The Essence of Solid-State Transformers

Fundamentals, Design Challenges, R&D Overview, Comparative Evaluation, Outlook

Johann W. Kolar & Jonas Huber

Power Electronic Systems Laboratory
ETH Zurich
March 20, 2023

1
Agenda Acknowledgment
Dr. T. Guillod
Dr. P. Czyz
Dr. D. Rothmund
1. Introduction & SST Origins Dr. G. Ortiz
2. SST Concepts & Key Design Aspects
Full Version

30min

3. Selected Results of Recent University / Industry SST R&D Activities

4. Comparative Evaluation of SSTs for Datacenters and EV Charging

5. Summary & Research Vectors

https://u.ethz.ch/bWWoV

2
Part I
Introduction & SST Origins
− Transformer Basics and Key SST Motivations
− Terminology

3
1800 1830 Henry / Faraday
Transformer History
Property of Induction
1810

1820 1880 Ferranti

Early Transformer
1830
1882 Gaulard & Gibbs
1840 Linear-Shape Xfmr (1994, 2 kV, 40 km)
1884 Bláthy / Zipernowksi / Déri
1850 Toroidal Core Xfmr

1860
1885 Stanley (& Westinghouse)
1870 Easily Manufact. Xfmr
(1st Full AC Distr. System)
1880
Img.: IEEE
1890 1889 Dolivo-Dobrowolsky
NY Monitor

 Three-Phase Transformer
1900
1891 1st Complete AC System
(Gen. + Xfmr + Transm. + El. Motor+ Lamps, 40 Hz, 25 kV, 175 km)

[Stanley1886, Dobrowolski1890] 4
Transformer Basics (1)
■ Voltage Transfer Ratio Fixed
■ Current Transfer Ratio Fixed
■ Active Power Transfer Fixed (𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 ≈ 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐 )
■ Reactive Power Transfer Fixed (𝑸𝑸𝟏𝟏 ≈ 𝑸𝑸𝟐𝟐 )
■ Frequency Ratio Fixed (𝒇𝒇𝟏𝟏 = 𝒇𝒇𝟐𝟐 )
Resistive Load Reverse Power Flow

Kapp’s Triangle
𝑁𝑁2 (Winding Res. and Stray
𝑢𝑢1′ = 𝑢𝑢1 ⋅
𝑁𝑁1 Ind. Exaggerated)

■ Typ. Operating Frequency 50/60 Hz (Power Grid, Traction) or 16.7 Hz (Traction)

■ Typ. Operating Voltages 6…35 kV (Power Grid)
400 V (Power Grid)
15 kV or 25 kV (Traction)
5
Transformer Basics (2)
■ Construction Equations
𝑈𝑈1
● Core Area 𝐴𝐴C =
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋max 𝑓𝑓𝑁𝑁1
2𝐼𝐼1
● Window Area 𝐴𝐴W = 𝑁𝑁
𝑘𝑘W 𝐽𝐽rms 1

𝑆𝑆
■ Area Product 𝐴𝐴C 𝐴𝐴W ∝
𝑘𝑘W 𝐽𝐽rms 𝐵𝐵max 𝑓𝑓

S Rated Power (S = U1I1)

kW Window Utilization Factor
Bmax Flux Density Amplitude
Jrms Winding Current Density
f Frequency

𝑆𝑆 𝑺𝑺𝟑𝟑/𝟒𝟒
■ Construction Volume 𝐴𝐴C 𝐴𝐴W ∝ 𝐿𝐿4 ∝  𝑽𝑽 ∝ 𝑳𝑳𝟑𝟑 ∝
𝑓𝑓 𝒇𝒇𝟑𝟑/𝟒𝟒
for given Bmax, Jrms, kW

6
Transformer Basics (3)

■ Advantages
Vacuum Cast Coil Dry-Type
● Relatively Inexpensive
Distribution Transformer
● Highly Robust / Reliable
● Highly Efficient (98.5%...99.5% Dep. on Power Rating)
● Short Circuit Current Limitation (Stray Ind.)

■ Weaknesses

● Voltage Drop Under Load

● Losses at No Load
● Not Directly Controllable
● Sensitivity to DC Offset & Load Imbalances
● Sensitivity to Harmonics
1 MVA – 12 kV / 400 V @ 2600 kg
● Low Frequency  Large Volume and Weight 0.2%/1% Losses @ No/Rated Load

7
Classical Traction Vehicles
■ Isolated AC-DC Conversion
● Catenary AC Voltage 15 kV or 25 kV
● Frequency 16.7 Hz or 50 Hz
15 kV, 16.7 Hz
● Power Level 1…10 MW typ.

■ Volume & Weight Constraints

kW <1
𝑆𝑆 Jrms “Soft” Limit: Losses / Cooling
𝐴𝐴C 𝐴𝐴W ∝ Bmax Hard Limit: Saturation Img.: www.abb.com
𝑘𝑘W 𝐽𝐽rms 𝐵𝐵max 𝑓𝑓
f Fixed

 Volume & Weight Reduction by Increasing Jrms (the Only DoF!)

● Current Density 6 A/mm2 (2 A/mm2 Typ. for Distr. Transf.)

● Efficiency 90...95 % (99+ % Typ. for Distr. Transf.)
● Power Density 2…4 kg/kVA

8
Next-Generation Traction Vehicles (1)
■ Isolated AC-DC Conversion
● Catenary AC Voltage 15 kV or 25 kV
● Frequency 16.7 Hz or 50 Hz 15 kV
● Power Level 1…10 MW typ. 16.7 Hz

f >> 16.7 Hz

■ Power Electronic Converter Stages Unlock f as DoF

● LF Transformer  Medium-Frequency Transformer (MFT)
16.7Hz 50Hz
𝑆𝑆 100
𝐴𝐴C 𝐴𝐴W ∝ 80 Too Optimistic!
𝑘𝑘W 𝐽𝐽rms 𝐵𝐵max 𝑓𝑓

Volume [%]
60 - Isolation Distances
 Volume & Weight Reduction by Increasing f - Thermal Limit
40
- Etc.
20
■ AC-DC SST with MFT and AC-AC and AC-DC Conversion Stages 0
● Volume/Weight Contribution? 10 100 1000 10000 100000
● Overall MVAC-LVDC Efficiency? Frequency [Hz]

9
Next-Generation Traction Vehicles (2)
■ Drivetrain Loss Distribution of Conventional & Next-Generation Traction Vehicles

Conventional

SST

■ Key Motivation for SSTs: Space/Weight-Limited Applications

● Medium Frequency Provides Degree of Freedom → Allows Loss Reduction AND Volume Reduction

10
Example: 1.2 MVA AC-DC Power Electron. Traction Transf.
■ 15 kV, 16.7 Hz AC Input to 1.5 kV DC Output / Silicon IGBT Technology / Modular Topology
■ Significant Efficiency Improvement (+2…4 %)
■ Significant Weight Reduction (0.5…0.75 kVA/kg vs. 0.2…0.35 kVA/kg for Conventional Traction AC-DC Conv.)

MVAC – LVDC Efficiency

Typ. Conventional

■ World’s First Locomotive with an SST (2012) / Field Test on Swiss Railway System > 13’000 km

[Zhao2014] 11
Traditional AC-AC Grid Applications

■ Power Transformers Typ. w/o Volume/Weight Constraint  High Efficiency of 99+ %

MVAC

MVAC

■ SST Efficiency Significantly Worse (Two Power Electronic Conversion Stages!)

■ SST Functionality Significantly Higher  Not a 1:1 Replacement!

12
Advanced (High Power Quality) Grid Concept
■ Heinemann / ABB (2001)

►
►

►
►
►

►
● MV AC Distribution with DC Subsystems (LV and MV) and Large Number of Distributed Resources
● MF AC-AC Conv. with DC-Link Coupled to Energy Storage provide High Power Qual. for Spec. Customers

[Heinemann2001] 13
FREEDM System
■ Future Ren. Electric Energy Delivery & Management System (Huang et al., 2008)

■ SST as Enabling Technology for the “Energy Internet”

● Full Control of the Power Flow
IFM = Intellig. Fault
● Integr. of DER (Distr. Energy Res.) Management
● Integr. of DES (Distr. E-Storage) + Intellig. Loads
● Protects Power System From Load Disturbances
● Protects Loads from Power System Disturbances
● Enables Distrib. Intellig. through COMM
● Ensure Stability & Opt. Operation
● etc.
● etc. ►
►

■ Bidirectional Flow of Power & Information / High Bandw. Comm. → Distrib. / Local Autonom. Ctrl.

[Huang2009, Falcones2010, Huang2011] 14

Functionality for Future Grids
● MVAC-LVAC | Note SST with Add. Functionality!

AC AC

● MVAC-LVDC (Energy Storage, LVDC Grids)

AC AC

Note: SST with MV-Side PFC Stage

● MVDC-LVDC for Future MVDC Grids

LFT-Based: n/a (!) DC

(!)

■ Key Motivation for SSTs: Functionality & Enabler for DC Grids

15
Example: 1 MVA, 20 kHz Solid-State Power Substation
■ 1 MVA, 13.8 kV to 270 V Single-Phase Demonstrator / One Phase-Module of a Three-Phase System
■ Indirect Matrix Converter Modules (f1 = f2)
■ DCX Isolation Stages w. ZVS  20 kHz Transformers

■ 4 Modules w. 10 kV SiC MOSFETS / Input Series & Output Parallel

● 97% Efficiency at 855 kVA / 3 x Losses of LFT w. 99+% Efficiency

● –70% Weight & –50% Volume Compared to LFT / Limited Gain Despite 400 x Higher Transformer Freq.

[Das2011, Beermann2012, Raju2014] 16

Remark: Hybrid Transformers
■ Shunt ■ Series ■ Combined
Reactive Current Injection Reactive Voltage Injection
● Power Factor Correction ● Phase Shifting ● Power Factor Correction
● Harmonic Filtering ● Voltage injection ● Harmonic Filtering
● Flicker Control ● Flicker Control
● AC Regulation
● Phase Shifting

● Shunt Conv. Volt. Indep. of VLV

■ Fractional Power Processing → Power Electronic Stage Processes Only a Fraction of the Power/Voltage

[Bala2012, Burkard2015] 17
Part I
Introduction & SST Origins
− Transformer Basics and Key SST Motivations
− Terminology

18
Terminology (1): Origin of “SST”

“Solid State Regulated Power Transformer …”

■ No Isolation (!)
■ “Transformer” with Dyn. Adjustable Turns Ratio

19
Terminology (2)
■ McMurray Electronic Transformer (1968)
■ Brooks Solid-State Transformer (SST, 1980)
■ EPRI Intelligent Universal Transformer (IUT)
■ ABB Power Electronics Transformer (PET)
■ Borojevic Energy Control Center (ECC)
■ Wang Energy Router
■ …

■ Defining Properties
● Interface to Medium-Voltage
● Medium-Frequency Isolation
● AC or DC Input and/or Output

20
Part II
SST Concepts & Key Design Aspects
− Medium-Frequency Power Conversion
− Power Semiconductors
− Key SST Topologies
− Medium-Frequency Transformers
− Isolation Coordination
− Protection
− Construction

21
Part II
SST Concepts & Key Design Aspects
− Medium-Frequency Power Conversion
− Power Semiconductors
− Key SST Topologies
− Medium-Frequency Transformers
− Isolation Coordination
− Protection
− Construction

22
A Brief History of MF Power Conversion
■ Bouchérot (1914) ■ Hazeltine (1923)
● DC-DC, Mechanical Switches ● DC-AC, Mercury-Arc Valves

(!)
■ D. C. Prince (1928) ■ McMurray (1968)
● “Direct-Current Transformer Circuit” ● Electronic Transformer with Solid-State Switches

[Boucherot1914, Hazeltine1923, Prince1928, McMurray1968] 23

Electronic Transformer (1)

1968

■ Electronic Transformer ( f1 = f2)

■ AC or DC Voltage Regulation & Current Regulation / Limitation / Interruption

[McMurray1968] 24
Electronic Transformer (2)
■ Inverse-Paralleled Pairs of Turn-off Switches
■ 50% Duty Cycle of Input and Output Stage

■ f1 = f2 → Not Controllable (!)

■ Voltage Adjustment by Phase Shift Control (!)

[McMurray1968] 25
Dual Active Bridge (DAB)

26
Dual Active Bridge

“… Dual Active Bridges …”

1989

■ Soft-Switching in a Certain Load Range

■ Power Flow Control by Phase Shift between Primary & Secondary Voltage

[DeDoncker1989] 27
Phase-Shift Modulation (1)
■ Power Transfer Controlled Through Phase Shift Between MV and LV Bridges

[DeDoncker1989] 28
Phase-Shift Modulation (2)
■ Zero-Voltage Switching (ZVS) for All Transitions (in a Certain Operating Range)

Soft-Switching Range

Primary Volt.

Secondary Volt.

Primary Current

● MV or LV Bridge Loose ZVS Outside of Soft-Switching Range

[DeDoncker1989] 29
Phase-Shift / Duty Cycle Modulation
■ Additional Degrees of Freedom Can Be Utilized for Current Shaping  Optimization!
■ For Example: Minimization of the RMS Currents through the Transformer
D 1 TS

D 2 TS
φ

● Note: Not Possible in Half-Bridge Configurations (No Zero Voltage Intervals)

[Krismer2012] 30
Example: 0.5 MW, 2.5 kV / 1.2 kV DAB
■ Back-to-Back Testing of Si-Based and SiC-Based DAB Modules
3.3 kV Si IGBT 2.5 kHz 1.7 kV Si IGBT
Si-DAB

SiC-DAB

Transformer
Currents (SiC-DAB)
3.3 kV SiC MOSFET 4.0 kHz 1.7 kV SiC MOSFET

■ Si IGBTs: 98.4% Efficiency @ 360 kW and 2.5 kHz (Calorimetric Measurement)

■ SiC MOSFETs: 99.2% Efficiency @ 360 kW and 4.0 kHz (Calorimetric Measurement)

[Heinig2022] 31
Three-Phase DAB
■ Power Flow Control by Phase Shift between Primary & Secondary Voltage
■ Zero-Voltage Switching (ZVS) for All Transitions (in a Certain Operating Range)

Soft-Switching Range

● Full-Range ZVS for

d = 1 (Vin = Vout Nin/Nout),
i.e., similar input/output
voltages

[DeDoncker1991] 32
Example: 7 MW / 5 kV Three-Phase DAB
■ 7 MW Power Transfer, 5 kV ± 10% Input & Output Voltages, 99.2 % Pk. Efficiency
■ Series-Connection of 2 x 4.5 kV IGCTs / Three MFTs Operating at 1 kHz

● Power Density 0.9 kW/dm3 (14.3 W/in3) with Optimized Arrangement

[Soltau2014, DeDoncker2018] 33
DC Transformer (DCX)

34
1970

Img.: ewh.ieee.org
Resonant Tank Thyristors

Transformer
Voltage

Transformer
Current

Discontinuous
Conduction Mode “… load-insensitive series capacitor dc converter …”

(!) [McMurray1969, Schwarz1970, McMurray1971] 35

Remark: “Electronic Transformer”
■ AC-AC Electronic Transformer
1969
● Resonant Tank with Series Capacitor
● Current Zero Crossing Facilitates Thyristor Turn-Off

“Initial Use May be Found in Special Applications where Cost and

Efficiency are Secondary to Size and Weight.”
– W. McMurray, 1971
[McMurray1969, McMurray1971] 36
“Electronic DC Transformer”
■ DC-DC Electronic Transformer
1969
● Resonant Tank with Series Capacitor
● Current Zero Crossing Facilitates Thyristor Turn-Off

[McMurray1969, McMurray1971] 37
DCX Operating Principle
■ Resonance Frequency ≈ Switching Frequency → Unity Gain

𝑍𝑍0
𝑄𝑄 =
𝑅𝑅

First-Harmonic Equivalent Circuit

Power-Equivalent
Load Resistor

■ Fixed Voltage Transfer Ratio / Independent of Transferred Power (!)

38
DCX Key Waveforms

Primary-Side Secondary-Side

■ Magnetizing Current Enables Load-Independent Zero-Voltage Switching / DoF for Optimization (see Later)

39
DCX “DC Transformer Behavior” Explained
Source Bridge → Actively Switched
Sink Bridge → Diodes

Steady State 1 (P = P0) Disturbance Steady State 2 (P > P0)

Add. Excitation
𝑣𝑣�Cr,0,1 Voltage 𝑣𝑣�Cr,0,𝟐𝟐
𝚤𝚤̂𝑇𝑇,1 = 𝑉𝑉out = 𝑉𝑉in 𝑽𝑽𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 ≠ 𝑽𝑽𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝚤𝚤̂𝑇𝑇,𝟐𝟐 = 𝑉𝑉out = 𝑉𝑉in
𝑍𝑍0 𝑍𝑍0

■ Tight Coupling of DC Input and Output Voltages

● Ideal: Vout = Vin (Lossless Components)
● Real: Vout ≈ Vin (Voltage Drop Due to Losses)

■ No Control Possible/Required – Acts as “DC Transformer” (DCX) with Certain Dynamics!

[Huber2018] 40
Dynamic Modeling of Terminal Behavior (1)

■ Capture Load-Dependency of
● Losses
● Stored Energy

■ Dynamic Equivalent Circuit with Identical Terminal Behavior

iR,avg Local Average Current iR,avg

■ Generic Calculation of Equivalent Circuit Element Values (Rdc, Ldc)

Equal RMS Losses: Equal Stored Energy:

2 2
2 2 𝑖𝑖R,rms 2 2
𝑖𝑖R,pk
𝑖𝑖R,avg 𝑅𝑅dc = 𝑖𝑖R,rms 𝑅𝑅total 𝑹𝑹𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 = 2 𝑅𝑅total 2
= 𝛽𝛽 𝑅𝑅total 𝑖𝑖R,avg 𝐿𝐿dc = 𝑖𝑖R,pk 𝐿𝐿σ 𝑳𝑳𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 = 2 𝐿𝐿σ = 𝛼𝛼 2 𝐿𝐿σ
𝑖𝑖R,avg 𝑖𝑖R,avg

● Parametrization from Actual Waveforms (Calc., Sim., Meas.) – Not Exactly Sinusoidal (!)

[Huber2018] 41
Dynamic Modeling of Terminal Behavior (2)
■ Experimental Verification w. Parametrization from Measured Steady-State Waveforms

10 kW
350 V (in/out)
50 kHz

[Huber2018] 42
Active Magnetizing Current Splitting (1)
■ Ensure ZVS for Primary and Secondary Bridge (Synchronous Rectification)
● Critical for Very Asymmetric Semiconductor Output Capacitances (Referred to Same Side of Transf.)

■ New Method: Both Bridges are Actively Operated

● Very Small Phase Shift Between the Bridges
● Circulating Current Shifts the Magnetization Current

MV / 10 kV SiC LV / 1200 V SiC

Coss = 150 pF Coss = 1700 pF

n = 8.8

■ Control of the Switching Speed / No Closed-Loop Control Required / Extremely Robust

[Guillod2020] 43
Active Magnetizing Current Splitting (2)
■ Experimental Results
● 400 V  7 kV Operation @ 25 kW / 48 kHz

■ ZVS of All MOSFETs Independent of Load

■ Load-Independent Voltage Transfer Ratio (< 0.8% Deviation) / 99% DC-DC Efficiency

[Guillod2020, Rothmund2019] 44
Example: DC Traction DCX System (1)
■ 300 kW DCX Modules / 1.8 kV to 1.8 kV
■ 3.3 kV SiC / 15 kHz MFT / 99% Peak Efficiency

■ Input-Series Output-Parallel Arrangement of Two DCXs

● Two-Cell ISOP: 3 kV to 1.5 kV DC @ 600 kW
● Natural Input Volt. Balancing & Output Cur. Sharing
● Interleaving Reduced Output Voltage Ripple

[Fabre2021] 45
Example: IGCT-Based DCX System (2)
■ Series-Connected 4.5 kV, 68 mm RC-IGCTs (Reverse-Conducting IGCTs)
■ Custom Gate Unit Optimized for ZVS Operation
■ Back-to-Back Test @ 5 kV DC and 500 kW

SRC Test Bench

Series Voltage to
Adjust Power Flow

● fs = 5 kHz, fres = 7.4 kHz  20 μs Dead Time to Ensure IGCT ZVS

[Ulissi2022, Kucka2022] 46
Remark: DCX Power Flow Control
■ Step-Up for MVDC Wind Park Collector Grid
Res. Tank on the
Rectifier Side

Generator
& AC/DC Conv. MVDC Collector Grid

■ Power Flow Control via Pulse Removal Technique

Frequency Variation Only

Peak Core flux Defined by
Lowest Frequency

Frequency & Duty-Cycle

Peak Core Flux Defined by
Nominal Frequency

● High Efficiency for Vin ≈ nVout (Otherwise: High Peak/RMS Currents w.r.t. Average Current/Power)

[Dincan2019] 47
Remark: DCX Quantum Operation
■ Output Voltage Control by Combining Different Operating Modes
■ Mode Transition Only at Current Zero Crossing  ZCS/ZVS and Constant Operating Frequency

Powering Mode Free Resonant Mode Discontinuous Mode Regeneration Mode

(Occurs Naturally) (Low Inp. Power Fact.)
■ Powering Mode for m out of n Cycles  Discrete DC Voltage Transfer Ratios
mTs
Rectified Current
 Buck Converter Behavior!

n = 20

mTs nTs

m
nTs
[Joung1988, Joung1989] 48
Summary: MF Power Conversion for SSTs
Dual Active Bridge DC Transformer (“DCX”)

■ Can (Must!) Be Fully Controlled ■ Control Not Needed (Not Directly Possible!)

● Fully Controllable Power Flows ● Reduces Complexity in Multi-Cell Syst.

● Lower RMS Currents for U1 ≈ nU2 (e.g., Natural MV-Side Volt. Balancing)
● Predominant Solution in Multi-Cell SSTs

49
Part II
SST Concepts & Key Design Aspects
− Medium-Frequency Power Conversion
− Power Semiconductors
− Key SST Topologies
− Medium-Frequency Transformers
− Isolation Coordination
− Protection
− Construction

50
Available Si Power Semiconductors
■ 1200 V & 1700 V Si IGBTs Most Frequently Used in Industry Applications / Max. 6.5 kV Available
■ Derating Requirement due to Cosmic Radiation: 1700 V Si IGBTs → ca. 1000 V max. DC Voltage

Source: M. Doppelbauer
M. Hiller Source: H.-G. Eckel
Univ. Rostock

AMSL
AMSL

AMSL AMSL

■ Interfacing to Medium Voltage → Series Connections or Multi-Level Converter Topologies

51
Si vs. SiC Power Semiconductors (1)

● Specific On-State Resistance

Si Blocking Voltage

GaN SiC Critical Electric Field

Diamond
● EC in SiC ca. 9 x Larger Than in Si

Img.: http://www.evincetechnology.com/whydiamond.html

■ Lower Ron,sp for Given Blocking Voltage

Img.: Chow, 2015. 1kV
Unipolar Si Limit
300 mΩ cm2
Unipolar 4H-SiC Limit

0.6 mΩ cm2 Bipolar Si (!) Limit

But: Bipolar → Sw. Losses!

52
Si vs. SiC Power Semiconductors (2)

● Specific On-State Resistance

Si Blocking Voltage

GaN SiC Critical Electric Field

Diamond
● EC in SiC ca. 9 x Larger Than in Si

Img.: http://www.evincetechnology.com/whydiamond.html

■ Higher Blocking Voltage for Given Ron,sp

300 V 3000 V
Img.: Chow, 2015.

10 kV SiC MOSFET 15 kV, 80 A Package

(Wolfspeed) (Wolfspeed)
10 mΩ cm2

53
Remark: HV SiC Parasitics
■ High di/dt + Stray Inductance  Overvoltages
■ High dv/dt + Parasitic Capacitance  Ground Currents
■ Exemplary Analysis for a 25 kW, 7 kV to 400 V System
Stray Inductance vs. Zsw for 10% Overshoot Stray Capacitance vs. Zsw for 20% Ground Current

μH

nF

pF
nH

Zsw,400V Zsw,7kV Zsw,400V Zsw,7kV

■ LV Devices: Minimize Stray Inductance ■ HV Devices: Minimize Stray Capacitance

[Rothmund2018] 54
Example: 10 kV SiC AC-DC Converter
■ 25 kW / 7 kV DC / iTCM Soft-Switching AC-DC Topology
■ 99.1% Efficiency at Rated Load / 3.3 kW/dm3 (54 W/in3) Power Density

Clean 7 kV Switching Waveforms

fs = 35 kHz

■ Converter Systems with 10 kV SiC MOSFETs Can Be Realized (See Also Further Examples Later)

[Rothmund2019a] 55
Interfacing to Medium Voltage (1): Direct Series Connection
■ Limited Blocking Voltages of Available Semiconductors & Max. Utilization Only ca. 50…70%
● 6.5 kV for Si IGBTs
● 10…15 kV for SiC FETs (Prototype Devices Only)

10
9
8
7

Series Devices
6
5
4
3
2
1 Mod. Index.: 0.8
0 Blocking Voltage Util: 0.66
0 5 10 15 20 25
Grid Voltage (kV)

■ Key Challenge: Static & Dynamic (!) Voltage Sharing

56
Direct Series Connection: Example
■ 100 kW, 7.2 kV DC Three-Phase Inverter
■ Direct Series Connection of 3 x 3.3 kV SiC MOSFETs

● Steady-State Balancing with Parallel Resistors

● Dynamic balancing with RC Snubber

■ Advanced Balancing Approaches (e.g., Active Gate Signal Delay Control, …)

[Lin2022]

[Kokkonda2021] 57
Interfacing to MV (2): Multilevel & Multicell Topologies
Neutral Point Flying-Capacitor MMC
Clamped (NPC) Converter (FCC) Marquardt et al. (2002)
Baker (1979, Pat. Filed) Meynard et al. (1992) See also Baker et al. (1974)
Nabae et al. (1981) Cascaded H-Bridge
McMurray (1969)

Non-Modular Modular

● Defined Partitioning of Blocking Voltage & Improved Device FoMs for Lower Voltages
● Modular: High Number N of Cells → Quadratically Reduces Current Harmonics
[Baker1974, Baker1979, Nabae1981; Meynard1992; McMurray1971a; Marquadt2002, Lesnicar2003] 58
1969

■ “Fast Response Stepped-Wave Switching Power Converter Circuit”

[McMurray1971a] 59
Multi-Cell Concept: Interleaving (1)
■ Example N = 1  N = 2: Effective Sw. Frequency x 2 and Voltage Step x 0.5  0.25 x ΔI
■ Or fs/N2 for Same Current Ripple!

N=1
N=2

60
Multi-Cell Concept: Interleaving (2)
■ Example N = 1  N = 2: Cancelling of Harmonics at 2 ∙ kfs (k = 1, 3, 5, 7, …)

N=1 N=2

61
Multi-Cell Concept: Switching Losses
■ Scaling of Switching Losses for Same Ripple Ampl. ΔI N=1 N=2
● Same dv/dt and Same di/dt for All Devices
(Conservative Assumption!)

N = 1:
1
𝑃𝑃sw,𝑁𝑁=1 = 2Esw,𝑁𝑁=1 𝑓𝑓s = 2 ⋅ ⋅ 𝑡𝑡r + 𝑡𝑡f ⋅ 𝑈𝑈0 𝐼𝐼 ⋅ 𝑓𝑓s
2
Same ΔI
N > 1:
1 𝑡𝑡f 𝑈𝑈0 𝑓𝑓s 1 𝑡𝑡f
𝑃𝑃sw,𝑁𝑁 = 𝑁𝑁 ⋅ 2 ⋅ ⋅ 𝑡𝑡r + ⋅ ⋅ 𝐼𝐼 ⋅ 2 = 2 ⋅ 𝑡𝑡r + ⋅ 𝑈𝑈0 𝐼𝐼 ⋅ 𝑓𝑓s
2 𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁
𝑷𝑷𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬,𝑵𝑵=𝟏𝟏 𝑷𝑷𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔,𝑵𝑵=𝟏𝟏
𝑷𝑷𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬,𝑵𝑵 ≈ …
𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐 𝑵𝑵𝟑𝟑

■ Series Interleaving Dramatically Reduces Switching Losses (or Harmonics)

● Converter Cells Can Operate at Very Low Switching Frequency
● Minimization of Passives (Filter Components)

62
Multi-Cell Concept: Conduction Losses
■ On-State Resistance of MOSFETs Roughly Scales with BV2.5 (e.g., Silicon Limit)
1
(1) 𝑅𝑅DS,on,𝑁𝑁=1 ∝ 𝑉𝑉 2.5
𝐴𝐴Si DS

2.5
1 𝑉𝑉DS
(2) 𝑅𝑅DS,on,𝑁𝑁 ∝ 𝑁𝑁
𝐴𝐴Si 𝑁𝑁

𝑅𝑅DS,on,𝑁𝑁=1
⇒ 𝑅𝑅DS,on,𝑁𝑁 =
𝑁𝑁 1.5

2.5
𝑁𝑁 𝑉𝑉DS
(3) 𝑅𝑅DS,on,𝑁𝑁 ∝ 𝑁𝑁
𝐴𝐴Si 𝑁𝑁

𝑅𝑅DS,on,𝑁𝑁=1 (1) (2) (3)

⇒ 𝑅𝑅DS,on,𝑁𝑁 =
𝑁𝑁 0.5

■ Even With Constant Total Chip Area, Conduction Losses Decrease with Increasing N

● Beware: Does Not Hold for IGBTs / Bipolar Devices with Approx. Constant Forward Voltage Drop

[Kasper2016] 63
Remark: Quasi-2-Level Operation
■ Operation of N-Level Topology in 2-Level Mode
■ Intermediate Voltage Levels Only Used During Switching Transients

Flying-Capacitor Bridge-Leg MMC Bridge-Leg Conventional

Q2L

(!)

(!)

[Schweizer2017] [Gowaid2015]

● Defined Partitioning of Blocking Voltages & Small Flying / Cell Capacitors

● Benefit from Cond. & Sw. Loss Scaling But Higher Harmonic Content (No Interleaving)

[Schweizer2017, Gowaid2015] 64
Part II
SST Concepts & Key Design Aspects
− Medium-Frequency Power Conversion
− Power Semiconductors
− Key SST Topologies
− Medium-Frequency Transformers
− Isolation Coordination
− Protection
− Construction

65
Classification of SST Topologies (1)
■ Number of Levels ■ Degree of Power ■ Degree of Phase
Series/Parallel Cells Conversion Partitioning Modularity

! !
ISOP (!)

■ Three-Dimensional Topology Selection Space!

66
Classification of SST Topologies (2)
Degree of Power
Conversion Partitioning

Example: [Wrede2003]
Degree of
Phase Modularity
Number of Levels
Series/Parallel Cells
■ Very (!) Large Number of Possible Topologies

● Partitioning of Power Conversion  Matrix & DC-Link Topologies

● Splitting of 3ph. System into Individual Phases  Phase Modularity
● Splitting of Medium Operating Voltage into Lower Partial Voltages  Multi-Level/Cell Approaches

67
Modular Topologies

68
Isolated Back-End (IBE) AC-DC Conversion
■ Input-Series Output-Parallel (ISOP) Configuration of AC-DC + DC-DC Converter Cells

Note: Single-Phase Power Fluctuation

Could be (Partly) Buffered on the MV
Side with Larger DC Capacitors

■ Direct Mains Current Control with Cascaded AC-DC Front End

■ Most Frequently Used Topology Typ. with DCX Isolation Stages
● (Specific Realizations May Vary, e.g., 3-Phase Configurations, Cell Topology, DC-DC Converter Type, etc.)

[Steiner1996, Steiner1998] 69
Remark: Unidirectional Topologies
■ Opportunity for Complexity Reduction (# MOSFETs, Gate Drives, …)
6.5 kV SiC

|AC| > 0

13.2 kV
3

● Example: Multi-Cell Boost ISOP Topology with DCX Isolation Stages

[vanderMerwe2009] 70
Partitioning of Single-Phase AC-DC PFC Functionality
■ Required Functionality ● F Folding of the AC Voltage Into a |AC| Voltage
● CS Input Current Shaping
● I Galvanic Isolation & Voltage Scaling (No Regulation Capability)
● VR Output Voltage Regulation

■ Isolated PFC Task Partitioning Variants

Isolated Back End (IBE)

Fully Integrated / Matrix

Isolated Front End (IFE)

■ IFE Shifts Input (!) Current Shaping and Output Voltage Regulation to the LV Side

[Huber2016] 71
Isolated Front-End (IFE) AC-DC Conversion
■ Input-Series Output-Parallel (ISOP) Configuration of Isolated AC-|AC| Stages with LV-Side |AC|-DC Stage
■ Minimum MV-Side Complexity with Unregulated AC-|AC| “DCX” Stages

● LV-Side |AC|-DC Operates as in 1-Ph. PFC Rect. | Input Cur. Shaping through Transparent AC-|AC| “DCX”
● Variants: Indirect AC-|AC| Matrix Stages, Parallel-Interleaved |AC|-DC Boost Stages, …
(!)
[Weiss1985, Han2014, Huber2016] 72
Remark: DC-DC Topologies
■ Fully Modular Approach

■ MEGA-Cube @ ETH Zurich

● 1 MW, 2 kV  1200 V DC-Transformer
● 2 x 3 Connection on LV Side

● 166 kW / 20 kHz Si-IGBT DC-DC

Converter Module

[Ortiz2017] 73
Remark: AC-AC Topologies
■ Fully Modular AC-AC Topology w. Indirect Matrix Converter Modules  f1 = f2

● Specific Realizations May Vary (3-Phase Configurations, Non-Resonant DC-DC Stage, …)

[Raju2008, Das2011] 74
Partly Modular Topologies

75
IBE AC-DC with Multi-Winding Transformer
■ Single Transformer w. Full Isolation Voltage Rating / Modular Power Electronics (Redundancy)
■ Coupling Between Primary Windings  Undesired Current Flows & Oscillations

Multi-Wdg.
MFT
■ ALSTOM (2003) Traction Prototype
1.5 MW / 5 kHz
Multi-Winding MFT Switched AC Voltage

6.5 kV IGBTs 3.3 kV IGBTs

● 15 kV / 16.7 Hz Input, 8 Cascaded Modules (7-out-of-8 Redundancy), 1.5 MW (2.25 MW for 30 s)

● Si-IGBT Technology / 5 kHz MFT / 94 % Efficiency & 0.47 kW/dm3 Power Density

[Engel2003] 76
Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC)
■ Single Transformer w. Full Isolation Voltage Rating
■ Modular Power Electronics (Redundancy)

● AC-AC Matrix Converter with Fully

Independent Generation of uAC and uT
uAC = u1T + u1B = u2T + u2B
● High Semicond. Effort (Each Arm Provides Total DC Volt.) u1T u2T uT = u1B – u2B = u2T – u1T
● Active Balancing of Module Cap. Volt. Necessary
(Sensing / Control)
uAC uT

■ Variants:
● 3-Phase AC  1-Phase HF AC, DC-DC
u1B u2B

[Glinka2005] 77
Remark: DC-DC MMC w. Resonant Operation
■ DCX with MMC in Q2L Operation
■ Output Voltage Regulation: MMC Primary Voltage Amplitude Adaption (Coarse) + Var. Freq. (Fine)

Typ. Operating Waveforms Primary Volt. Ampl. Adaption

● Module Capacitor Voltage Balancing w. Sorting Algorithm

● Not All Devices Achieve ZVS because of DC Circulating Current

[Shao2020] 78
Non-Modular / Single-Cell Topologies

79
Single-Cell Topologies Enabled by HV SiC
■ Low Complexity / Standard Converter Topologies w. Relatively Few Switches / Single MFT
■ HV SiC Devices Needed (10+ kV) / Scarce Availability Outside of R&D

22 kV
DC Bus
15 kV SiC

13.8 kV 480 V

800 V
● Difficult Implementation of Reliability DC Bus
● Not Scalable to Higher Voltages

[Mainali2015] 80
SPARC Converter
■ Serial and Parallel Auto Regulated Configuration (SPARC) Converter
● Series/Parallel Connections of Primary/Secondary Transformer Windings
● Input Voltage Distribution & Output Current Sharing as in ISOP

● Input AC Voltage Synthesis from Available Converter Sw. States / # of States Increases with # of Transformers
● Soft-Switching Modulation Possible (Primary CSI with ZCS, VSI with ZVS)

[Kalvelage2002, Dias2021] 81
Single-Stage 3-Phase AC-DC Conversion (1)
■ Single-Stage Power Conversion with Minimum Complexity on the MV Side
■ S1 & S2 Sync. Switching w. 50% Duty  Amplitude-Modulated HF Transf. Volt.

Transf. Voltage
(Phase a)

Secondary-Side
SV Diagram

■ Three-Phase Voltage-Source Inverter Output Stage

● DAB-Like Operating Mode / Inductor Current Shaping Using Space-Vector PWM
● Integrated IFE Approach: LV-Side Stage Shapes the Grid Currents

● AC-AC Version with 3x3 Direct Matrix Converter Output Stage

[Gupta2009, Gupta2010, Baranwal2018] 82

Single-Stage 3-Phase AC-DC Conversion (2) Paper T39.3
Thu, 2:25 PM
■ Y-Rectifier with Standard Half-Bridge Modules
● Common-Mode Offset Voltage ugn for Strictly Positive Input Capacitor Voltages
● Sync. Switching with 50% Duty ([000]  [111]) / Low-Frequency-Blocking Series Capacitors
 Amplitude-Modulated Three-Phase HF Transformer Voltages
LF Block

uan

ugn
uan
ugn

■ Three-Phase Voltage-Source Inverter Output Stage Operated as on Previous Slide (!)

● DAB-Like Operating Mode / Inductor Current Shaping Using Space-Vector PWM
● Integrated IFE Approach: LV-Side Stage Shapes the Grid Currents

■ Extension to Higher Input Voltages w. Multilevel Bridge-Legs or MMC / AC-AC Versions Possible

[ETH Pat. Pending: Menzi2022] 83

Part II
SST Concepts & Key Design Aspects
− Medium-Frequency Power Conversion
− Power Semiconductors
− Key SST Topologies
− Medium-Frequency Transformers
− Isolation Coordination
− Protection
− Construction

84
General Challenge of MF Transformers
■ Higher Operating Frequency / Lower Unit Power Rating  Smaller Active Volume
■ Isolation Requirements/Distances Don’t Scale

𝑆𝑆
𝐴𝐴C 𝐴𝐴W ∝ Note Same
𝑘𝑘W 𝐽𝐽rms 𝐵𝐵max 𝑓𝑓
Isolation Thickness

■ MV Winding Cooling Through Isolation  Isolation vs. Cooling Trade-Off

● Solid Isolators → Bad Thermal Conductors

● Oil → Coolant And Isolator (!)

85
MF Transformer Design – Transformer Types

Coaxial-Cable Winding Shell-Type Core-Type

(“E”-Core) (“U”-Core)

■ Transformer Construction Types Very Limited by Available Core Shapes in this Dimension Range
■ Shell-Type has Been Favored Given Its Construction Flexibility and Reduced Parasitic Components

86
MFT Core Materials
■ Silicon Steel / Amorphous Iron / Nanocrystalline / Ferrite / Air (!)

■ Frequency-Dependent Choice of Core Materials

[Czyz2022] 87
MFT Cooling Methods

■ Natural Convection / Forced Air / Water / Oil

■ High Efficiency Facilitates Air Cooling

■ Liquid Cooling Facilitates Maximum (Gravimetric) Power Density / Needs External Heat Exchanger

[Czyz2022] 88
MFT Isolation Systems
■ Solids / Air / Oil
■ Extreme Lightning-Impulse (LI) Test Voltage Requirements > 100 kV

● Wide Variety of Published Designs / Many not Tested at Required LI Levels

[Cremasco2022] 89
MFT Example #1: Early Traction MFT Prototypes

■ Coaxial Cable Winding ■ Core-Type ■ Shell-Type

[Heinemann2002] [Hoffmann2011] [Steiner2007]

− 350 kVA / 10 kHz / < 50 kg − 450 kW / 5.6 kHz − 500 kW / 8 kHz / 18 kg

− Nanocrystalline Core − Nanocrystalline Core − Nanocrystalline Core
− 38 kV PD / 95 kV LI Surge − Oil Isolation / Core Cooling − 33 kV PD / 100 kV LI Surge
− Water Cooling w. Hollow Inner − Hollow Conductor Water Cooling − Water Cooling w. Hollow Conductors
Conductor of Coax. Cable
− Unity Turns Ratio (!)

90
MFT Example #2: 15 kW / 200 kHz
■ Multi-Cell SST Connecting to 13.2 kV MV Grid / CLLC DC-DC Isolation Stages
■ 15 kW / 200 kHz / > 99.4% Efficiency / PD Test @ 17.2 kV, HiPot Test 60 s @ 34 kV RMS
■ Vacuum-Pressure Impregnation (VPI) with Silicone Gel Material

Ca. 180 mm x 140 mm

● Isolation System w. Semi-Conductive Shielding & E-Field Stress Grading on Bushings

● Bushing Overhead: > 50% of Total Volume (!)

[Li2021] 91
MFT Example #3: 80 kW / 43 kHz

■ Planar Transformer w. Low-Cost Ferrite Core

■ Epoxy FR4 Isolation for 10 kV Distribution Grid / Tested at 42 kV RMS for 72 s

Coupling vs. E-Field Trade-Off

Insulation Thickness

● Compact Design (21.1 kW/dm3, 308 mm x 308 mm x 40 mm) w. Large Cooling Surfaces
● Full-Load Efficiency of 99.25% (Calc.)  850 V DC SiC CLLC DC-DC w. 99.3% @ 24 kW and 98.7% @ 80 kW (Meas.)

[Lu2022] 92
MFT Example #4: 240 kW / 10 kHz
■ Hybrid Solid/Air Isolation System Design for 50 kV DC System Voltage
■ Air Gap Wide Enough to Avoid PD / Discharges in Air Allowed During LI Tests (Solid Insulation Takes Over)
■ Low El. Field in Solid Insulation During Normal Operation & High Surface Area for Cooling

■ Full Dielectric Testing of Prototype

● 70 kV rms / 1 min
● 150 kV LI (10 Pos., 10 Neg. Pulses)
● PD Inception at 35 kV rms (Target: 53 kV rms)
 Improved Field Grading Necessary
Field Grading
Around Core
150 kV LI Test
Air Discharges
(By Design)

● Alt./Opt. Bushing
Arrangement
(Bushings Longer than Necessary)

[gradingerNovelInsulationConcept2017, Gradinger2018a] 93
MFT Example #5: 1 MW / 5 kHz
■ Two-Vessel Concept w. 2 x 2 Identical Oil-Immersed Windings (Biodegradable Synthetic Ester Midel 7131)
■ Hollow Cooper Conductors (Deionized Water Cooling) & Air-Cooled Nanocrystalline Core (400 kg)
■ 2:1 Turns Ratio (Primary: 2 Wdg. in Series, Secondary: 2 Wdg. in Parallel)

685 mm

494 mm
851 mm

● Calculated MFT Performances: 99.18 % Efficiency, 3.47 kW/dm3 and 2.36 kW/kg Power Density
● Target Application: IGCT-based 1 MW 10 kV to 5 kV DC Transformer

[Djekanovic2022] 94
Remark: Mixed-Frequency Electric Field Stress
■ Combined Electrical Field Stress: Large DC or Low-Frequency Comp. + Smaller Medium-Frequency Comp.
■ Common-Mode LF Stress + (Mainly) Differential-Mode DM Stress  DoF for Insulation Syst. Optimization
LF: CM MF: Mainly DM

■ Known From Electric Machine Insul. Systems / Physical Breakdown & Ageing Mechanisms To Be Clarified

[Guillod2014] 95
Remark: Dielectric Losses
■ Frequency-Dependent Dielectric Losses / Full Description w. Freq.-Dep. & Temp.-Dep. Complex Permittivity
■ Case Study w. 25 kW / 48 kHz MFT for 7 kV DC to 400 V DC DCX
Runaway @ Glass Transition Temp.
Epoxy Resin
27% @ 0 kW
17% @ 25 kW
2
𝑃𝑃diel ∝ 𝑓𝑓 ⋅ 𝐸𝐸rms

Silicone Elastomer
16% @ 0 kW
11% @ 25 kW
No Runaway

● Experimental Verification w. Small-Signal Diel. Spectroscopy and Calorimetric Meas. at MV Levels

● Careful Choice of Insulation Material is Essential (Field Strength/Thermal Cond./Dielectric Losses)

[Guillod2020a] 96
MFT Example #6: 166 kW / 77 kHz Air-Core Transformer
■ MFT for 166 kW DCX (7 kV DC Input/Output) / Clarification of Efficiency vs. Weight Trade-Off
■ Full Pareto Optimization / Design Selection ηDC-DC ≥ 99% & Transf. w. Highest Gravimetric Power Density

Air-Core Transformer (ACT) @ 77 kHz Magnetic-Core Transf. (MCT) @ 40 kHz

mACT = 10.1 kg ηACT = 99.5% mMCT = 24.8 kg ηMCT = 99.7%

mDC-DC = 17.2 kg ηDC-DC = 99.0% mDC-DC = 29.7 kg ηDC-DC = 99.2%

● ACT with Aluminum Shielding  Meets ICNIRP 2010 Guidelines for Exposure to Magn. Fields @ 20 cm
● ACT: A-Posteriori Creepage/Clearance Tuning by Barrier Elements / Isol. Test. ±9.6 kV DC, 6.4 kV AC (1 min)

[Czyz2022] 97
Remark: Parasitic Effects in MFTs
■ PWM Excitation with Short Rise Times Non-Uniform Volt. Distr. in Windings (Prop. Delays, Resonances)
■ Similar Phenomena Known from PWM Motor Drives
(!)
Meas. Turn-by-Turn
Peak Voltages
(!)
HF Model of
a 3:3 MFT
PWM Spectra (Diff. Rise Times)

■ Mitigation: Spectrum Corner Frequency < Transformer Series Resonant Frequency

● dv/dt Limitation (cf. Motor Drives!) or Minimizing Transformer Stray Capacitance

[Cremasco2022] 98
Anecdote: Litz Wire Issues
■ Unequal Current Sharing in Imperfectly Twisted Litz Wires

Incorrect Twisting

– 20% Losses
Center Bundles
Removed
(!)

Impact of
Terminations

Example: 20 kHz MFT Common-Mode

Litz w. 10 Sub-Bundles and 9500 x 71µm Chokes

■ Common-Mode Chokes Force Equal Current Sharing

[Leibl2017, Guillod2017] 99
Part II
SST Concepts & Key Design Aspects
− Medium-Frequency Power Conversion
− Power Semiconductors
− Key SST Topologies
− Medium-Frequency Transformers
− Isolation Coordination
− Protection
− Construction

100
Isolation Coordination
■ Decisive Voltage Class (DVC) of MV Side Circuitry: DVC-D (> 1 kV AC or > 1.5 kV DC)
● “Safe Isolation” Towards Circuits with Other DVC / Direct Contact  RI Required
● BI Towards Touchable Grounded Parts Sufficient / BI or FI Between Circuits with same DVC

FI Functional Isol.
BI Basic Isol.
RI Reinforced Isol.

Overvoltage Categories
Direct Grid Conn.  OVC IV
OVC IV  Surge Prot.  OVC III

● Simplified Example Only

Always Consider Applicable Standards in Full Detail!

101
Clearance
■ Example: 13.2 kV MV Grid / Based on IEC 62477-2 (Simplified)

● Step 1: System Voltage 13.2 kV (Phase-to-Phase RMS)

● Step 2: Overvoltage Category OVC-III x 1.6 for RI!

● Step 3: Basic Impulse Level (BIL) / Lightning Imp. (LI): 63.3 kV (BI) 101.2 kV (RI) Tab. 101 (Linear Interp.)
Temporary Overvoltage (peak): 42.7 kV (BI) 68.3 kV (RI) Tab. 101 (Linear Interp.)

● Step 4: Basic Isolation (BI) BIL 63.3 kV 120 mm Tab. 102 (Grid-Connected Circuit / No Interp.)
TO 42.7 kV 106 mm Tab. 102 (Linear Interp.)

Reinforced Isol. (RI) BIL 101.2 kV 220 mm Tab. 102 (Grid-Connected Circuit / No Interp.)
TO 68.3 kV 183 mm Tab. 102 (Linear Interp.)

● Special Considerations Apply for f > 30 kHz (Appendix F) and for Altitudes > 2000 m
● Simplified Example Only – Always Consider Applicable Standards in Full Detail!

102
Creepage
■ Example: 13.2 kV MV Grid / Based on IEC 62477-2 (Simplified)

● Step 1: Working Voltage 13.2 kV (Exemplary; Depends on Specific Volt. Waveforms, etc.)

● Step 2: Pollution Degree PD-2 Typically Only Non-Conductive Pollution

● Step 3: Isol. Material Group Group I CTI ≥ 600 (CTI: Comparative Tracking Index)

● Step 4: Basic Isolation (BI) 66.4 mm Tab. 103 (Linear Interp..)

Reinforced Isol. (RI) 132.8 mm 2 x BI

■ But: Creepage Requirement Cannot Be Smaller Than Clearance!

Basic Isolation (BI) 120 mm

Reinforced Isol. (RI) 220 mm

● Special Considerations Apply for for f > 30 kHz (Appendix F)

● Simplified Example Only – Always Consider Applicable Standards in Full Detail!

103
Testing Requirements
■ Basic Isolation BIL Test + AC or DC Test
■ Reinforced Isolation BIL Test + AC or DC Test + PD Test (for Solid Insulation)

■ BIL Test
● 1.2/50 μs Surges: 3 x Positive + 3 x Negative Polarity w. Pauses > 1 s
● Alternative: AC Test w. Peak Voltage = BIL, min. 3 Periods
● Type Test & Random Tests

■ AC or DC Test
● BI: Temporary Overvoltage
● RI: 1.6 x Temporary Overvoltage (Type Test Only)
● Type Test > 60 s / Routine Test > 1 s

■ PD (Partial Discharge) Test

● Test Voltage UPD = Sum of All Repetitive Peak Volt. Sep. by Isol.
● Specific Voltage Profile / PD Discharges < 10 pC During Test
● Type Test & Random Tests

● Simplified Example Only – Always Consider Applicable Standards in Full Detail!

104
Remark: System-Level Perspective
■ Two-Stage Transformer Approach
First-Stage: Isolation for Nominal Voltage (PD Tests)
Second Stage: Isolation for BIL P = PS/9
No BIL Test
■ More Compact Real. of 1st Stage MFTs, e.g., w/o Bushings

P = PS
BIL Test

● Design DoF / Separate Optimization

● Especially Interesting for Lower Voltage & Power Ratings (Construction Overhead)

[Drofenik2020] 105
Isolation Design Example: MV Inductor
■ 13.8 kV Grid Filter Inductor for 100 kW, 10-kV-SiC-Based Converter
● Specs.: 44 mH / 4.2 A RMS / 23 A Inrush / 40 kHz Eff. Sw. Freq. / PDIV > 10 kV RMS / BIL 95 kV

● Compartmentalized Winding to Reduce Max. Layer-Layer Stress

● Silicone Elastomer Insulation / Field Grading w. Shielding Layer on Winding Package Surface
● DC HiPot Test Pass @ 46 kV for 1 min / PD Test Pass @ 12.1 kV RMS

[Li2022] 106
Part II
SST Concepts & Key Design Aspects
− Medium-Frequency Power Conversion
− Power Semiconductors
− Key SST Topologies
− Medium-Frequency Transformers
− Isolation Coordination
− Protection
− Construction

107
Potential Fault Situations in MV and LV Grids
■ Extreme Overvoltage Stresses on the MV Side for Conv. Distr. Grids

■ Short-Circuit Events on MV and LV Side

● Protection Scheme Needs to Consider Selectivity / Sensitivity / Speed / Safety / Reliability

[Guillod2017a] 108
Possible SST Protection Concept
■ Extreme Overvoltage Stresses on the MV Side for Conv. Distr. Grids

■ Short-Circuit Events on MV and LV Side

● Protection Scheme Needs to Consider Selectivity / Sensitivity / Speed / Safety / Reliability

[Guillod2017a] 109
Example: Surge Protection
■ Lightning Impulse Defines Dielectric Strength Requirements (Isol. Coord.)
■ But Consider Also Surge Energy Propagation Inside of the SST

● Depends on Operating State of SST (Active/Passive) & Grounding Scheme

● Defines Minimum Values for Input Ind., DC-Link Cap., Blocking Capability, …  Strongly Affects SST Design!

[Guillod2017a] 110
Example: Lightning Protection Scheme
■ Two-Stage Lightning Protection Scheme for 7.2 kV / 50 kVA Current-Source SST
■ Five Stacked Cells w. 3.3 kV SiC  Max. Total Blocking Volt. 16.5 kV

M1: 15 kV Gapped MOV

M2: 3 kV Gapped MOV
(Eff. Sparkover @ 12 kV > Peak Grid Volt.)
L1, L2: 150 μH Air-Core Inductors

■ 90 kV LI Test  Stack Input Voltage < 13.1 kV

[Zheng2022] 111
Outlook: Advanced Protection Schemes
■ Mitigation of High Impact on SST Design: Solid-State Breakers / AC Crowbar / …

● Applications in Industrial Grids / Microgrid w. Central OV Prot. & Coord. SC Protection / Fault Cur. Limit.

[Guillod2017a] 112
Part II
SST Concepts & Key Design Aspects
− Medium-Frequency Power Conversion
− Power Semiconductors
− Key SST Topologies
− Medium-Frequency Transformers
− Isolation Coordination
− Protection
− Construction

113
From Conceptualization to Realization
■ Actual Realization of a Modular MV Converter Systems → Complex / Interdisciplinary Task
● Isolation Coordination / Cooling / Control & Communication /
Hot-Swapping / Auxiliary Supply / Mechanical Assembly / …

> 25 Authors (!)

1 kV / 600 A
Half-Bridge Cell
PEBB with
2 Cells

48 Cells Total
Img.: W. van der Merwe

■ 2 x 1ph MMC in Back-To-Back Conf. | 12 Cells/Arm | 11 kV DC max. | Isol. for 4 kV rms Syst. Volt. / 70 kV BIL

[Cottet2015, Cottet2015a] 114

Interfaces & Hot-Swapping
■ All Interfaces Support Hot-Swapping @ 24 kV rms
Hot-Swapping Test Setup

24 kV
Sw. Arc

Communication
(Wireless Optical)

Power

Auxiliary
(IPT)
Cooling
Bypass Switch Cell Interface (Air)

[Cottet2015, Cottet2015a] 115

Advanced Integration Technologies
■ Building a High-Power/Voltage Demonstrator is a Multi-Disciplinary, Highly Complex Task!

Wireless/Contactless Aux. Power Supply Wireless Optical EtherCAT Comm. Two-Phase Cooling

Solid Isolation of PEBBs w. Field Grading

[Cottet2015, Cottet2015a] 116

Coffee Break

117
Part III
Selected Results of Recent
University / Industry SST R&D Activities

118
119
3-Φ 2-Level AC/DC—DC/DC—DC/AC SST (1)
■ AC/AC SST for MV Mobile Utility Support Equipment (MUSE-SST) Placed in Mobile Container
■ MV and LV DC-Links Facilitate Integration of Renewables / Energy Storage

4.16 kV Mains
7.2kV DC-Link
800V DC-Link
480V AC Output
100kW

■ 10kV Gen 3 SiC MOSFETs in Extra High Voltage (XHV) Half-Bridge Module | 50A @ 150°C | 6 Dies / Switch
■ Thermosyphon Air Cooling | Series-Parallel Film Capacitors | Sandwiched Busbar

[Anurag2022, Anurag2022a] 120

3-Φ 2-Level AC/DC—DC/DC—DC/AC SST (2)
■ 3x 1-Φ Xfrm — Lower Basic Isolation Level (BIL) Voltage Comp. to a 3-Φ Xfrm – 26.7kV vs. 40kV
■ Oil-Filled Plastic Container | 20kV Bushings | MV-Side Faradey Shield | Nanocryst. C-Cores | Ext. MV & LV Inductors

■ Experimental Analysis @ 30kW | 3.5kVDC | fsw = 10kHz — Xfrm Primary & Sec. Side Voltages / Currents

[Anurag2022, Anurag2022a] 121

3-Φ 2-Level AC/DC—DC/DC—DC/AC SST (3)
■ Experimental Analysis of MV Active Front-End Converter
■ 30kW | 3.5kVDC | fsw = 10kHz

■ Line-line Sw. Stage Voltages | Boost Ind. Currents | Mains Phase Currents — η ≈ 95.5% @ 35kW
■ Volume | Cost Distribution of MV Power Block | 0.2kW/dm3 | 550$ / kW | 0.6kW/kg

[Anurag2022, Anurag2022a] 122

123
10kV SiC Ultra-Compact High-Power PEBB
■ 1MW Full-Bridge Power Electronics Building Block (PEBB)
■ 10kV/240A XHV-6 Half-Bridge SiC MOSFET Modules | 6kV DC-Link
■ ρ ≈ 15 kW/dm3

■ Multi-Layer PCB MV Power Bus w/ Integr. Aux Power Distribution

■ Voltage-Dependent Comp. Grouping / Isol. Coordination for 30kV CM Voltage w.r.t.e. | 25mm Heatsink Clearance
■ Wireless or DC-Bus-Derived Aux. Supply / Curr. Loop Gate Drive Supply / Sw. Curr. Sensing / Temp. Sensing etc.

[Burgos2020, Dong2020, Mocevic2021, Mocevic2021a, Xu2022, Stewart2022, Lin2022, Fan2022] 124

10kV SiC Ultra-Compact High-Power PEBB
■ 1MW Full-Bridge Power Electronics Building Block (PEBB)
■ 10kV/240A XHV-6 Half-Bridge SiC MOSFET Modules | 6kV DC-Link
■ ρ ≈ 15 kW/dm3

■ Multi-Layer PCB MV Power Bus w/ Integr. Aux Power Distribution

■ Voltage-Dependent Comp. Grouping / Isol. Coordination for 30kV CM Voltage w.r.t.e. | 25mm Heatsink Clearance
■ Wireless or DC-Bus-Derived Aux. Supply / Curr. Loop Gate Drive Supply / Sw. Curr. Sensing / Temp. Sensing etc.

[Burgos2020, Dong2020, Mocevic2021, Mocevic2021a, Xu2022, Stewart2022, Lin2022, Fan2022] 125

10kV SiC Power-Cell w/ Integrated Output Inductor (1)
■ 250kW Half-Bridge Power-Cell (HB-PEEB)
■ 10kV/240A XHV-6 Half-Bridge SiC MOSFET Modules (4200kW/dm3) | 6kV DC-Link
■ η ≈ 99.6% @ fsw= 5kHz | 99.3% @ 10kHz for D=0.5 Power Circulation
■ ρ ≈ 12 kW/dm3

■ Multi-Layer PCB DC-Bus | Gate Driver for 100V/ns Sw. Speed | PCB Rogowski Coil Sw. Curr. Sensing / Protection
■ Local Controller & Voltage/Current Sensors | Wireless Aux. Supply | Curr. Loop GD supply | Temp. Sensing etc.

[Burgos2020, Dong2020, Mocevic2021, Mocevic2021a, Xu2022, Stewart2022, Lin2022, Fan2022] 126

10kV SiC Power-Cell w/ Integrated Output Inductor (2)
■ 250kW Half-Bridge Power-Cell (HB-PEEB)
■ 10kV/240A XHV-6 Half-Bridge SiC MOSFET Modules (4200 kW/dm3) | 6kV DC-Link
■ η ≈ 99.6% @ fsw= 5kHz | 99.3% @ 10kHz for D=0.5 Power Circulation
■ ρ ≈ 12 kW/dm3

— Locally grounded wdg. outer shielding layer

— RC damping network btw shield & DC midpoint
— Double layer dielectric shield termination

■ Converter-Level PCB-Based DC-Bus Assembly | Power-Cell Integrated Output Inductor

[Burgos2020, Dong2020, Mocevic2021, Mocevic2021a, Xu2022, Stewart2022, Lin2022, Fan2022] 127

10kV SiC Power-Cell w/ Integrated Output Inductor (3)
■ Experimental Analysis in 2-Cell/Arm Converter | 12kV DC-Link
■ η ≈ 99.2% @ fsw= 10kHz @ D=0.5 Power Circulation

■ 10kV SiC MOSFET-Based Power-Cell | 2-Cell/Arm MMC Bridge-Legs / Q2L-Modulation / Power Circulation

[Burgos2020, Dong2020, Mocevic2021, Mocevic2021a, Xu2022, Stewart2022, Lin2022, Fan2022] 128

10kV SiC Power-Cell w/ Integrated Output Inductor (4)
■ Experimental Analysis in 2-Cell/Arm Converter | 12kV DC-Link
■ η ≈ 99.2% @ fsw= 10kHz @ D=0.5 Power Circulation

■ 10kV SiC MOSFET-Based Power-Cell | 2-Cell/Arm MMC Bridge-Legs / Q2L-Modulation / Power Circulation

[Burgos2020, Dong2020, Mocevic2021, Mocevic2021a, Xu2022, Stewart2022, Lin2022, Fan2022] 129

Advanced MMC Modulation Schemes
■ Minimization of the Cell Capacitance & Arm Inductance
■ Voltage Balancing of Cell Capacitors over Each Switching Cycle (SCC) — Enables DC/DC Operation (!)
■ Quasi-2-Level (Q2L) Output Voltage Generation w/o Arm Inductor

■ SCC Cell Volt. Balancing & Shaping of Arm Currents | Q2L — Integr. Cap. Blocked Transistor (ICBT) Concept

[Burgos2020, Dong2020, Mocevic2021, Mocevic2021a, Xu2022, Stewart2022, Lin2022, Fan2022] 130

131
Medium-Frequency AC-Bus Multi-Port SST (1)
■ Highly Modular / Scalable Modular Multi-Active Bridge (MMAB) Topology as Core Element
■ MF Isolation / Synchronism of all Ports — Analogy to the 50/60Hz Grid

■ MF AC-Bus Instead of DC-Bus Coupling of Converter Modules — Lower # of Converter Stages

■ Direct Power Cross Coupling of all DC-Ports due to Missing Intermediate Energy Buffer Caps (!)

[Wen2021; see also Zumel2014] 132

Medium-Frequency AC-Bus Multi-Port SST (2)
■ Individual Xfrms Instead of Single-Core Multi-Wgd Xfrm | Low Complexity Basic Converter Cells
■ Large Number of Functional Combinations — ISOP / IPOP etc.

■ 4-Port 1-Φ MVAC / MVDC / 1-Φ LVAC / LVDC SST Example

■ Rectangular MF Voltages | DAB-Type Phase-Shift-Based Power Flow Control | Cross-Coupling Challenge (!)

[Wen2021] 133
Medium-Frequency AC-Bus Multi-Port SST (3)
■ 2MVA 4-Port 3-Φ MVAC / MVDC / 3-Φ LVAC / LVDC Industrial Prototype
■ 3 MMAB Units Corresponding to Phases of the 3-Φ AC-Ports / 2 MF AC-Buses per MMAB

10kV MVAC-Port
10kV MVDC-Port
750V LVDC-Port
380V LVAC-Port

■ 1200V/120A SiC MOSFETs | fsw= 20kHz | 1:1 Xfrms / Ferrite UF130 | 850VDC Cell DC-Link / Output Voltage

[Wen2021] 134
Medium-Frequency AC-Bus Multi-Port SST (4)
■ 2MVA 4-Port 3-Φ MVAC / MVDC / 3-Φ LVAC / LVDC Industrial Prototype
■ Hierarchical — Cell/Port/System — Control Framework with Global Synchronous Clock

■ Power Cross Coupling Suppression of MMAB Ports by Feedforward Control

■ Power Decoupling Control of MVAC CHB Converter Enables Unbalanced Grid Operation
■ Cell-Power Balance Control of the MVDC CHB Cells Ensures Equal DC-Link Voltages

[Wen2021] 135
Medium-Frequency AC-Bus Multi-Port SST (5)
■ Experimental Analysis of 10kV / 2MVA 4-Port MVAC / MVDC / LVAC / LVDC Industrial Prototype
■ Power Circulation Back-to-Back Connection of the Converter Modules

■ Series-to-Parallel Rearrangement of MVDC-Port Cells & Parallel Connection to LVDC-Port

■ Dynamic Behavior for Load Step of DC-Loop Power Circulation | Power Conversion Efficiency

[Wen2021] 136
Institut National Polytechnique
de Toulouse

137
DC/DC SST for Future MVDC Railway Electrification (1)
■ Increase in Regional & Freight Traffic Results in Higher Traction Power Demands
■ Extension of Current 1.5kV | 3kV SNCF DC System (1000mm2) with Parallel 9kV DC-Bus

■ DC/DC SSTs Instead of New AC/DC Substations — Lower Realization Effort | Higher Eff.
■ Potential 9kV DC-Interface to Renewable Energy / Energy Storage / HVDC Lines etc.

[Fabre2019, Fabre2021, Fortes2021, Stackler2021] 138

DC/DC SST for Future MVDC Railway Electrification (2)
■ Increase in Regional & Freight Traffic Results in Higher Traction Power Demands
■ Extension of Current 1.5kV | 3kV SNCF DC System (1000mm2) with Parallel 9kV DC-Bus

■ Future Elimination of 1.5kV Overhead Lines — Onboard 9kV/1.5kV DC/DC Conversion

[Fabre2019, Fabre2021, Fortes2021, Stackler2021] 139

DC/DC SST for Future MVDC Railway Electrification (3)
■ CHB Arrangement vs. MMLC — Lower Stored Energy / Lower Losses / Lower Control Complexity
■ Required 20kV Isolation Level can be Accommodated in Rel. Low Volume CHB Xfrms

■ Series Res. Soft-Switching DCX-type CHB Conv. Stages | Lower React. Power Compared to DAB Operation

[Fabre2019, Fabre2021, Fortes2021, Stackler2021] 140

DC/DC SST for Future MVDC Railway Electrification (4)
■ Demonstrator System — 300kW | fsw= 15kHz | 1.5kV/1.5kV DC/DC Conversion
■ 3.3kV / 750A SiC MOSFETs | 400kVA 1:1 Water-Cooled Nanocryst. Core Oil-Tank MFT

■ Direct Connection of Converter Input and Output / Load Power Circulation

■ Load Dependence of DCX Vout for Synchr. Rect. / SiC Diodes (750A) / Si Diodes (500A) – Paras. Cap. Vout Increase

[Fabre2019, Fabre2021, Fortes2021, Stackler2021] 141

DC/DC SST for Future MVDC Railway Electrification (5)
■ Demonstrator System — 300kW | fsw= 15kHz | 1.5kV/1.5kV DC/DC Conversion
■ 3.3kV / 750A SiC MOSFETs | 400kVA 1:1 Water-Cooled Nanocryst. Core Oil-Tank MFT

■ Characteristic Waveforms for SiC Rect. Diodes

■ Load Dependency of Converter Efficiency

[Fabre2019, Fabre2021, Fortes2021, Stackler2021] 142

DC/DC SST for Future MVDC Railway Electrification (6)
■ 2-Stage ISOP Demonstrator System — 600kW | 3.6kV/1.8kV DC/DC Conversion | ρ ≈ 0.6 kW/dm3

■ Natural Voltage and Current Sharing Exp. Confirmed

■ Interleaving of 2 Converter Stages Results in 4x 15kHz = 60kHz Output Voltage Ripple

[Fabre2019, Fabre2021, Fortes2021, Stackler2021] 143

144
S4T – Soft-Switching Multi-Port SST (1)
■ Modular Single-Stage Isol. Current Source Topology — M-S4T
■ Cycle-by-Cycle Flyback-Type Power Transfer
■ Full-Range ZVS Aux. Commutation Circuit

■ DC/1-Φ AC System/Integr. Power Pulsation Buffer 3-Port System

■ Sw. Cycle Waveforms & Operating States for LV/MV Power Transfer

[Chen2018, Mauger2020ff., Zheng2020ff.] 145

S4T – Soft-Switching Multi-Port SST (2)
■ Modular Single-Stage Isol. Current Source Topology — M-S4T
■ Cycle-by-Cycle Flyback-Type Power Transfer
■ Full-Range ZVS Aux. Commutation Circuit

■ 1-Φ 7.2kV 50 kVA 5-Module ISOP Demonstrator | 90kV BIL | DC/AC Operation | Uin= 350VDC
■ 3.3kV SiC MOSFET Module & Series SiC Diode | 650V Si IGBT & Series SiC Diode | fsw= 16kHz
■ Low Leakage Inductance 6:1 Xfrm Tested to 55kV Basic Insul. Level (BIL) | Nanocryst. Core w/ Airgap

[Chen2018, Mauger2020ff., Zheng2020ff.] 146

S4T – Soft-Switching Multi-Port SST (3)
■ Modular Single-Stage Isol. Current Source Topology — M-S4T
■ Cycle-by-Cycle Flyback-Type Power Transfer
■ Full-Range ZVS Aux. Commutation Circuit

■ Exp. Waveforms for 5-Module System | 20kVA @ 7.5kVpk | Line Cycle & Sw. Cycles | Low dv/dt of vxLV

[Chen2018, Mauger2020ff., Zheng2020ff.] 147

S4T – Soft-Switching Multi-Port SST (4)
■ Modular Single-Stage Isol. Current Source Topology — M-S4T
■ Cycle-by-Cycle Flyback-Type Power Transfer
■ Full-Range ZVS Aux. Commutation Circuit

■ Efficiency of a 10kVA 1.4kV/350V SST Module | Estimated Loss Breakdown

[Chen2018, Mauger2020ff., Zheng2020ff.] 148

149
3-Φ Phase-Modular IFE-Type ISOP SST Topology (1)
■ Cascaded Single-Stage Dual-Active-Bridge-(DAB)-Based AC/DC Converter Sub-Modules
■ Half-Bridge Primary Minimizes Number of MV-Side Power Semiconductors
■ Application as Bidirectional 3-Φ Mains Interface of LV DC Nanogrids

■ DAB AC/DC Operation  Single-Stage Power Conversion / High Component Current Stresses

[Saha2018ff.] 150
3-Φ Phase-Modular IFE-Type ISOP SST Topology (2)
■ Comparison of Two-Stage – Swiss SST – and Single-Stage DAB-Based AC/DC Power Conversion
■ Funct. Separation OR Integration of MF AC Generation | Volt. Scaling | Rectification | Sin. Current Shaping

■ Swiss SST Input Stage — Autonomous DCX-Type |AC| Voltage / Current Conversion @ Const. Duty Cycle
■ Trade-Off Concerning Power Circuit & Control Complexity | Component Stresses

[Saha2018ff.] 151
3-Φ Phase-Modular IFE-Type ISOP SST Topology (3)
■ Simulation of Sub-Module Operation — Vac = 545Vrms , Vc= 800VDC , P = 17.6kW, fsw= 20kHz
■ Modulation Ensuring Unity Power Factor Operation & ZCS

■ Mains Frequency Envelope of Square Wave Transformer Primary Voltage

■ 3-cell 15kVA 1.5kVrms / 450VDC Hardware Demonstrator | η ≈ 96% | ρ ≈ 3kW/dm3

[Saha2018ff.] 152
153
5kV DC/DC Dual-Active-Bridge-Based SST (1)
■ 3x 1-Φ MFT-Based & 3-Φ MFT-Based Realization
■ Series Connection of 2x 4.5kV IGCTs / Switch | ZVS Snubber Capacitors
■ P = 7MW @ fsw = 1kHz

■ C-Snubber — Significant Reduction of Sw. Losses | Lower dv/dt Insul. Stress | Voltage Balancing
■ Evaluation of Fast-Sw. IGCTs vs. Low Saturation — Up to 80% Red. Sw. Losses @ 1kHz / Highest Overall Eff.

[DeDoncker2012ff., Soltau2014f.] 154

5kV DC/DC Dual-Active-Bridge-Based SST (2)
■ 3x 1-Φ MFT-Based & 3-Φ MFT-Based Realization
■ Series Connection of 2x 4.5kV IGCTs / Switch | ZVS Snubber Capacitors
■ P = 7MW @ fsw = 1kHz

3.6 kW/kg, 10 kW/dm3

■ 1-Φ 2.2MVA / 1kHz Xfrm | Silicon Steel Magnetic Core

■ Efficiency up to 99.2% — Calcul. Based on Measured Semicond. Losses & Xfrm. Losses

[DeDoncker2012ff., Soltau2014f.] 155

5kV DC/DC Dual-Active-Bridge-Based SST (3)
■ 3x 1-Φ MFT-Based & 3-Φ MFT-Based Realization
■ Series Connection of 2x 4.5kV IGCTs / Switch | ZVS Snubber Capacitors
■ P = 7MW @ fsw = 1kHz
5 MVA, 7.4 kW/kg

■ 3-Φ 5.0 MVA / 1kHz Xfrm — 675kg (0.14kg/kVA) | 3-Φ 4.6 MVA / 50Hz Xfrm — 11.500kg (2.5kg/kVA)
■ Low Hyst. Loss High $ Amorphous Iron vs. 0.18mm High Sat. Flux Si Steel — Similar Rated Load Efficiencies
■ Instantaneous Flux and Current Control (IFCC) During Transients – Fast Dynamics / No Overshoot

[DeDoncker2012ff., Soltau2014f.] 156

Selected High-Power
EV Charging Research Projects /
Industry Demonstrators

157
1+ MW Multi-Port Charging of Heavy-Duty EVs (1)
■ 3.75MW — 3000A @ 1250V — MW Charging System (MCS) / Charging Interface Initiative (CharIN)
■ Aiming for Charging Times of 15…20min for 200…600kWh Battery Packs of Trucks

A-phase B-phase C-phase

400A
DC

4x 350kW
head-end isolated
DC/DC converters

Utility interface box 3-Φ AC/DC SST | 400kW/phase DC load center

■ Multi-Partner Project “DC as a Service” (DCaaS) for High-Power EV Charging

■ 13.2kVAC MV Supply | 7.6kVAC / 1.2V DC-Link / 950VDC (±475VDC) Output | 3x 11-Cell SiC-Based SST @ 10kHz
■ Potential Extension to DC Microgrid | Integration of (On-Site) PV | Peak Shaving Battery Storage

[Collins2020] 158
1+ MW Multi-Port Charging of Heavy-Duty EVs (2)
■ 3.75MW — 3000A @ 1250V — MW Charging System (MCS) / Charging Interface Initiative (CharIN)
■ Aiming for Charging Times of 15…20min for 200…600kWh Battery Packs of Trucks

3-Φ AC/DC SST

1.2MW/phase
Cascaded AC/DC HBs
Isol. DAB DC/DC converters
400kW…1.2MW DC isol. charging ports
400kW isol. PV interface
3kV DC 400kW isol. battery interface

■ Multi-Partner Project on Key Components of a Multi-Port 1+ MW MV-Connected EV Charging System

■ 13.2kVAC MV Supply | 7.6kVAC / 3kV DC-Link / 2kVDC Output | 3x 4-Cell SiC-Based SST @ 10kHz

[Meintz2021, Bohn2020ff.] 159

480VAC Supplied Multi-Port Charging Site
■ 350kW max. per Port | 6x 350kW = 2.1MW
■ Local Battery Storage Coupled @ 480VAC Panel for Peak Shaving / Demand Management

Single & dual output dispensers | 480VAC/DC conv. cabinets | 480VAC switchgear & 4 battery Powerpacks

■ Somedays All This will Charge 1 Truck (!) (T. Bohn, ANL)

[Bohn2020ff.] 160
3-Φ 15kV / 3.2MVA SST-Based EV Charger (1)
■ “Synchronous Common Coupling” of Converter Cells via MF AC-Bus
■ Full Modularity / Low Converter Cell Complexity / 25% Redundancy
■ High Scalability / Flexibility — AC or DC Output
■ 1.5m x 1.6m x 2.4m Outer Dimensions  0.5kW/dm3
■ Efficiency Not Specified

■ Insulation Type Not Specified (in Case of Oil  Maintenance / Pot. Environmental Issues & Fire Hazard)

[Keister2018ff.] 161
Remark: Alternative Multi-Port Coupling Schemes
■ DC-bus OR AC-bus (Magnetic/Electric) Coupling of Cascaded Cells
■ Example of 3-Φ MF Isolated AC/AC Conversion

— DC-Bus Coupling — Common Magn. Core AC-Coupl. — AC-Bus Coupl. of Indiv. Xfrms

■ AC-Bus Coupling Adopt „Synchronous Common Coupling“ of the 50/60Hz Grid

■ Low Complexity Converter Cells | Challenge of Power Flow Control / Stability

[Keister2018] 162
3-Φ 15kV / 3.2MVA SST-Based EV Charger (2)
■ Zero Inrush Current
■ Simple Fuse & Disconn. Switch as MV-Grid Interface
■ 125 kV Impulse Basic Insulation Level w/o Arresters

■ Insulation Type Not Specified | In Case of Oil  Maintenance / Pot. Environmental Issues & Fire Hazard

[Keister2018ff.] 163
Medium-Frequency AC Power Distribution
■ 400 Hz / 360 … 800Hz Aviation Systems — Low Vol. of Xfrms & Filter Circuits Comp. to 50/60Hz
■ MV-AC/DC Conv. Utilizing PWM OR Multi-Pulse Line-Interphase-Xfrm-Based PFC Rectifiers
■ DC/MF-AC Conv. Integrating a MV/LV MF-Xfrm

■ LV/LV MF-Xfrms for Galv. Separation of the Charging Ports | Diode or PFC Rectifiers & Non-Isol. DC/DC Converters

[Drofenik2020a] 164
Matrix-Type 3-Φ MFT-Link Multi-Port SST Topology

■ Bidirectional LF-AC/|AC|/MF-AC Grid Interfaces

■ Input Stage Operates as AC/|AC| Unfolder
■ H-Bridge Generates MF-AC Rect. Prim. Voltage
■ 50/60Hz Mains Def. MF-AC-Voltage Envelope
■ Multi-Wdg Arrangement per Xfrm Leg
■ Common Magn. Flux Interconnects All Wdgs
■ Prim./Sec. Turns-Ratio Voltage Scaling
■ Sec.-Side 3x 1-Φ or 3-Φ Power Conversion
■ MF-AC Voltage Folding & LF-|AC|/DC Conv.
■ 3-Φ MF-AC/DC PFC Rectifier Systems
■ 3x 1-Φ (Star/Delta) MF-AC/DC/AC Conv.

■ Proposed as MV Interface of Future Datacenters

[Hafez2014] 165
Part IV
Comparative Evaluation of SSTs for
Datacenters and EV Charging

166
Global Datacenter Electricity Demand
■ Datacenters Consume > 200 TWh/a | About 1 % of Global Electricity Demand
■ Energy Costs Dominate Overall Life-Cycle Costs
Global Datacenter Energy Use (TWh/a)

SDS: Sustainable
Develop. Scenario Internet Traffic
200 TWh/a

Datacenter
Workload

Datacenter
Energy Use

Source (Img., Data): https://www.iea.org/

■ Decoupling of Computing Workload from Energy Use

■ Efficiency Improvement on All Levels: Computing Equipment | HVAC | … | Power Supply System!

167
AC vs. DC Distribution

Source: GOOD/Column Five Media (https://good.is)

168
AC Power Distribution
■ State of the Art: 400 V AC Rack

ηΣ ≈ 97.1 %

■ Increased Distribution Voltage: 690 V AC

Rack

ηΣ ≈ 97.8 %
(w. 99% 3L PFC Rec.)
● ηΣ: Efficiency from MVAC to Input of Rack-Level 400 V / 48 V DC-DC Conversion
● ηd: Distribution Efficiency for 1 MW Over 100 m with Delta EcoTech BL 2000 A Busbar
● ηLFT: Requirement by, e.g., EU Ecodesign Directive 2009/125/EC

169
Distribution Losses
■ 400 V AC → 690 V AC: Significant Loss Reduction or Lower Copper Usage

± 400 V DC

(Delta EcoTech BL Busbars @ 60 °C)

■ Same Busbar in AC or DC Configuration: 400 V AC → 800 V DC (± 400 V DC)

● –75% Distribution Losses (or –75% Copper Mass)
● DC Distribution Challenges: Protection, DC Breakers, DC PSUs, …

170
DC Power Distribution (1) – DC Sources
■ 690 V AC Rack

Additional DC-AC
ηΣ ≈ 96.7 %
Conversion Stage

■ ±400 V DC Rack

ηΣ ≈ 98.7 %
!

■ DC Distribution Leverages DC Output of Fuel Cells / Batteries / PV

● Note: Utility-Scale Renewable Energy System Requires Higher-Voltage DC Collector Grid

171
DC Power Distribution (2) – Grid Supply
■ 400 V AC Rack

ηΣ ≈ 97.1 %
■ 690 V AC

ηΣ ≈ 97.8 %
■ ±400 V DC
MVAC LVDC

ηΣ ≈ 97.9 % ● Similar ηΣ as For

690 V AC Distr.
■ Simply Centralizing the PFC Rectifier Functionality  Only Minor Efficiency Gain!

172
Medium-Voltage AC-DC Interfaces

173
MV Power Station for Photovoltaics
■ State-of-the-Art 3 MVA Turnkey Solution
■ 20 ft Container: PV Inverter, LFT, MV Switchgear, etc.
■ 3 MVA | 6.1 m x 2.6 m x 2.4 m | ≈ 0.08 kW/dm3

1500 V 6.6…35 kV 2.6 m

LVDC MVAC

6.1 m
2.4 m
1200 V Si IGBT Technology | Oil-Filled LFT

■ Inverter Efficiency: 98.5 % CEC

■ Transformer Efficiency: 99 % (EcoDesign, oil-filled)
■ Overall Efficiency ≈ 97.5 %  Improvements Expected for SiC and Dry-Type LFT  98+ %

174
MVAC-LVDC with LFT and Central SiC PFC Rectifier

■ Centralized PFC Rectifier with 1200 V SiC Technology & High-Efficiency Dry-Type/Ecodesign LFT

Example: ABB EcoDryTM High-Efficiency Transformers

(ABB, 2011 – Today, 99.2% Required by, e.g., EU EcoDesign Directive)
MVAC-LVDC: η ≈ 98.2 %, ρ ≈ 0.25 kW/dm3
ηLFT ≈ 99.2 %

ηPFC ≈ 99 %
η ≈ 98.2 %
ηLFT ≈ 99.2 % ηPFC ≈ 99 %

● Full Functionality (Reactive Power, Bidir. Power Flow, …) 400 kVA

● High Robustness & Low Complexity

● Scalability to Higher MVAC Levels
● Proven LV Converter Design Paradigms | Parallel-Interleaving (Modularization, Redundancy)
● Compatible with Existing MV-side Infrastructure
● No DC fault Current Limiting

175
MVAC-LVDC Hybrid Transformers

176
12-Pulse / Multi-Pulse Rectifiers
■ No Explicit PFC Stage (!)  Passive Realization of PFC Functionality with Phase-Shifting Transformer
● High Robustness × 1e4
● Low Complexity 1
● High Efficiency (≈ 0.25% Diode Losses)

(V)
Volt. (V)
● No DC-Side Inductors Required (!)

Voltage
● 18-Pulse or 24-Pulse for Higher Power Levels 0

MV GridGrid
-1

50

(A)
Cur. (A)
Current
0

MV GridGrid
-50

1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04

Time (s)
● Unidirectional
● No Active Output Voltage Control (Tap Changer: Wear & Tear, Limited Dynamics / Thyristors: High VAr Consumption)
● Remaining Current Distortions / Reactive Power Consumption

177
Example: MW-Level Charging of Commercial Vehicles
■ Future Charging Power Up to 2.5 MW / Supply from MV  LFT for Galvanic Separation
■ Modular: 2.5 MW = 42 x 60 kW PSU Mod. Parallel (AC-DC + DC-DC Non-Isol.) / 97% Effi. / Liquid Cooling
■ Monolithic: 2.5 MW 12-Pulse Thyristor Rectifier / 2 x 1250 kW / 99.7% Efficiency / Air Cooling

Both Options with MV/LV LFT (Not Shown)

ρPE = 1.6 kW/dm3 ρPE = 4.0 kW/dm3

● Longevity of Disk-Type Thyristors / Decades in the Field  Electrolyzers w. Similar DC Volt./Cur. Control Req.

[Schulz2022] 178
MVAC-LVDC Hybrid Transformer
■ Hybridization: Partial Switch-Mode Power Processing
■ Active Filter (AF) Modules with ≈ 25 % Power Rating
 Sinusoidal Grid Currents & Reactive Power Compensation
MVAC-LVDC: η ≈ 98.5 %, ρ ≈ 0.2 kW/dm3

● Remaining 12-Pulse Operation in Case of AF Failure | Central, Shared FACTs as Complement/Alternative

● Connection of AF to Output DC Bus  Reverse Power Flow Capability
● No Active Output Voltage Control (Tap Changer: Wear & Tear, Limited Dynamics / Thyristors: High VAr Consumption)

179
Example: 3 kV DC Traction Substation
■ Substation 66 kV AC  3 kV DC Traction Grid w. Diode Rect. 5+ MW

■ 1.5 MW Series-Stacked Converter Enables 2.42 kV

Active Power Filtering & Regeneration Capability
66 kV 3 kV
W/o Act. Filt. DC

1.5 MW / 7 Stacked 3-Ph. Inv.

5.4 kV DC (7 x 800 V DC)
35 kHz Eff. Sw. Freq. (7 x 5 kHz)

With Act. Filt.

● Full-Scale Tests w. 5 MW Load (Accelerating Trains) and 1.5 MW Regeneration (Braking Trains)

[Henning2008] 180
MVAC-LVDC Solid-State Transformers

181
13.2 kV / 400 kW SST-Based EV Charger (1)
■ Fully Modular Input-Series-Output-Parallel (ISOP) Topology
15 kW Cell
● 3 x 9 = 27 AC-DC/DC-DC Cells | 438 Switches
● 15 kW per Cell | All-SiC Realization | Forced-Air Cooling

Isolation case
100+ kHz MFT
MFT: ρ ≈ 8.4 kW/dm3
(w/o 30 kV Bushing!)

Grounded housing

Cell: ρ ≈ 0.5 kW/dm3

[Zhu2018ff.] 182
13.2 kV / 400 kW SST-Based EV Charger (2)
Input Phase Stacks Control
■ One of the Most Advanced Industrial MVAC-LVDC SST Prototype
● 3 x 9 = 27 AC-DC/DC-DC Cells | 438 Switches
● 15 kW per Cell | All-SiC Realization | Forced-Air Cooling

15 kW Cell

η = 98 %

400 kW
● 3000 kg Weight | 3.1 m x 1.3 m x 2.1 m Outer Dimensions
● Power Density: ρ ≈ 0.05 kW/dm3 | 0.5 kW/dm3 (Cells) | 8.4 kW/dm3 (MFT)

[Zhu2018ff.] 183
Intuition: Modularization Penalty
■ Highly (!) Simplified Consideration
● Power P Processed in Sphere with Radius R0
● Modularizing Assuming Constant Power Density P/V0
● Const. Isolation / Overhead Distance diso

3
4 𝑅𝑅0
𝑉𝑉 𝑁𝑁 = 𝜋𝜋 + 𝑑𝑑iso ⋅ 𝑁𝑁
3 𝑁𝑁 1/3
Active Vol. Active Vol.

2D Visualization with diso = 0.2 R0

■ High Module Count  Massive Reduction of Overall Power Density Expected

■ Additional Overhead: Input & Output Filters | Protection Equipment | Mech. Assembly | Cabinets etc.

184
MMC-Based SST Concepts
■ Limit Modularity to PE | Single MF Transformer
● Example for 13.2 kV Grid
● 22 Full-Bridge Cells per MMC Arm | 6 Arms
● 528 Switches (1200 V, MV-Side Only)

■ Benefits of Modularity  Redundancy | Availability | Economies of Scale | Transportability

[Glinka2005] 185
Remark: Datacenter Rack-Level MVAC-LVDC SSTs
■ MVAC Distribution to the Rack & Small Rack-Level SSTs

■ Fuji Electric, 2017 ■ ETH Zürich, 2019

● 2.4 kV rms (l-n) | 25 kW | 48 V DC ● 3.8 kV (l-n) | 25 kW | 400 V DC
● LV Si Multicell ISOP | 0.4 kW/dm3 ● 10 kV SiC Single Cell | 3.5 kW/dm3

η48V = 96 % η400V = 98.1 %

25 kW / 7 kV
[Kashihara2017] [Rothmund2019]
PFC stage

■ Large Overhead!
● MV Protection Equipment & MV Switchgear (Disconnectors, Grounding Switches, …)
● Central LFT Needed Unless Incoming MV Level is Distributed (Typ. >> 2.4 kV)

186
Comparative Evaluation of
MVAC-LVDC Interfaces

187
Efficiency
■ LFT + SiC PFC: η ≈ 98.2 %
● Central PFC on LV-side

ηΣ ≈ 97.9 %
■ 12-Pulse + AF: η ≈ 98.5 %
● No Switch-Mode PFC
● Active Filter / Partial-Power Proc.

ηΣ ≈ 98.2 %
■ Industrial SST: η ≈ 98 %
● Central PFC on MV-side

ηΣ ≈ 97.7 %

■ 12-Pulse + AF  Highest Efficiency & Robustness vs. Reduced Functionality

188
Remark: DC Voltage Control
■ Grid Voltage Varies ±10% (EN 50160) | Stable 48 V DC for IT Equipment Needed

■ One Converter Stage Must Provide Regulation Capability!

189
Efficiency & Power Density
■ Industrial MVAC-LVDC SSTs  No Volume / Efficiency / Functionality Advantage Over LFT + LV SiC PFC
■ LFT-Based Solutions  Robustness & Scalability
■ 12-Pulse Rectifier + Act. Filter  Low Complexity | Reduced Functionality

10 kV SiC
1m (Not Industrialized)

400 kVA LFT

Shown for Comparison

190
Case Study Summary 400 V AC
ηΣ ≈ 97.1 %

■ 690 V AC Competitive with ±400 V DC

● Add. Considerations on Integration of Renewables, 690 V AC
Fuel-Cell Backup Power, Grid Services, etc. ηΣ ≈ 97.8 %

■ LFT + LV SiC PFC

● Full Functionality, Scalability, High Robustness ±400 V DC
ηΣ ≈ 97.9 %

■ 12-Pulse Rectifier & Act. Filter

● Low Complexity, High Efficiency, Scalability
● High Robustness, Long Lifetime, Good Recyclability ±400 V DC
● Reduced Functionality (Unidir., No Act. DC Volt. Ctrl.) ηΣ ≈ 98.2 %

■ Existing SST w/o Clear Advantages

● High Complexity Even for MMC-Based Designs ±400 V DC
● Modularity / Economies of Scale / Protection / … ηΣ ≈ 97.7 %
 Need for Future Research!

Further Reading: [Huber2022] 191

Part V
Summary & Research Vectors

192
LV Low-Power SMPS Efficiency / Power Density 1981 – 2021
■ 1981 — Large Volume Line-Frequ. Isolation/Voltage Step-Down | Diode Rectifier | Low Eff. Linear Stabilization
■ 2021 — PFC Rectifier Front-End | High-Frequency Isol. DC/DC Converter

Power Density Mainly Determined by

Size of Passives and Heatsinks

Source:

Source:

■ Power Density AND Eff. Improvement | Line-Frequ.  High-Frequ. Conv. & Linear  Sw.-Mode Regulation

193
HVDC Converter Station (1)
■ 2 x 1 GW / ± 320 kV HVDC Transmission Link btw. France & Spain

Source:

■ Isolation Clearances (!) Largely Determine Space Requirement | Low LFT Volume Contribution (!)

194
HVDC Converter Station (2)
■ 2 x 1 GW / ± 320 kV HVDC Transmission Link btw. France & Spain

Source:

■ Isolation Clearances (!) Largely Determine Space Requirement | Low LFT Volume Contribution (!)

195
Status Quo: Traction & Grid AC-DC SSTs
■ Traction: Clear Improvements in Efficiency / Power Density > 10 Years Ago
■ Grid: Recently 1st Full Industrial Demonstrator w/o Performance Advantage
3-Phase Grid AC-DC SSTs

Traction AC-DC SSTs

(!)

■ Full-Scale Demonstrators Engineered to Standards Needed for Realistic Assessment!

196
Grid AC-DC SSTs: Challenges (1)
■ Massive Reduction of Power Density from Cell to Full System  Modularity Penalty

Power Density Steps

LFT
Intuition: Spheres of Equal Power Density
w. Const. Overhead Layer

■ Future High-Voltage SiC Devices (10+ kV)  Fewer Cells for Given System Voltage

197
Grid AC-DC SSTs: Challenges (2)
■ PFC Functionality on MV Side  Modularity Penalty + Overhead
■ Target Efficiency of 98%  2% Loss Budget for 4 Conversion Stages vs. 2 Conversion Stages
LV Isolation

Cabinet Weight vs. Volume

99.0% 99.0%
99.5% 99.5% 99.5% 99.5%

MV Isolation

N = 10

● MV PE Overhead: Protection, Connectors, Access for Maintenance, …

● Volume (Modularity Penalty + MV PE Overhead)  Larger Cabinets / Heavier Weight

198
Next-Gen. SSTs: Selection of MFT Operating Frequency
■ 5…50 kHz Operating Frequency Sweet Spot (ρMFT ≈ ρPE)

■ Isolation Requirements (Clearance & Creepage Distances) Limit Power Density Gain from Higher Frequency

199
Next-Gen. SSTs: Selection of Number of Cascaded Cells
■ Recent 6.5 kV and 10 kV SiC Devices  13.8 kV Grid Reachable with < 4 Cells
■ Today’s Available Power Modules  Sensible Cell Power Ratings 250…500 kW w/o Paralleling

Number N of CHB Cells Selection of Blocking Voltage & N SiC Power Modules & Cell Power
Contours: Cell
Power in MW

● CHB Topology w. 75% Semicond. Blocking Voltage Utilization and M = 0.8 (M < 0.6  Uneconomic Utilization)

200
Next-Gen. SSTs: Improvement Potential
■ 10 kV SiC and/or MMC Topology Might Facilitate the Jump Over the Power Density Barrier
■ AC-DC Efficiencies >> 98% Remain Difficult to Attain
3-Phase Grid AC-DC SSTs
■ Other Dimensions with Clear Improvement Potential
Over the State of the Art Unclear

Traction AC-DC SSTs

(!)

■ Full-Scale Demonstrators Engineered to Standards Needed for Realistic Assessment!

201
SST Realization Costs (CAPEX)
■ High-Efficiency (Ecodesign) LFTs Cost < 15 kUSD/MVA
● MMC-Based SST: Similar LV-Side Power Electronics  Similar Cost
● MFT Smaller But Likely Higher Specific Cost (e.g., Litz Wire vs. Solid Copper, etc.)

■ Budget for SST’s MV-Side PE Incl. Additional Protection < 15 kUSD/MVA

● State of the Art

− Automotive LV DC-AC Inv.: 3 USD/kW (U.S. Drive Roadmap R&D Target 2025; Only Transistors, GDs, Sensors)
− Grid-Connected PV DC-AC Inv.: 30…55 USD/kW (Fraunhofer, 2022; Incl. Sw. Stage, Inductors, EMI Filter)

■ SST Cost Drivers: MFT, MV-Level Isolation Coordination, Assembly, Communication Systems, …

202
Outlook: Experience Curve of Technologies
■ Analysis of the Performance Improvement as Function of Accumulated Experience
■ Learning Rate  Improvement / Cost Reduction for Each Doubling of Cumulative Installed Capacity

Experience Curve of PV Electricity Generation Experience Curve of SST / SST Module Production?

● Can SSTs Ever Be-

come Cheaper than
LFT-Based Solutions? SST
LFT
● How Would That Change
the Picture?

● Procurement vs. Life-Cycle

Cost (Energy Losses)?

Image: Flaticon.com

■ Typ. Empirical Learning Rates of 15…25 %  Dramatic Cost Reduction Over Longer Timespan
■ Used for Prediction of Future Costs of a Technology (e.g., PV “Grid Parity”)  Long-Term Strategies

203
Outlook: DC Grids / MVDC-LVDC Conversion
■ Example: Future Offshore Wind Park Collector Grids
● ±50 kV Offshore Collector Grid / ±320 kV HVDC Transmission to Shore
● ±50 kV / ±320 kV Offshore Substation
± 320kV

± 2kV ± 50kV
± 50kV

± 2kV

● Unidirectional DCX MF
LVDC→MVDC Conv. in
Each Wind Turbine
± 50 kV ± 320 kV

● MMLC-Based MF Isolation

■ DC Grids Require “AC-Transformer”-Like Functionality  DC-DC SSTs w/o Alternative!

[Kjaer2016] 204
Ecological Aspects / Resource Usage
■ LV Distribution Busbars / Cables Dominate the Installed Copper Mass
■ 40+ vs. 10 Years Typ. Lifetime of LFTs vs. Power Electronics/SSTs
■ Recyclability Advantage of LFTs & High-Power Single Units (Such as Diode/Thyristor Rectifiers)

Copper Usage by Sector in the U.S. (2021)

U.S. Geological Survey
■ Global Copper Usage Dominated by Other Sectors
■ Life-Cycle Assessments—Cradle-to-Grave / Cradle-to-Cradle—Still Missing!

205
Increasing E-Waste Problem
■ 53´000´000 Tons of Electronic Waste Produced Worldwide in 2019  74´000´000 Tons in 2030
■ Large Proportion Ends Up in Africa & China  Melting of PCBs & Cables etc. / Hazardous Substances
■ Increasingly Complex Constructions  No Repair or Recycling Source:

■ Growing Global E-Waste Streams  Increasing Attention of the Public / Upcoming Regulations

206
Cradle-to-Cradle (C2C) Design Concept
■ “Linear” Economy / Take–Make–Dispose  “Circular” Economy / Perpetual Flow & Maintained Value of Resources
■ Resources Returned Into the Product Cycle at the End of Use / Generation of Waste Minimized
■ Maximized Use of Pure and Non-Toxic Reusable Materials

- Rethink
- Reuse
- Upcycle

TIME

- Recycle
- Reduce
Source:
https://circularphila
delphia.org

■ Decoupling of Economic Growth & Use of Resources

■ Measures Covering the Entire Lifecycle  Design | Manufacturing | Consumption | Repair | Reuse | Recycling

207
Research Vectors
“Jump the Gap”
More Compact Realizations

System Studies (TCO, LCA, …) 1:1 Demonstrators for Full Assessment

High-Power EV Charging & Datacenters 1:1 Voltage – 10+ kV
MVDC Grids (Collector Grids, Traction) 1:1 Power – 1+ MW
Special Applications (Naval, Subsea, Aircraft, …) 1:1 Std. Compl. (BIL, Prot.) – 50+ kV

Alternative Concepts Protection & Robustness

Local MFAC Distribution MV Solid-State AC & DC Prot. Sw. / Breakers
Fully Opt. LFT-Based Solutions / Design for 20+ Years Lifetime
Multi-Pulse Rect.

Business Model Development Materials

Demonstration of SST USPs Insulation Material / Mixed-Frequency
Insulation Stress

Circular Economy & Sustainability

New/Future KPIs: Longevity / Repair / Re-Use / Recycle

208
Thank You!

Full Version

https://u.ethz.ch/bWWoV

209
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Authors
Johann W. Kolar (M’89–F’10) is a Fellow of the IEEE, an Jonas Huber (S’11–M’16–SM’22) received the MSc (with
International Member of the US NAE and a Full Professor and distinction) degree and the PhD degree from the Swiss Federal
Head of the Power Electronic Systems Laboratory at the Swiss Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich, Switzerland, in 2012 and
Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich. He has proposed 2016, respectively. Since 2012, he has been with the Power
numerous novel converter concepts incl. the Vienna Rectifier, Electronic Systems Laboratory, ETH Zurich and became a Post-
has spearheaded the development of x-million rpm motors and Doctoral Fellow, focusing his research interests on the field of
has pioneered fully automated multi-objective power solid-state transformers, specifically on the analysis,
electronics design procedures. He has graduated 80+ Ph.D. optimization, and design of high-power multi-cell converter
students, has published 900+ research papers, 4 book chapters, systems, reliability considerations, control strategies, and
and has filed 200+ patents. He has served as IEEE PELS applicability aspects. From 2017, he was with ABB Switzerland
Distinguished Lecturer from 2012 - 2016. He has received 40+ Ltd. as an R&D Engineer designing high-power DC-DC converter
IEEE Transactions and Conference Prize Paper Awards, the 2014 systems for traction applications, and later with a Swiss utility
IEEE Power Electronics Society R. David Middlebrook company as a Business Development Manager. He then
Achievement Award, the 2016 IEEE PEMC Council Award, the returned to the Power Electronic Systems Laboratory as a
2016 IEEE William E. Newell Power Electronics Award, the 2021 Senior Researcher in 2020, extending his research scope to all
EPE Outstanding Achievement Award and 2 ETH Zurich Golden types of WBG-semiconductor-based ultra-compact, ultra-
Owl Awards for excellence in teaching. The focus of his current efficient or highly dynamic converter systems. Since 2015, he
research is on ultra-compact/efficient WBG PFC rectifier and has co-presented 10+ tutorials at major IEEE conferences (e.g.,
inverter systems, ultra-high BW switch-mode power amplifiers, ECCE, APEC).
multi-port converters, Solid-State Transformers, multi-
functional actuators, ultra-high speed / motor-integrated drives, ■ Contact Information
bearingless motors, ANN-based multi-objective design Prof. Dr. Johann W. Kolar [email protected]
optimization and Life Cycle Assessment of power electronics Dr. Jonas Huber [email protected]
systems.

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