Mustansiriyah University Subject: Antennas

Faculty of Engineering Class: 3rd-year

Electrical Engineering Department Fifth Lecture
Teachers: Asst. Prof. Dr. Eng. Malik Al-Khalidi
Prof. Eng. Zaid Assad

Input Impedance:
𝑍𝐴 = 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑗𝑋𝐴
Here, RA is the antenna resistance and XA is the antenna reactance. Generally,
the antenna resistance has two terms:
𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝑙
where, Rr is the radiation resistance, and Rl is the loss resistance.
The antenna impedance is related to the radiated power Π, the dissipated
power Pl, and the stored reactive energy, in the following way:
1
𝑃𝑠 = Π + 𝑃𝑙 + 𝑗2𝜔(𝑊𝑚 − 𝑊𝑒 ) = 𝐼0 𝐼0∗ 𝑍𝐴
2
Π + 𝑃𝑙 + 𝑗2𝜔(𝑊𝑚 − 𝑊𝑒 )
𝑍𝐴 =
1 ∗
𝐼𝐼
2 00
Here, I0 is the current at the antenna terminals; Wm is the average magnetic energy,
We is the average electric energy stored in the near-field region. When the stored
magnetic and electric energy values are equal, a condition of resonance occurs
and the reactive part of ZA vanishes. For a thin dipole antenna, this occurs when
the antenna length is close to a multiple of a half wavelength.
Radiation resistance:
The radiation resistance relates the radiated power to the voltage (or
current) at the antenna terminals.
𝑅𝑟 = 2Π⁄|𝐼|2 , Ω
We have already derived the radiated power of an infinitesimal dipole
in Lecture 3, as:
1 2Π
Π = 𝑅𝑟 𝐼2 ⟹ 𝑅𝑟 = 2
2 |𝐼 |
2𝜋 ∆𝑙 2
𝑅𝑟𝑖𝑑 = 𝜂( ) .Ω
3 𝜆

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Mustansiriyah University Subject: Antennas
Faculty of Engineering Class: 3rd-year
Electrical Engineering Department Fifth Lecture
Teachers: Asst. Prof. Dr. Eng. Malik Al-Khalidi
Prof. Eng. Zaid Assad

Equivalent circuits of the transmitting antenna:

In the above model, it is assumed that the generator is connected to the

antenna directly. If there is a transmission line between the generator and the
antenna, which is usually the case, then Zg = Rg + jXg represents the equivalent
impedance of the generator transferred to the input terminals of the antenna.
Transmission lines themselves often have significant losses .

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Mustansiriyah University Subject: Antennas
Faculty of Engineering Class: 3rd-year
Electrical Engineering Department Fifth Lecture
Teachers: Asst. Prof. Dr. Eng. Malik Al-Khalidi
Prof. Eng. Zaid Assad

The impedance transformation by a long transmission line (for lossy

transmission line) is given by
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0 tanh(𝛾𝐿)
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0
𝑍0 + 𝑍𝐿 tanh(𝛾𝐿)

Since the propagation constant (γ) is a complex quantity we can write it as:
γ= α+j β
where

 α, the real part, is called the attenuation constant

 β, the imaginary part, is called the phase constant
Here, Z0 is the characteristic impedance of the line, γ is its propagation constant,
ZL is the load impedance, and Zin is the input impedance.
In the case of a loss-free line (lossless transmission line) we get.
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑗𝑍0 tan(𝛽𝐿)
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0
𝑍0 + 𝑗𝑍𝐿 tan(𝛽𝐿)

The term 𝛽𝐿 is called the electrical length of the transmission line.

Some special cases to consider:
a) Short line: 𝑍𝐿 = 0, 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑗𝑍0 tan(𝛽𝐿)
b) Open line: 𝑍𝐿 = ∞, 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = −𝑗𝑍0 cot(𝛽𝐿)
𝜆 𝑍0 2
c) Quarter wave line: 𝐿 = , 𝑍𝑖𝑛 =
4 𝑍𝐿
𝜆
d) Half wave line: : 𝐿 = , 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍𝐿
2

57
Mustansiriyah University Subject: Antennas
Faculty of Engineering Class: 3rd-year
Electrical Engineering Department Fifth Lecture
Teachers: Asst. Prof. Dr. Eng. Malik Al-Khalidi
Prof. Eng. Zaid Assad

Example:
An antenna with a radiation resistance of 48 ohms, a loss resistance of 2
ohms, and a reactance of 50 ohms is connected to a generator with open-circuit
voltage of 10 V and internal impedance of 50 ohms via a λ/4-long transmission
line with characteristic impedance of 100 ohms.
(a) Draw the equivalent circuit
(b) Determine the power supplied by the generator
(c) Determine the power radiated by the antenna
Solution: -
a)

+ 50Ω
10v 𝑍𝐴 = 50 + 𝑗50Ω
- 𝑍0 = 100Ω

𝜆 ⁄4

𝑍0 2 (100)2
b) 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = = = 100 − 𝑗100Ω = 𝑍𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑍𝐿 50+𝑗50

10 10 10
𝐼𝑔 = = = °
= 0.05546∠33.7° 𝐴
150 − 𝑗100 150 − 𝑗100 180.3∠ − 33.7
1 ∗ 1
𝑃𝑆 = 𝑅𝑒{𝑉𝑔 ∙ 𝐼𝑔 } = × 10 × 0.05546 × cos(33.7° ) = 0.231 𝑤
2 2
1 2 1 2
c) 𝑃𝐴 = 2 |𝐼𝑔 | 𝑅𝑒{𝑍𝑖𝑛 } = 2 (0.05546) × 100 = 0.1538𝑤
Π = 𝑒 ∙ 𝑃𝐴
𝑅𝑟 48
𝑒= = = 0.96
𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝑙 50
Π = 𝑒 ∙ 𝑃𝐴 = 0.96 × 0.1538 = 0.148 𝑤

58
Mustansiriyah University Subject: Antennas
Faculty of Engineering Class: 3rd-year
Electrical Engineering Department Fifth Lecture
Teachers: Asst. Prof. Dr. Eng. Malik Al-Khalidi
Prof. Eng. Zaid Assad

Maximum power is delivered to the antenna when conjugate matching of

impedances is achieved:

Using circuit theory, we can derive the following formulas in the case of
matched impedances:
a) power delivered to the antenna
2 2
|𝑉𝑔 | |𝑉𝑔 |
𝑃𝐴 = =
8(𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝑙 ) 8(𝑅𝐴 )
b) power dissipated as heat in the generator
2 2
|𝑉𝑔 | |𝑉𝑔 |
𝑃𝑔 = 𝑃𝐴 = =
8𝑅𝑔 8(𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝑙 )
c) radiated power
2
1 |𝑉𝑔 | 𝑅𝑟
Π = |𝐼|2 𝑅𝑟 =
2 8 (𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝑙 )2
d) power dissipated as heat in the antenna
2
1 |𝑉𝑔 | 𝑅𝑙
𝑃𝑙 = |𝐼|2 𝑅𝑙 =
2 8 (𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝑙 )2

59
Mustansiriyah University Subject: Antennas
Faculty of Engineering Class: 3rd-year
Electrical Engineering Department Fifth Lecture
Teachers: Asst. Prof. Dr. Eng. Malik Al-Khalidi
Prof. Eng. Zaid Assad

Equivalent circuits of the receiving antenna:

The incident wave induces voltage VA at the antenna terminals (measured

when the antenna is open circuited). Conjugate impedance matching is required
between the antenna and the load (the receiver) to achieve maximum power
delivery

For the case of conjugate matching, the following power expressions hold:
a) power delivered to the load
|𝑉𝐴 |2 |𝑉𝐴 |2
𝑃𝐿 = =
8𝑅𝐿 8𝑅𝐴

60
Mustansiriyah University Subject: Antennas
Faculty of Engineering Class: 3rd-year
Electrical Engineering Department Fifth Lecture
Teachers: Asst. Prof. Dr. Eng. Malik Al-Khalidi
Prof. Eng. Zaid Assad

b) Power dissipated as heat in the antenna

|𝑉𝐴 |2 𝑅𝑙 |𝑉𝐴 |2 𝑅𝑙
𝑃𝑙 = =
8 (𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝑙 )2 8 (𝑅𝐴 )2
c) Scattered (re-radiated) power
|𝑉𝐴 |2 𝑅𝑟 |𝑉𝐴 |2 𝑅𝑟
𝑃𝑟𝑒 = =
8 (𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝑙 )2 8 (𝑅𝐴 )2
d) Total captured power
|𝑉𝐴 |2 |𝑉𝐴 |2
𝑃𝑐 = =
4 (𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝑙 ) 4𝑅𝐴
When conjugate matching is achieved, half of the captured power Pc is
delivered to the load (the receiver) and half is antenna loss. The antenna losses are
heat dissipation Pl and re-radiated (scattered) power Pre. When the antenna is non-
dissipative half of the power is delivered to the load and the other half is scattered
back into space. Thus a receiving antenna is also a scatterer.
The antenna input impedance is frequency dependent. Thus, it is matched
to its load in a certain frequency band. It can be influenced by the proximity of
objects, too.

61
Mustansiriyah University Subject: Antennas
Faculty of Engineering Class: 3rd-year
Electrical Engineering Department Fifth Lecture
Teachers: Asst. Prof. Dr. Eng. Malik Al-Khalidi
Prof. Eng. Zaid Assad

Radiation efficiency and antenna losses:

The radiation efficiency e takes into account the conductor and dielectric
(heat) losses of the antenna. The conduction and dielectric losses of an antenna
are very difficult to compute and in most cases they are measured. Even with
measurements, they are difficult to separate and they are usually lumped together
to form the e efficiency. It is the ratio of the power radiated by the antenna
and the total power delivered to the antenna terminals (in transmitting mode).
The resistance Rl is used to represent the conduction-dielectric losses. In terms of
equivalent circuit parameters:
𝑅𝑟
𝑒=
𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝑙
Some useful formulas to calculate conduction losses are given below:
a) dc resistance
1𝑙
𝑅𝑑𝑐 = ,Ω
𝜎𝐴
whrer,
σ - specific conductivity, S/m
l - conductor’s length, m
A - conductor’s cross-section, m2

b) high-frequency surface resistance 𝑅ℎ𝑓

At high frequencies, the current is confined in a thin layer at the conductor’s

surface (skin effect). This layer is often called the skin layer. Its effective
thickness, known as the skin depth or penetration depth 𝜹, is
1
𝛿= = √2⁄ 𝜔𝜎𝜇 , 𝑚
√𝜋𝑓𝜎𝜇
If the skin depth of the metal is very small compared to the smallest diagonal
of the cross section of the rod, the current is confined to a thin layer near the
conductor surface. Therefore, the high-frequency resistance can be written, based
on a uniform current distribution, as

62
Mustansiriyah University Subject: Antennas
Faculty of Engineering Class: 3rd-year
Electrical Engineering Department Fifth Lecture
Teachers: Asst. Prof. Dr. Eng. Malik Al-Khalidi
Prof. Eng. Zaid Assad

1 𝑙 1 𝑙 1 𝑙 𝑙 𝜔𝜇 𝑙
𝑅ℎ𝑓 = ∙ = ∙ = ∙ = √ = 𝑅𝑠 , (𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠)
𝜎 𝐴ℎ𝑓 𝜎 𝛿𝑐 𝑐 𝜎𝛿 𝑐 2𝜎 𝑐
Here the area Ahf = δc is not the actual area of the conducting rod but is the
effective area through which the high-frequency current flows, and
c: is the perimeter (circumference) of the cross section of rod (for a circular wire
of radius b)
𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑏
𝜔𝜇
Rs: is the conductor surface resistance, 𝑅𝑠 = √ ,Ω
2𝜎

ω: is the angular frequency,

µ: is the permeability,
σ: is the conductivity of the metal.
Finally, the loss resistance is 𝑅𝑙 = 0.5 ∙ 𝑅ℎ𝑓

63
Mustansiriyah University Subject: Antennas
Faculty of Engineering Class: 3rd-year
Electrical Engineering Department Fifth Lecture
Teachers: Asst. Prof. Dr. Eng. Malik Al-Khalidi
Prof. Eng. Zaid Assad

Example:
A resonant half-wavelength dipole is made of copper (σ = 5.7 ×107 S/m)
wire. Determine the conduction-dielectric (radiation) efficiency e of the dipole
antenna, if the operating frequency is f = 100 MHz, the radius of the wire b is
3×10-4 λ, and the radiation resistance of the λ/2 dipole is Rr =73Ω.
Solution: -
At f =108 Hz
𝑐 3 × 108
𝜆= = = 3𝑚
𝑓 108
𝜆 3
𝑙= = 𝑚
2 2
𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑏 = 2𝜋(3 × 10−4 )𝜆 = 2𝜋(3 × 10−4 )3 = 18𝜋 × 10−4 𝑚

1.5 𝜋 × 108 × 4𝜋 × 10−7

𝑅ℎ𝑓 = √ = 0.698 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
18𝜋 × 10−4 5.7 × 107

𝑅𝑙 = 0.5 ∙ 𝑅ℎ𝑓 = 0.5 ∗ 0.698 = 0.349 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠

𝑅𝑟 73
𝑒= = = 0.995 = 99.52%
𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝑙 73 + 0.349
𝑒 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (0.995) = −0.02 𝑑𝐵

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