for the two preceding Fibonacci numbers (n - 1 and n - 2).

In summary, user-defined functions in Python allow you to create

reusable, modular blocks of code that can perform specific tasks. They are
flexible, allowing the use of parameters, return values, and support for
variable-length arguments (*args and **kwargs). Functions are essential in
Python for organizing code efficiently and improving maintainability.

4o

User-Defined Functions in Python

A user-defined function in Python is a function created by the programmer

to perform a specific task or set of tasks. These functions are defined using
the def keyword, followed by the function name, parameters (if any), and the
function body. User-defined functions provide a way to organize code into
reusable pieces, which makes the code more modular and easier to maintain.

Basic Structure of a Function

python

Copy code

def function_name(parameters):

"""

Optional docstring to describe the function.

"""

# Code block (function body)

return value # Optional return value

 def: A keyword used to define a function.

 function_name: The name of the function. It should be descriptive

and follow Python's naming conventions (e.g., lowercase letters with
words separated by underscores).
 parameters: Optional. Variables that hold values passed to the
function. You can pass zero or more parameters.

 return: Optional. Specifies what the function should output or return

after executing. If no return is used, the function returns None by
default.

Examples of User-Defined Functions

1. Simple Function Without Parameters

A basic function that performs a task without requiring any input.

python

Copy code

def greet():

print("Hello, welcome to Python!")

greet()

Explanation:

 This function, greet(), prints a greeting message. It doesn't accept any

parameters.

 The function is called by using its name followed by parentheses,

greet().

2. Function with Parameters

A function that takes parameters and uses them within the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet("Ajay")

Explanation:

 The function greet(name) accepts one parameter, name, which is used

inside the function.

 When calling the function, you provide an argument like greet("Ajay"),

and it will output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

3. Function with Return Statement

A function that performs a task and returns a value to the caller.

python

Copy code

def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(5, 7)

print(f"The sum is: {result}")

Explanation:

 add(a, b) takes two arguments and returns their sum.

 The returned value is stored in the variable result and printed.

4. Function with Default Parameters

You can assign default values to function parameters. If an argument is not

provided when the function is called, the default value is used.

python

Copy code

def greet(name="Guest"):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet() # Output: Hello, Guest! Welcome to Python.

greet("Ajay") # Output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

Explanation:

 The function greet(name="Guest") has a default value for the name

parameter.

 If the function is called without an argument, it uses "Guest" as the

default name. If an argument is provided, like "Ajay", it uses that
instead.

5. Function with Multiple Parameters

You can pass multiple parameters to a function.

python

Copy code

def calculate_area(length, width):

return length * width

area = calculate_area(5, 10)

print(f"The area is: {area}")

Explanation:

 The function calculate_area(length, width) calculates the area of a

rectangle by multiplying the two arguments.

 The result is stored in the variable area and printed.

6. Function with Variable-length Arguments (*args)

You can use *args to accept a variable number of positional arguments.

python

Copy code

def sum_numbers(*args):
return sum(args)

print(sum_numbers(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 6

print(sum_numbers(4, 5, 6, 7, 8)) # Output: 30

Explanation:

 The sum_numbers(*args) function accepts any number of arguments

and sums them.

 *args collects all the arguments passed into a tuple.

7. Function with Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

**kwargs allows passing variable-length keyword arguments (key-value pairs)

to the function.

python

Copy code

def display_info(**kwargs):

for key, value in kwargs.items():

print(f"{key}: {value}")

display_info(name="Ajay", age=30, city="Berlin")

Explanation:

 The function display_info(**kwargs) accepts a variable number of

keyword arguments and prints each key-value pair.

 **kwargs collects the keyword arguments into a dictionary.

8. Recursive Function

A recursive function is a function that calls itself. This is useful for problems
like calculating the factorial of a number or traversing a tree structure.

python
Copy code

def factorial(n):

if n == 1:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

Explanation:

 The factorial() function calls itself to compute the factorial of a number.

 The base case is when n == 1, and the recursive case is n * factorial(n

- 1).

9. Higher-Order Function

A higher-order function is a function that either takes another function as an

argument or returns a function.

python

Copy code

def apply_twice(func, value):

return func(func(value))

def double(x):

return x * 2

print(apply_twice(double, 5)) # Output: 20

Explanation:

 The apply_twice() function accepts a function and a value. It applies

the function to the value twice.
 double() doubles the input value, and apply_twice() applies it twice,
resulting in 20.

Docstrings in Functions

A docstring is a string that documents what a function does. It’s placed as

the first statement in the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

"""This function greets the person passed as the argument."""

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

print(greet.__doc__)

Explanation:

 The string inside the function is a docstring. You can access it using the
__doc__ attribute of the function.

 It's useful for explaining the purpose and usage of the function.

Key Features of User-Defined Functions:

1. Reusability: Functions allow you to reuse the same code block

multiple times, reducing redundancy.

2. Modularity: Functions help organize code into smaller, manageable

pieces.

3. Maintainability: Functions make it easier to maintain and update the

code. If changes are required, you only need to update the function.

4. Abstraction: You can use functions to encapsulate complex operations

and only expose an easy-to-use interface.

5. Arguments and Return Values: Functions can accept arguments

and return values to be used elsewhere in the code.
More Advanced Example:

Fibonacci Series Using Recursion

This is a classic example that demonstrates recursion in user-defined

functions.

python

Copy code

def fibonacci(n):

"""Return the nth Fibonacci number."""

if n <= 1:

return n

else:

return fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2)

n_terms = 10

for i in range(n_terms):

print(fibonacci(i), end=" ")

Explanation:

 The function fibonacci(n) returns the nth Fibonacci number using

recursion.

 It calls itself for the two preceding Fibonacci numbers (n - 1 and n - 2).

In summary, user-defined functions in Python allow you to create

reusable, modular blocks of code that can perform specific tasks. They are
flexible, allowing the use of parameters, return values, and support for
variable-length arguments (*args and **kwargs). Functions are essential in
Python for organizing code efficiently and improving maintainability.

4o

User-Defined Functions in Python

A user-defined function in Python is a function created by the programmer
to perform a specific task or set of tasks. These functions are defined using
the def keyword, followed by the function name, parameters (if any), and the
function body. User-defined functions provide a way to organize code into
reusable pieces, which makes the code more modular and easier to maintain.

Basic Structure of a Function

python

Copy code

def function_name(parameters):

"""

Optional docstring to describe the function.

"""

# Code block (function body)

return value # Optional return value

 def: A keyword used to define a function.

 function_name: The name of the function. It should be descriptive

and follow Python's naming conventions (e.g., lowercase letters with
words separated by underscores).

 parameters: Optional. Variables that hold values passed to the

function. You can pass zero or more parameters.

 return: Optional. Specifies what the function should output or return

after executing. If no return is used, the function returns None by
default.

Examples of User-Defined Functions

1. Simple Function Without Parameters

A basic function that performs a task without requiring any input.

python

Copy code
def greet():

print("Hello, welcome to Python!")

greet()

Explanation:

 This function, greet(), prints a greeting message. It doesn't accept any

parameters.

 The function is called by using its name followed by parentheses,

greet().

2. Function with Parameters

A function that takes parameters and uses them within the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet("Ajay")

Explanation:

 The function greet(name) accepts one parameter, name, which is used

inside the function.

 When calling the function, you provide an argument like greet("Ajay"),

and it will output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

3. Function with Return Statement

A function that performs a task and returns a value to the caller.

python

Copy code
def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(5, 7)

print(f"The sum is: {result}")

Explanation:

 add(a, b) takes two arguments and returns their sum.

 The returned value is stored in the variable result and printed.

4. Function with Default Parameters

You can assign default values to function parameters. If an argument is not

provided when the function is called, the default value is used.

python

Copy code

def greet(name="Guest"):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet() # Output: Hello, Guest! Welcome to Python.

greet("Ajay") # Output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

Explanation:

 The function greet(name="Guest") has a default value for the name

parameter.

 If the function is called without an argument, it uses "Guest" as the

default name. If an argument is provided, like "Ajay", it uses that
instead.

5. Function with Multiple Parameters

You can pass multiple parameters to a function.

python

Copy code

def calculate_area(length, width):

return length * width

area = calculate_area(5, 10)

print(f"The area is: {area}")

Explanation:

 The function calculate_area(length, width) calculates the area of a

rectangle by multiplying the two arguments.

 The result is stored in the variable area and printed.

6. Function with Variable-length Arguments (*args)

You can use *args to accept a variable number of positional arguments.

python

Copy code

def sum_numbers(*args):

return sum(args)

print(sum_numbers(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 6

print(sum_numbers(4, 5, 6, 7, 8)) # Output: 30

Explanation:

 The sum_numbers(*args) function accepts any number of arguments

and sums them.

 *args collects all the arguments passed into a tuple.

7. Function with Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

**kwargs allows passing variable-length keyword arguments (key-value pairs)
to the function.

python

Copy code

def display_info(**kwargs):

for key, value in kwargs.items():

print(f"{key}: {value}")

display_info(name="Ajay", age=30, city="Berlin")

Explanation:

 The function display_info(**kwargs) accepts a variable number of

keyword arguments and prints each key-value pair.

 **kwargs collects the keyword arguments into a dictionary.

8. Recursive Function

A recursive function is a function that calls itself. This is useful for problems
like calculating the factorial of a number or traversing a tree structure.

python

Copy code

def factorial(n):

if n == 1:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

Explanation:

 The factorial() function calls itself to compute the factorial of a number.

 The base case is when n == 1, and the recursive case is n * factorial(n
- 1).

9. Higher-Order Function

A higher-order function is a function that either takes another function as an

argument or returns a function.

python

Copy code

def apply_twice(func, value):

return func(func(value))

def double(x):

return x * 2

print(apply_twice(double, 5)) # Output: 20

Explanation:

 The apply_twice() function accepts a function and a value. It applies

the function to the value twice.

 double() doubles the input value, and apply_twice() applies it twice,

resulting in 20.

Docstrings in Functions

A docstring is a string that documents what a function does. It’s placed as

the first statement in the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

"""This function greets the person passed as the argument."""

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

print(greet.__doc__)

Explanation:

 The string inside the function is a docstring. You can access it using the
__doc__ attribute of the function.

 It's useful for explaining the purpose and usage of the function.

Key Features of User-Defined Functions:

1. Reusability: Functions allow you to reuse the same code block

multiple times, reducing redundancy.

2. Modularity: Functions help organize code into smaller, manageable

pieces.

3. Maintainability: Functions make it easier to maintain and update the

code. If changes are required, you only need to update the function.

4. Abstraction: You can use functions to encapsulate complex operations

and only expose an easy-to-use interface.

5. Arguments and Return Values: Functions can accept arguments

and return values to be used elsewhere in the code.

More Advanced Example:

Fibonacci Series Using Recursion

This is a classic example that demonstrates recursion in user-defined

functions.

python

Copy code

def fibonacci(n):

"""Return the nth Fibonacci number."""

if n <= 1:
return n

else:

return fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2)

n_terms = 10

for i in range(n_terms):

print(fibonacci(i), end=" ")

Explanation:

 The function fibonacci(n) returns the nth Fibonacci number using

recursion.

 It calls itself for the two preceding Fibonacci numbers (n - 1 and n - 2).

In summary, user-defined functions in Python allow you to create

reusable, modular blocks of code that can perform specific tasks. They are
flexible, allowing the use of parameters, return values, and support for
variable-length arguments (*args and **kwargs). Functions are essential in
Python for organizing code efficiently and improving maintainability.

4o

User-Defined Functions in Python

A user-defined function in Python is a function created by the programmer

to perform a specific task or set of tasks. These functions are defined using
the def keyword, followed by the function name, parameters (if any), and the
function body. User-defined functions provide a way to organize code into
reusable pieces, which makes the code more modular and easier to maintain.

Basic Structure of a Function

python

Copy code

def function_name(parameters):

"""
Optional docstring to describe the function.

"""

# Code block (function body)

return value # Optional return value

 def: A keyword used to define a function.

 function_name: The name of the function. It should be descriptive

and follow Python's naming conventions (e.g., lowercase letters with
words separated by underscores).

 parameters: Optional. Variables that hold values passed to the

function. You can pass zero or more parameters.

 return: Optional. Specifies what the function should output or return

after executing. If no return is used, the function returns None by
default.

Examples of User-Defined Functions

1. Simple Function Without Parameters

A basic function that performs a task without requiring any input.

python

Copy code

def greet():

print("Hello, welcome to Python!")

greet()

Explanation:

 This function, greet(), prints a greeting message. It doesn't accept any

parameters.

 The function is called by using its name followed by parentheses,

greet().
2. Function with Parameters

A function that takes parameters and uses them within the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet("Ajay")

Explanation:

 The function greet(name) accepts one parameter, name, which is used

inside the function.

 When calling the function, you provide an argument like greet("Ajay"),

and it will output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

3. Function with Return Statement

A function that performs a task and returns a value to the caller.

python

Copy code

def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(5, 7)

print(f"The sum is: {result}")

Explanation:

 add(a, b) takes two arguments and returns their sum.

 The returned value is stored in the variable result and printed.

4. Function with Default Parameters

You can assign default values to function parameters. If an argument is not

provided when the function is called, the default value is used.

python

Copy code

def greet(name="Guest"):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet() # Output: Hello, Guest! Welcome to Python.

greet("Ajay") # Output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

Explanation:

 The function greet(name="Guest") has a default value for the name

parameter.

 If the function is called without an argument, it uses "Guest" as the

default name. If an argument is provided, like "Ajay", it uses that
instead.

5. Function with Multiple Parameters

You can pass multiple parameters to a function.

python

Copy code

def calculate_area(length, width):

return length * width

area = calculate_area(5, 10)

print(f"The area is: {area}")

Explanation:
 The function calculate_area(length, width) calculates the area of a
rectangle by multiplying the two arguments.

 The result is stored in the variable area and printed.

6. Function with Variable-length Arguments (*args)

You can use *args to accept a variable number of positional arguments.

python

Copy code

def sum_numbers(*args):

return sum(args)

print(sum_numbers(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 6

print(sum_numbers(4, 5, 6, 7, 8)) # Output: 30

Explanation:

 The sum_numbers(*args) function accepts any number of arguments

and sums them.

 *args collects all the arguments passed into a tuple.

7. Function with Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

**kwargs allows passing variable-length keyword arguments (key-value pairs)

to the function.

python

Copy code

def display_info(**kwargs):

for key, value in kwargs.items():

print(f"{key}: {value}")

display_info(name="Ajay", age=30, city="Berlin")

Explanation:

 The function display_info(**kwargs) accepts a variable number of

keyword arguments and prints each key-value pair.

 **kwargs collects the keyword arguments into a dictionary.

8. Recursive Function

A recursive function is a function that calls itself. This is useful for problems
like calculating the factorial of a number or traversing a tree structure.

python

Copy code

def factorial(n):

if n == 1:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

Explanation:

 The factorial() function calls itself to compute the factorial of a number.

 The base case is when n == 1, and the recursive case is n * factorial(n

- 1).

9. Higher-Order Function

A higher-order function is a function that either takes another function as an

argument or returns a function.

python

Copy code

def apply_twice(func, value):

return func(func(value))

def double(x):

return x * 2

print(apply_twice(double, 5)) # Output: 20

Explanation:

 The apply_twice() function accepts a function and a value. It applies

the function to the value twice.

 double() doubles the input value, and apply_twice() applies it twice,

resulting in 20.

Docstrings in Functions

A docstring is a string that documents what a function does. It’s placed as

the first statement in the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

"""This function greets the person passed as the argument."""

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

print(greet.__doc__)

Explanation:

 The string inside the function is a docstring. You can access it using the
__doc__ attribute of the function.

 It's useful for explaining the purpose and usage of the function.

Key Features of User-Defined Functions:

1. Reusability: Functions allow you to reuse the same code block
multiple times, reducing redundancy.

2. Modularity: Functions help organize code into smaller, manageable

pieces.

3. Maintainability: Functions make it easier to maintain and update the

code. If changes are required, you only need to update the function.

4. Abstraction: You can use functions to encapsulate complex operations

and only expose an easy-to-use interface.

5. Arguments and Return Values: Functions can accept arguments

and return values to be used elsewhere in the code.

More Advanced Example:

Fibonacci Series Using Recursion

This is a classic example that demonstrates recursion in user-defined

functions.

python

Copy code

def fibonacci(n):

"""Return the nth Fibonacci number."""

if n <= 1:

return n

else:

return fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2)

n_terms = 10

for i in range(n_terms):

print(fibonacci(i), end=" ")

Explanation:
 The function fibonacci(n) returns the nth Fibonacci number using
recursion.

 It calls itself for the two preceding Fibonacci numbers (n - 1 and n - 2).

In summary, user-defined functions in Python allow you to create

reusable, modular blocks of code that can perform specific tasks. They are
flexible, allowing the use of parameters, return values, and support for
variable-length arguments (*args and **kwargs). Functions are essential in
Python for organizing code efficiently and improving maintainability.

4o

User-Defined Functions in Python

A user-defined function in Python is a function created by the programmer

to perform a specific task or set of tasks. These functions are defined using
the def keyword, followed by the function name, parameters (if any), and the
function body. User-defined functions provide a way to organize code into
reusable pieces, which makes the code more modular and easier to maintain.

Basic Structure of a Function

python

Copy code

def function_name(parameters):

"""

Optional docstring to describe the function.

"""

# Code block (function body)

return value # Optional return value

 def: A keyword used to define a function.

 function_name: The name of the function. It should be descriptive

and follow Python's naming conventions (e.g., lowercase letters with
words separated by underscores).
 parameters: Optional. Variables that hold values passed to the
function. You can pass zero or more parameters.

 return: Optional. Specifies what the function should output or return

after executing. If no return is used, the function returns None by
default.

Examples of User-Defined Functions

1. Simple Function Without Parameters

A basic function that performs a task without requiring any input.

python

Copy code

def greet():

print("Hello, welcome to Python!")

greet()

Explanation:

 This function, greet(), prints a greeting message. It doesn't accept any

parameters.

 The function is called by using its name followed by parentheses,

greet().

2. Function with Parameters

A function that takes parameters and uses them within the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet("Ajay")

Explanation:

 The function greet(name) accepts one parameter, name, which is used

inside the function.

 When calling the function, you provide an argument like greet("Ajay"),

and it will output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

3. Function with Return Statement

A function that performs a task and returns a value to the caller.

python

Copy code

def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(5, 7)

print(f"The sum is: {result}")

Explanation:

 add(a, b) takes two arguments and returns their sum.

 The returned value is stored in the variable result and printed.

4. Function with Default Parameters

You can assign default values to function parameters. If an argument is not

provided when the function is called, the default value is used.

python

Copy code

def greet(name="Guest"):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet() # Output: Hello, Guest! Welcome to Python.

greet("Ajay") # Output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

Explanation:

 The function greet(name="Guest") has a default value for the name

parameter.

 If the function is called without an argument, it uses "Guest" as the

default name. If an argument is provided, like "Ajay", it uses that
instead.

5. Function with Multiple Parameters

You can pass multiple parameters to a function.

python

Copy code

def calculate_area(length, width):

return length * width

area = calculate_area(5, 10)

print(f"The area is: {area}")

Explanation:

 The function calculate_area(length, width) calculates the area of a

rectangle by multiplying the two arguments.

 The result is stored in the variable area and printed.

6. Function with Variable-length Arguments (*args)

You can use *args to accept a variable number of positional arguments.

python

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def sum_numbers(*args):
return sum(args)

print(sum_numbers(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 6

print(sum_numbers(4, 5, 6, 7, 8)) # Output: 30

Explanation:

 The sum_numbers(*args) function accepts any number of arguments

and sums them.

 *args collects all the arguments passed into a tuple.

7. Function with Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

**kwargs allows passing variable-length keyword arguments (key-value pairs)

to the function.

python

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def display_info(**kwargs):

for key, value in kwargs.items():

print(f"{key}: {value}")

display_info(name="Ajay", age=30, city="Berlin")

Explanation:

 The function display_info(**kwargs) accepts a variable number of

keyword arguments and prints each key-value pair.

 **kwargs collects the keyword arguments into a dictionary.

8. Recursive Function

A recursive function is a function that calls itself. This is useful for problems
like calculating the factorial of a number or traversing a tree structure.

python
Copy code

def factorial(n):

if n == 1:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

Explanation:

 The factorial() function calls itself to compute the factorial of a number.

 The base case is when n == 1, and the recursive case is n * factorial(n

- 1).

9. Higher-Order Function

A higher-order function is a function that either takes another function as an

argument or returns a function.

python

Copy code

def apply_twice(func, value):

return func(func(value))

def double(x):

return x * 2

print(apply_twice(double, 5)) # Output: 20

Explanation:

 The apply_twice() function accepts a function and a value. It applies

the function to the value twice.
 double() doubles the input value, and apply_twice() applies it twice,
resulting in 20.

Docstrings in Functions

A docstring is a string that documents what a function does. It’s placed as

the first statement in the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

"""This function greets the person passed as the argument."""

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

print(greet.__doc__)

Explanation:

 The string inside the function is a docstring. You can access it using the
__doc__ attribute of the function.

 It's useful for explaining the purpose and usage of the function.

Key Features of User-Defined Functions:

1. Reusability: Functions allow you to reuse the same code block

multiple times, reducing redundancy.

2. Modularity: Functions help organize code into smaller, manageable

pieces.

3. Maintainability: Functions make it easier to maintain and update the

code. If changes are required, you only need to update the function.

4. Abstraction: You can use functions to encapsulate complex operations

and only expose an easy-to-use interface.

5. Arguments and Return Values: Functions can accept arguments

and return values to be used elsewhere in the code.
More Advanced Example:

Fibonacci Series Using Recursion

This is a classic example that demonstrates recursion in user-defined

functions.

python

Copy code

def fibonacci(n):

"""Return the nth Fibonacci number."""

if n <= 1:

return n

else:

return fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2)

n_terms = 10

for i in range(n_terms):

print(fibonacci(i), end=" ")

Explanation:

 The function fibonacci(n) returns the nth Fibonacci number using

recursion.

 It calls itself for the two preceding Fibonacci numbers (n - 1 and n - 2).

In summary, user-defined functions in Python allow you to create

reusable, modular blocks of code that can perform specific tasks. They are
flexible, allowing the use of parameters, return values, and support for
variable-length arguments (*args and **kwargs). Functions are essential in
Python for organizing code efficiently and improving maintainability.

4o

User-Defined Functions in Python

A user-defined function in Python is a function created by the programmer
to perform a specific task or set of tasks. These functions are defined using
the def keyword, followed by the function name, parameters (if any), and the
function body. User-defined functions provide a way to organize code into
reusable pieces, which makes the code more modular and easier to maintain.

Basic Structure of a Function

python

Copy code

def function_name(parameters):

"""

Optional docstring to describe the function.

"""

# Code block (function body)

return value # Optional return value

 def: A keyword used to define a function.

 function_name: The name of the function. It should be descriptive

and follow Python's naming conventions (e.g., lowercase letters with
words separated by underscores).

 parameters: Optional. Variables that hold values passed to the

function. You can pass zero or more parameters.

 return: Optional. Specifies what the function should output or return

after executing. If no return is used, the function returns None by
default.

Examples of User-Defined Functions

1. Simple Function Without Parameters

A basic function that performs a task without requiring any input.

python

Copy code
def greet():

print("Hello, welcome to Python!")

greet()

Explanation:

 This function, greet(), prints a greeting message. It doesn't accept any

parameters.

 The function is called by using its name followed by parentheses,

greet().

2. Function with Parameters

A function that takes parameters and uses them within the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet("Ajay")

Explanation:

 The function greet(name) accepts one parameter, name, which is used

inside the function.

 When calling the function, you provide an argument like greet("Ajay"),

and it will output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

3. Function with Return Statement

A function that performs a task and returns a value to the caller.

python

Copy code
def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(5, 7)

print(f"The sum is: {result}")

Explanation:

 add(a, b) takes two arguments and returns their sum.

 The returned value is stored in the variable result and printed.

4. Function with Default Parameters

You can assign default values to function parameters. If an argument is not

provided when the function is called, the default value is used.

python

Copy code

def greet(name="Guest"):

print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python.")

greet() # Output: Hello, Guest! Welcome to Python.

greet("Ajay") # Output: Hello, Ajay! Welcome to Python.

Explanation:

 The function greet(name="Guest") has a default value for the name

parameter.

 If the function is called without an argument, it uses "Guest" as the

default name. If an argument is provided, like "Ajay", it uses that
instead.

5. Function with Multiple Parameters

You can pass multiple parameters to a function.

python

Copy code

def calculate_area(length, width):

return length * width

area = calculate_area(5, 10)

print(f"The area is: {area}")

Explanation:

 The function calculate_area(length, width) calculates the area of a

rectangle by multiplying the two arguments.

 The result is stored in the variable area and printed.

6. Function with Variable-length Arguments (*args)

You can use *args to accept a variable number of positional arguments.

python

Copy code

def sum_numbers(*args):

return sum(args)

print(sum_numbers(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 6

print(sum_numbers(4, 5, 6, 7, 8)) # Output: 30

Explanation:

 The sum_numbers(*args) function accepts any number of arguments

and sums them.

 *args collects all the arguments passed into a tuple.

7. Function with Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

**kwargs allows passing variable-length keyword arguments (key-value pairs)
to the function.

python

Copy code

def display_info(**kwargs):

for key, value in kwargs.items():

print(f"{key}: {value}")

display_info(name="Ajay", age=30, city="Berlin")

Explanation:

 The function display_info(**kwargs) accepts a variable number of

keyword arguments and prints each key-value pair.

 **kwargs collects the keyword arguments into a dictionary.

8. Recursive Function

A recursive function is a function that calls itself. This is useful for problems
like calculating the factorial of a number or traversing a tree structure.

python

Copy code

def factorial(n):

if n == 1:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

Explanation:

 The factorial() function calls itself to compute the factorial of a number.

 The base case is when n == 1, and the recursive case is n * factorial(n
- 1).

9. Higher-Order Function

A higher-order function is a function that either takes another function as an

argument or returns a function.

python

Copy code

def apply_twice(func, value):

return func(func(value))

def double(x):

return x * 2

print(apply_twice(double, 5)) # Output: 20

Explanation:

 The apply_twice() function accepts a function and a value. It applies

the function to the value twice.

 double() doubles the input value, and apply_twice() applies it twice,

resulting in 20.

Docstrings in Functions

A docstring is a string that documents what a function does. It’s placed as

the first statement in the function body.

python

Copy code

def greet(name):

"""This function greets the person passed as the argument."""

print(f"Hello, {name}!")

print(greet.__doc__)

Explanation:

 The string inside the function is a docstring. You can access it using the
__doc__ attribute of the function.

 It's useful for explaining the purpose and usage of the function.

Key Features of User-Defined Functions:

1. Reusability: Functions allow you to reuse the same code block

multiple times, reducing redundancy.

2. Modularity: Functions help organize code into smaller, manageable

pieces.

3. Maintainability: Functions make it easier to maintain and update the

code. If changes are required, you only need to update the function.

4. Abstraction: You can use functions to encapsulate complex operations

and only expose an easy-to-use interface.

5. Arguments and Return Values: Functions can accept arguments

and return values to be used elsewhere in the code.

More Advanced Example:

Fibonacci Series Using Recursion

This is a classic example that demonstrates recursion in user-defined

functions.

python

Copy code

def fibonacci(n):

"""Return the nth Fibonacci number."""

if n <= 1:
return n

else:

return fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2)

n_terms = 10

for i in range(n_terms):

print(fibonacci(i), end=" ")

Explanation:

 The function fibonacci(n) returns the nth Fibonacci number using

recursion.

 It calls itself for the two preceding Fibonacci numbers (n - 1 and n - 2).

In summary, user-defined functions in Python allow you to create

reusable, modular blocks of code that can perform specific tasks. They are
flexible, allowing the use of parameters, return values, and support for
variable-length arguments (*args and **kwargs). Functions are essential in
Python for organizing code efficiently and improving maintainability.

4o