c. Software - all sets of information processing instructions.

LESSON 1: INFORMATION SYSTEMS CONCEPTS  Programs: operating system programs, spreadsheet programs, word processing programs, payroll
Information: Processes, manipulated, and interpreted data. It is the collection of data organized in such a way that they programs
have value beyond the data itself. Information is created by defining and organizing relationships among data.  Procedures: data entry procedures, error correction procedures, paycheck distribution procedures
d. Data Resources – raw facts and figures that are unorganized that are later processed to generate information
System: A set of components that work together to achieve a common goal. Accepts input, processes it, and produces an  product descriptions, customer records, employee files, inventory databases
output. Composed of one or more subsystems. May be a closed or open system. e. Network Resources - telecommunication technologies and networks like the internet, intranets, and extranets
Closed System: A stand-alone system that does not interact with other systems. are essential to the successful e-business and e-commerce operations of all types of organizations and their
computer-based information systems
Open System: Interacts with another system.  Communications media, communications processors, network access, control software
 Input: Capture the data to be processes f. Information Products – collections of content that are processed as a unit and are designed to help users access
 Processing: Change the data into information and use information
 Output: Disseminate the information product to its destination.  Management reports and business documents using text and graphic displays, audio responses, and
paper forms
INFORMATION SYSTEMS (IS): Can be an organized combination of people, hardware, software, communication networks,
data resources, and policies and procedures that stores, retrieves, transforms, and disseminate information in an Information System and the Decision-Making Process
organization.
People rely on modern information systems to communicate with one another using:
 A variety of physical devices (hardware)
 Information processing instructions and procedures (software)
 Communications channels (networks)
 Stored data (data resources)
Framework of Major Areas
1. Foundation Concepts: Fundamental behavior, technical business, and managerial concepts about IS.
2. Information Technologies: Major concepts, developments, and management issues in IT.
3. Business Applications: Major uses of IS for operations, management, and competitive advantaged.
4. Development Process: How an IS is planned, developed, and implemented to meet business opportunities.
5. Management Challenges: Effectively and ethically managing IT at the end-user, enterprise, and global levels of
business.
Components of Information Systems For operations support: help run the daily business, but do not provide too much information for managerial decision-
making.
1. People, hardware, software, data, and networks: the basic components of IS>
2. People resources: include end users and IS specialists, hardware resources consist of machines and media,  Specialized processing system
software resources include both programs and procedures, data resources include data and knowledge bases,  Transaction processing systems (batch or real-time)
and networks.  Process Control Systems (industrial processes)
3. Data resources: transformed by information processing activities into a variety of information products for end  Enterprise Collaboration Systems (office autonomation; team communication/productivity)
users.
4. Information processing consists of the system activities of input, processing, output, storage, and control. For management support: providing info and support for effective decision making by managers

Information System Resources and Products  Management Information Systems (pre-defined reports) e.g. Annual budgeting, sales analysis
 Decision Support Systems (modeling; what if analysis) e.g. Contract cost-analysis, ad hoc supports
a. People Resources - associated with the manpower required to run and manage the system.  Executive Information Systems (Internal/external sources) e.g. 5-year operating plan, critical info from MIS, DSS
 Specialists: System analysts, software developers, system operators  Specialized processing system
 End Users: anyone else who uses information systems
b. Hardware Resources - all physical devices and materials used in information processing
 Machines: computers, video monitors, magnetic disc drives, printers, optical scanners
 Media: floppy disks, magnetic tape, optical disks, plastic cards, paper forms
LESSON 2: COMPUTER RESOURCE 3. THIRD GENERATION (1960S-1970S): Brought the invention of INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (ICs), which combined
multiple transistors onto a single chip.
Computer Resources refers to a wide range of tools and components, both tangible and intangible, required for performing
computational tasks. Examples:

Key Categories: o Minicomputers: Smaller, less expensive computers like the DEC PDP 8
o Large Mainframes: Dominant computers of the era, large and costly but powerful.
 Hardware
 Software Characteristics:
 Data o Reduced cost, size and improved performance of computers.
 Network o Powerful computers for complex business and scientific operations.
 Human Resource o Constrained memory capacity. Basic and complex programming tools for non-experts.
 Energy Resource 4. FOURTH GENERATION (1970S-1990S): The development of MICROPROCESSORS— entire CPUs integrated onto a
Early Beginnings of Early Beginnings of Computer Resources single chip. This generation marked the beginning of personal computing.

Pre-Computing Tools. The early tools and devices used for calculations and data processing: Abacus, Punch Cards, Slide Examples:
Rule, Napier’s Bones, Mechanical Calculators o The introduction of microprocessors like the Intel 4004 led to the development of personal computers,
Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer system, such as the CPU, memory, and storage devices. including the Apple II, IBM PC, and Commodore 64.

Characteristics: Characteristics and limitations:

o Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs): made user interfaces more accessible, enabling non-technical users to
 Physical Presence: Tangible and can be physically touched and seen.
operate computers but pretty basic.
 Durability: Built to last for extended periods but susceptible to wear over time.
o Early PCs stil experienced hardware failures and software bugs.
 Dependent on Software: Requires software to function properly.
o Early microprocessors had limited computing power, storage, and GUIs.
 Upgradeable: Can be replaced or upgraded to enhance system performance.
o Programs were not compatible across platforms. PCs experienced hardware and software issues.
 Power Consumption: Requires energy to operate and can vary in efficiency 5. FIFTH GENERATION (1990S PRESENT): Defined by advancements in artificial intelligence (AI), quantum
History of Hardware computing, and the growth of supercomputers.
o Artificial Intelligence: Machine learning and neural networks transform fields like healthcare, finance,
1. FIRST GENERATION (1940S-1950S): This era was characterized by the use of VACUUM TUBES. and robotics by allowing computers to process data like humans.
First Computer utilize Vacuum tubes: o Quantum Computing: Utilizes quantum mechanics to solve complex problems beyond traditional
o ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) computers. Stil in the research phase.
o UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) o Supercomputers: Exponential growth in computational power, used in weather forecasting, drug
Characteristics and Limitations: discovery, and space exploration.
o Extremely large, often filing entire rooms.
o Generated a substantial amount of heat, leading to frequent overheating and malfunctions. Limitations: The rise of cloud computing and IoT introduces significant concerns regarding data privacy and
o Limited to basic arithmetic and logical operations with relatively slow processing speeds compared to cybersecurity. Performance heavily relies on data quality and is susceptible to inherent biases
later generations.
Software refers to a collection of programs, data, and instructions that tell a computer or electronic device how to perform
2. SECOND GENERATION (1950S-1960S): The replacement of vacuum tubes with TRANSISTORS, which were smaller, specific tasks. It is the non-tangible component of a computer system, as opposed to hardware, which consists of the
more efficient, and reliable.
physical components.
Example:
o IBM 7090: used to develop the first weather forecasting models, and it was also used to perform the Characteristics:
calculations for the Apollo 11 moon landing.
 Intangible: Unlike hardware, software cannot be physically touched or held.
Characteristics and Limitations:  Modifiable: Software can be updated or modified to improve functionality or address security vulnerabilities.
 Dependent on Hardware: Software requires hardware to run and perform its functions
o Transistors still generated heat, although less than vacuum tubes.
o Computers remained relatively large. History of Software
o Operating systems were basic, limiting multitasking.
o Required specialized knowledge for operation and maintenance 1. EARLY SOFTWARE (1950S-1960S): Software in this 1950's to 1960's era was designed for specific tasks, mainly for
scientific and military purposes, as computers were large and expensive.
Example: Importance
o FORTRAN (Formula Translation): Introduced in 1957, this high-level programming language was
1. Communication. Instant connectivity and collaboration. Enhance global connectivity by enabling instant
designed for scientific and engineering calculations, enabling users to write complex programs more
communication through the internet, social media, and digital platforms.
easily than using assembly language.
2. Business.
Characteristics & Limitations: o Streamlined Operations.
o Business Intelligence: Collect and analyze large amounts of data sets to gain insights to make informed,
o Low-level languages like assembly and early high-level languages like FORTRAN and COBOL were used.
growth-focused decisions.
o Software was single-purpose and hardware-dependent. Informal methods of development, lacking
o Enhanced Customer Experiences: Enable personalized marketing, efficient customer support, and
portability and automation.
smooth online transactions.
o Programs were input manually, often error-prone, with limited storage and power.
3. Education.
2. RISE OF OPERATING SYSTEMS (1970S): The 1970s witnessed the emergence of operating systems, standardizing
o Access to information: Computers and the internet provide pupils, students, and educators with access
resource management and enabling multitasking.
to virtually limitless amounts of information and educational resources.
Example:
o Interactive Learning: Offers interactive learning experiences through multimedia, simulations, and other
o Unix: Developed at Bell Labs in 1969, Unix became one of the most influential operating systems,
educational software.
known for its modular design and portability, serving as the foundation for many modern systems.
o Digital Literacy: Promote skills in navigating digital environments, crucial for academic and career
Characteristics & Limitations: success in the modern era.
4. Entertainment. Diverse access and creation. Offer entertainment and creative tools for streaming, gaming, and
o Enabled time-sharing, file management, and memory allocation. content creation, enabling global sharing and expression.
o Introduction of multi-user capabilities but still limited in functionality. 5. Security & crime.
o OS tied to specific hardware, reducing portability. o Awareness of Risks: Introduce risks such as cybercrime, identity theft, and online fraud.
3. SOFTWARE BOOM (1980S-1990S): The 1980s and 1990s saw a dramatic expansion in the software industry, the o Security antivirus Measures: Employing software and strong passwords is essential for online safety.
PC revolution expanded the software industry with user-friendly applications for the public.
Example: Types of Computer Resources
o Microsoft Windows: Launched in 1985, Windows popularized graphical user interfaces, making
Component of Computer Hardware
computing more accessible to the general public.
o Apple Macintosh: Released in 1984, it further showcased the potential of GUI, influencing software 1. Input Devices: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Microphone
design across platforms. 2. Output Devices: Monitor, Printer, Speakers
3. Central Processing Unit (CPU): The "brain" of the computer, it processes instructions performs calculations.
Characteristics & Limitations:
4. Memory: Stores data and instructions that the CPU needs to access.
o Shift from system to consumer applications (word processors, databases). 5. Storage Devices: Store data persistently, even when the computer is turned off. Examples include hard drives and
o Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) emerged, promoting code reuse. solid-state drives.
o Increased complexity brought software bugs, security flaws, and compatibility issues. 6. Network Interface Card (NIC): Enables the computer to connect to a network, such as the internet.
4. THE INTERNET AND CLOUD ERA (2000S-PRESENT): The 21st century has seen the rise of the internet and cloud 7. Motherboard: The main circuit board that connects all the components of the computer.
computing software distribution into services over the web. 8. Power Supply Unit (PSU): Converts AC power from the wall outlet into DC power for the computer's
components.
Example:
Types of Software Resource
o Amazon Web Services (AWS): Launched in 2006, AWS revolutionized the tech landscape by providing
scalable cloud computing services. 1. System Software: This type of software manages the computer's hardware and provides a platform for other
o Google Cloud Platform (GCP): Launched in 2008, provides cloud services for building and scaling software to run. Examples: Operating systems (like Windows, macOS, Linux), device drivers, firmware.
applications on Google’s infrastructure. It offers tools for computing, data storage, and machine 2. Application Software: Designed to perform particular functions for users. Examples: Word processors,
learning spreadsheets, web browsers, games, media players.
3. Utility Software: Specialized tools for system maintenance: Helps manage and optimize the computer's
Characteristics & Limitations: performance. Examples: Antivirus software, disk cleaners, backup tools, compression utilities
o Rise of SaaS, web applications (e.g., Google Docs), Agile/DevOps methodologies. Network Infrastructure: Network infrastructure refers to the hardware and software that enable connectivity
o Cloud computing and virtualization allowed scalability but rely on constant internet access. communication between users, devices, apps, the internet, and more.
o Security and data privacy concerns increased with cloud adoption
3 Types of NI: Hardware Infrastructure, Software Infrastructure, Network Services
Network Infrastructure Management: Network administrators ensure optimal network performance by identifying Cloud Services:
bottlenecks, solving issues, and scaling infrastructure to support business growth.
 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) providers, such as Amazon Web Services (AWS), supply a virtual server instance
Five Key Areas: and storage, as well as application programming interfaces (APIs) that let users migrate workloads to a virtual
machine (VM).
1. Network Infrastructure Monitoring
 Platform as a service (PaaS), cloud providers host development tools on their infrastructures.
2. Configuration Management
 Software as a service (SaaS) is a distribution model that delivers software applications over the internet; these
3. Performance Management
applications are often called “web services”.
4. Fault Management
5. Security Management  Function as a Service (FaaS), known as computing”, “serverless where developers run small pieces of code in
response to events without managing servers.
Resources (Raw vs. Processed)  Storage as a Service (STaaS), A scalable storage resources over the cloud.
Data Forms: Remote Access:
1. Alphanumeric Data  Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP): A Microsoft protocol allowing users to remotely control a Windows computer
2. Image Data via a network connection.’
3. Text Data  Virtual Private Network (VPN). A secure tunnel that enables remote users to access private network resources,
4. Audio Data as though they were connected locally.
Cloud and Virtual Resources: It describes infrastructure and computer services that are hosted online as opposed to being  Secure Shell (SSH): A protocol that allows secure remote access to servers and computers, primarily used for
physically located on-site. Without requiring actual hardware, these remotely accessible resources which include storage, command-line access and administration
processing power, and applications allow enterprises to scale up or down as needed.  Virtual Network Computing (VNC): Allows graphical desktop sharing, enabling users to remotely control a
computer.
Cloud Computing: It is the use of hosted services, such as data storage, servers, databases, networking, and software over
the internet. Energy monitoring systems?
By using software, an energy monitoring system makes it possible to monitor on how much energy is used within a
company. It has the capacity to simultaneously track a full building or just one room.
Which provides significant benefits such as:
 Real-Time Energy Data
 Measure Results
 Improve Facility Performance
 Reduces Operational Costs
 Improve your Company’s Brand Image
Internet of Things (IoT)
 Load Handling: The load that a power grid needs to supply towards is every-changing. Smart grids can help
advise consumers to change their usage patterns during times of heavy load.
 Demand Response Support: Smart grids can help consumers reduce their electricity bills by advising them to use
devices with a lower priority when the electrical rates are lower. This also helps in the real-time analysis of
Deployment Model: electrical usage and charges.
 Decentralization of Power Generation: Smart grids help decentralize power grids since they can easily help
1. Public Cloud: Services are delivered over the internet to multiple customers, often in a multi-tenant environment, incorporate renewable energy sources such as solar panels at an individual scale and discretion.
2. Private Cloud: Infrastructure is dedicated to a single organization, either hosted on-premises or by a cloud
provider. Sustainability IT: It is an approach to corporate information technology that aims to minimize the environmental impact of
3. Hybrid Cloud: Combines both public and private clouds, allowing data and application to be shared between it operations and their contribution to climate change.
them.
4. Community Cloud: Shared infrastructure between several organizations with similar requirements.
Benefits of a Sustainable IT: b. Graphics used are made to trick our minds in believing that there is no difference between that world
and our world.
 Energy efficiency 7. Cybersecurity and Privacy Solutions: creates a safe digital environment where individuals can trust that their
 Renewable energy data is secure and handled properly.
 Cloud computing 8. High Performance Computing (HPC): the practice of using supercomputers and parallel processing techniques to
 Virtualization solve complex computational problems at significantly higher speeds than traditional computers.
 Sustainable sourcing 9. High Performance Computing (HPC): current advancements in mobile network technology but also the ongoing
 Product lifecycle evolution towards even faster, more reliable, and interconnected systems.
 Sustainable software development
 New technologies Applications for Engineers

Challenges of Computer Resources 1. CAD Software: Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software is essential for engineers to create precise 2D and 3D
models.
1. Resource allocation and scalability: Overutilization in computer resources, especially within the context of 2. Numerical Computing Tools: Numerical computing tools, such as MATLAB, are used for performing complex
information systems, refers to the situation where computing resources such as processors, memory, storage, or calculations, simulations, and algorithm development.
network bandwidth are used beyond their optimal capacity. When resources are overutilized, the system cannot 3. FEA Software: FEA software or the Finite Element Analysis (FEA) Software, like Abaqus, is crucial for assessing
handle additional requests efficiently, leading to several problems. (Ex. When the system’s CPU or memory is how structures will behave under various conditions.
overutilized, response times increase, making applications and processes run slower than expected.) 4. Data Analysis Tool: Data analysis tools, such as Microsoft Excel, enable engineers to manipulate and interpret
2. Obsolescence: Hardware obsolescence refers to the process by which hardware becomes outdated, no longer data effectively.
supported, or unable to meet current technological needs due to advances in technology, changes in software 5. Simulation Software: Simulation software allows engineers to model and test systems under various scenarios
requirements, or a lack of compatibility with modern systems. As newer and more efficient hardware is without physical prototypes.
developed, older hardware may struggle to keep up, leading to performance issues, inefficiencies, and increased 6. BIM Software: revolutionizes such as Revit, architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) industry by
costs. (Ex. Obsolete hardware often no longer receives firmware or security updates, leaving systems exposed to providing a digital representation of a building's physical and functional characteristics.
security risks.) 7. Automation Software: Automation software streamlines repetitive tasks, reducing manual labor and increasing
3. Security and Data Privacy: Data Breaches and Unauthorized Access, Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) Attacks, efficiency.
and Insider Threats are some of the cybersecurity issues that the resources might face. Cybersecurity issues in
computer resources (CR) arise when systems are exposed to risks that could compromise the confidentiality,
integrity, or availability of data and operations. As organizations increasingly rely on complex IT infrastructures, Lesson 3: General Systems Model of a Firm
protecting these resources from cyber threats becomes more challenging. A firm is a business entity that aims to profit by selling goods and services.
o Data Breaches - unauthorized access to sensitive data.
o DDoS Attacks - exploit the fact that many systems have limited capacity to handle a surge in traffic. Types of Firms
o Insider Threats - occur when individuals within an organization misuse their access to computer  Sole Proprietorship - a sole proprietorship is a business owned and run by one individual. This person is entirely
resources for malicious purposes accountable for all expenses and obligations and holds ownership of all assets related to the business
 Partnership - a partnership is a business owned by two or more individuals, with no maximum limit on the number
Future Trends of partners who can hold an ownership interest.
1. Emerging Technologies: When talking about emerging technology it is mainly used for describing two things:  Corporation - are public companies that are legally distinct from their owners, setting them apart from other types
New Technology and Development in Existing Technology. of firms.
2. Ai and Machine Learning: AI is a trained final output machine which mimic like human brain ML is a subset of AI.  Cooperative - A cooperative is like a corporation in that its owners enjoy limited liability; however, unlike a
It is a technique to achieve AI. corporation, its members have a voice in the company's operations.
3. Edge Computing: A distributed information technology (IT) architecture in which client data is processed at the
How do Firms function?
periphery of the network, as close to the originating source as possible.
4. Quantum Computing: Represents a radical departure from classical computing, promising to solve complex Input: are the resources that a company uses to create goods or services.
problems that are currently intractable for classical computers.
Process: process component includes the activities that turn inputs into outputs.
5. Augmented Reality (AR):
o Overlay of Real and Digital World Output: the results of these processes manifest as completed products, provided services, financial outcomes, customer
o Registration and alignment in 3D insights, and the overall standing in the market.
o Real time interaction
6. Virtual Reality (VR)
a. The creation of a virtual world where others may react.
General Systems Model: is a conceptual framework that views an organization as an open system interacting with its What is Value Chain?
environment.
It is a series (chain) of activities that includes inbound logistics, warehouse and storage, production and manufacturing,
finished product storage, outbound logistics, marketing and sales, and customer service.

Physical Resource Flow: refers to the movement of tangible resources within a firm.
Virtual Resource Flow: refers to the movement of intangible resources within a firm.
Firm's Control Mechanism:
 Performance Standard: a benchmark or target set by management that defines the expected level of
performance in specific areas, such as productivity, quality, efficiency, or financial results. Supply Chain Management
 Information Processor: collects, analyzes, and reports data regarding the organization’s performance. This can The strategic coordination of business functions within a business organization and throughout its supply chain for the
include automated systems or manual processes purpose of integrating supply and demand management.
 Management: responsible for interpreting the data and making decisions based on how actual performance
compares to the performance standards. A supply chain is the sequence of organizations—their facilities, functions, and activities— that are involved in producing
and delivering a product or service. The sequence begins with basic suppliers of raw materials and extends all the way to
Feedback Loop in a Firm the final customer.
Feedback loop is a process in which information about the outcome or performance which involves collecting inputs from The goal of supply chain management is to match supply to demand as effectively and efficiently as possible. Key issues
customers, employees, or other stakeholders, analyzing the data, and utilizing the insights to help identify the areas for relate to:
improvement and drive positive changes.
 Determining the appropriate level of outsourcing.
 Positive Feedback Loop: A positive feedback loop starts when a customer or employee shares a great review  Managing procurement.
about the business. These loops help to reinforce positive action and encourage repeat business.  Managing suppliers.
 Negative Feedback Loop: A negative feedback loop is the cycle of turning customer or employee complaints into  Managing customer relationships.
improvements. These loops help to find problem areas and spot issues before they escalate further.  Being able to quickly identify problems and respond to them.
How to Create an Effective Feedback Loop? Enterprise Resource Planning: It is a software that helps integrate the components of a company, including most of the
 Set goals and objectives. supply chain processes, by sharing and organizing information and data among supply chain members.
 Choose the right channels. Customer Relationship Management: It is the combination of practices, strategies and technologies that companies use to
 Focus on accessibility and ease of use. manage and analyze customer interactions and data throughout the customer lifecycle.
 Act on feedback.
 Frequently review feedback loops. The key features of a CRM system include the following:

Challenges on Implementing Feedback Loop  Contact management

 Sales management
 Resistant to change  Analysis
 Poor communication  Marketing automation
 Data Overload  Customer support
 Import contact data
 Access by smartphones
Performance-Based Information Systems: A management approach that focuses on measuring and evaluating the
 Social networking
performance of information systems to ensure they are aligned with the organization's goals and objectives.
Organizational Culture: It consists of the major understandings and assumptions for a business, corporation, or other
Three Stages in the Business Use of IS:
organization. The understandings, which can include common values, norms, behaviors, and approaches to decision
making, are often not stated or documented as goals or formal policies. 1. Cost Reduction and Productivity: to reduce costs and improve productivity.
2. Competitive Advantage: to gain a competitive edge in the market.
Key components:
3. Performance Based Management: to considering strategic advantages and costs, focusing on productivity, ROI,
 Values and net present value.
 Norms Common Measures of IS Value
 Behaviors
 Productivity
Organizational Change: Deals with how for-profit and nonprofit organizations plan for, implement, and handle change.  Return on Investment (ROI)
Change can be caused by internal factors, such as those initiated by employees at all levels, or by external factors, such as
 Earnings Growth
activities wrought by competitors, stockholders, federal and state laws, community regulations, natural occurrences (such
 Market Share and Speed to Market
as hurricanes), and general economic conditions.
 Customer Awareness and Satisfaction
Organizational Culture and Change: Organizational culture and change are deeply interconnected. Culture can either  Total Cost of Ownership (TCO)
support or resist change, depending on how aligned the existing culture is with the changes being introduced. When
changes clash with the organization's culture, resistance often occurs, making change efforts difficult.
User Satisfaction: To be effective, enhancements must satisfy users and be embraced by all members of the organization;
Users' satisfaction with a computer system and the information it provides is typically determined by the system's quality
and the value of the information.
Technology Acceptance Model: A model that describes the factors leading to higher levels of acceptance and usage of
technology.
 Perceived Usefulness (PU)
 Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU)
 Quality of the Information System
 Organizational Support
Technology Diffusion: a measure of how widely technology is spread throughout the organization.
Technology Infusion: is the extent to which technology is deeply integrated into an area or department.