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OOAD SEM - OOAD Important Questions for SEM

Object Oriented Analysis and Design (Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University,

Kakinada)

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Unit-1
1. Define the structure of Complex Systems? Explain the five
attributes of a complex system in detail.

2. Why software is inherently complex? List and explain how inherent

complexity derives from different elements?

3. Elaborate the importance of canonical form of a complex system.

4. Explain and Discuss organized and disorganized complexity

5. What is the Role of Decomposition and Abstraction in designing

complex software systems? Explain.

6. Discuss about the key hierarchies of complex systems in detail.

7.Write and explain the Limitations of the Human Capacity when Dealing
with Complexity.
1.
2.
3,4.
5.
6.
7.
Unit-2
1. What is the importance of modeling in object oriented and explain
modeling principles.
2. Describe the various elements of the Object model in detail. 3.
Define modeling. Why do we model? What we can achieve through
modeling
4. Discuss clearly about the Modeling a System’s Architecture with a neat
sketch.
5. With a neat sketch, describe
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object-oriented software development life cycle.

6. Discuss clearly about different Models of Object-Oriented Development
with a neat sketch.
7. Explain the phases of System development life cycle giving its salient
features
8. What is a class diagram? What are the common properties and uses of
class diagrams? Draw a Class diagram for Online Railway Reservation
System?
9. What is UML? Briefly discuss its purpose. Discuss clearly about different
Building Blocks of UML? How UML addresses four aims of modeling? 10.
Explain how the architecture of UML meets the requirements of modeling?
11. Write about structural things of UML vocabulary. Give UML notation?
Explain about behavioral things of UML in detail?
12.State the significance and importance of UML? Explain the
conceptual model of the UML in detail?
13. How class diagram is important in UML? Explain with an example and
Write a short note on Annotational things?
14. Explain the following:
i. Role ii. Multiplicity iii. has-a relationship iv. Generalization 15. Draw
the class diagram for stock maintenance system, ATM bank system,
library management system and course registration system?
1.
2.

Principles of Object-Oriented Systems

The conceptual framework of object–oriented systems is based upon the object
model. There are two categories of elements in an object-oriented system −
Major Elements − By major, it is meant that if a model does not have any one of
these elements, it ceases to be object oriented. The four major elements are −
Abstraction
Encapsulation
Modularity
Hierarchy

Minor Elements − By minor, it is meant that these elements are useful, but not
indispensable part of the object model. The three minor elements are −
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Typing
Concurrency
Persistence

Abstraction
Abstraction means to focus on the essential features of an element or object in
OOP, ignoring its extraneous or accidental properties. The essential features are
relative to the context in which the object is being used.
Grady Booch has defined abstraction as follows −
“An abstraction denotes the essential characteristics of an object that distinguish
it from all other kinds of objects and thus provide crisply defined conceptual
boundaries, relative to the perspective of the viewer.”
Example − When a class Student is designed, the attributes enrolment_number,
name, course, and address are included while characteristics like pulse_rate and
size_of_shoe are eliminated, since they are irrelevant in the perspective of the
educational institution.
Encapsulation
Encapsulation is the process of binding both attributes and methods together
within a class. Through encapsulation, the internal details of a class can be
hidden from outside. The class has methods that provide user interfaces by
which the services provided by the class may be used.

Modularity
Modularity is the process of decomposing a problem (program) into a set of
modules so as to reduce the overall complexity of the problem. Booch has
defined modularity as −
“Modularity is the property of a system that has been decomposed into a set of
cohesive and loosely coupled modules.”
Modularity is intrinsically linked with encapsulation. Modularity can be
visualized as a way of mapping encapsulated abstractions into real, physical
modules having high cohesion within the modules and their inter–module
interaction or coupling is low.
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Hierarchy
In Grady Booch’s words, “Hierarchy is the ranking or ordering of abstraction”.
Through hierarchy, a system can be made up of interrelated subsystems, which
can have their own subsystems and so on until the smallest level components
are reached. It uses the principle of “divide and conquer”. Hierarchy allows code
reusability.
The two types of hierarchies in OOA are −
“IS–A” hierarchy − It defines the hierarchical relationship in
inheritance, whereby from a super-class, a number of subclasses
may be derived which may again have subclasses and so on. For
example, if we derive a class Rose from a class Flower, we can say
that a rose “is–a” flower.
“PART–OF” hierarchy − It defines the hierarchical relationship in
aggregation by which a class may be composed of other classes. For
example, a flower is composed of sepals, petals, stamens, and
carpel. It can be said that a petal is a “part–of” flower.

Typing
According to the theories of abstract data type, a type is a characterization of a
set of elements. In OOP, a class is visualized as a type having properties distinct
from any other types. Typing is the enforcement of the notion that an object is an
instance of a single class or type. It also enforces that objects of different types
may not be generally interchanged; and can be interchanged only in a very
restricted manner if absolutely required to do so.
The two types of typing are −
Strong Typing − Here, the operation on an object is checked at the
time of compilation, as in the programming language Eiffel.
Weak Typing − Here, messages may be sent to any class. The
operation is checked only at the time of execution, as in the
programming language Smalltalk.

Concurrency
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Concurrency in operating systems allows performing multiple tasks or processes

simultaneously. When a single process exists in a system, it is said that there is a
single thread of control. However, most systems have multiple threads, some
active, some waiting for CPU, some suspended, and some terminated. Systems
with multiple CPUs inherently permit concurrent threads of control; but systems
running on a single CPU use appropriate algorithms to give equitable CPU time
to the threads so as to enable concurrency.
In an object-oriented environment, there are active and inactive objects. The
active objects have independent threads of control that can execute concurrently
with threads of other objects. The active objects synchronize with one another as
well as with purely sequential objects.
Persistence
An object occupies a memory space and exists for a particular period of time. In
traditional programming, the lifespan of an object was typically the lifespan of
the execution of the program that created it. In files or databases, the object
lifespan is longer than the duration of the process creating the object. This
property by which an object continues to exist even after its creator ceases to
exist is known as persistence.
3.
In the context of Object-Oriented Analysis and Design (OOAD), modeling
refers to the process of creating representations of software systems using
various graphical notations, such as Unified Modeling Language (UML).
Models in OOAD capture the structure, behavior, and interactions of the
system's components and help stakeholders visualize, understand, and
communicate about the system.

We model in OOAD for several reasons:

1. Understanding: Modeling allows us to gain a deeper understanding

of the software system by breaking it down into manageable parts. By
creating models, we can identify the classes, objects, relationships, and
behaviors that make up the system. Models serve as a visual
representation that aids comprehension and facilitates communication
between stakeholders.

2. Requirements Analysis: Models help us analyze and refine the system

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requirements. By creating use case diagrams, we can identify the different

user interactions and system functionalities. Class diagrams help us
identify the necessary classes, their attributes, and their relationships.
These models act as a foundation for requirements elicitation and
validation.

3. Design: Models play a crucial role in the design phase of OOAD. They
assist in architecting the system's structure and behavior. Class diagrams
help define the classes and their relationships, while sequence diagrams
illustrate the flow of interactions between objects. These models guide the
software design process, ensuring that the system is modular,
maintainable, and extensible.

4. Communication and Collaboration: Models act as a common language

for stakeholders, enabling effective communication and collaboration. By
using standard notations like UML, models provide a shared understanding
of the system's architecture, functionality, and behavior. They facilitate
discussions, gather feedback, and align the development team and
stakeholders towards a shared vision.

5. Verification and Validation: Models allow us to validate and verify the

system's design and behavior before implementation. Through models, we
can simulate and analyze the system's interactions, ensuring that it meets
the intended requirements. Models also aid in identifying potential design
flaws, inconsistencies, or missing requirements early in the development
lifecycle.

6. Documentation: Models serve as documentation artifacts that capture

the design decisions and rationale behind the system. They provide a
structured representation of the system's architecture, requirements, and
behavior, which can be used for future maintenance, enhancements, or
knowledge transfer.

Through modeling in OOAD, we can achieve various benefits, such as:

- Improved understanding of the system's structure, behavior, and

interactions.
- Identification of requirements, ensuring
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- Efficient communication and collaboration among stakeholders. -

Detection of design issues or inconsistencies early in the development
process.
- Documentation and knowledge preservation for future maintenance or
enhancement.

Overall, modeling is a critical aspect of OOAD as it helps bridge the gap

between stakeholders' requirements and the implementation of a
well-designed and functioning software system.
4.
When modeling a system's architecture, we aim to capture the high-level
structure and organization of the system's components, their interactions,
and the distribution of responsibilities. This is typically represented using
architectural diagrams, such as a block diagram or a component diagram.
Let's discuss the process of modeling a system's architecture with a neat
sketch:

1. Identify System Components: Begin by identifying the major components

or modules that make up the system. These components represent the
different functional or logical units of the system. For example, in a web
application, components might include a user interface module, a database
module, and a business logic module.

2. Define Component Relationships: Determine the relationships and

dependencies between the identified components. This involves
understanding how the components interact with each other and the flow of
data or control between them. Represent these relationships using
connectors or lines connecting the components in the architectural
diagram.

3. Assign Responsibilities: Define the responsibilities or functions of each

component. This involves specifying the tasks or operations that each
component performs and the services it provides to other components.
Indicate these responsibilities within the component boxes in the
architectural diagram.

4. Consider Deployment and Distribution: If the system is distributed across

multiple physical orDownloaded
virtual byenvironments, consider the deployment aspects
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of the architecture. Identify the deployment nodes, such as servers or

devices, and show how the components are deployed on these nodes. This
can be illustrated using a deployment diagram, which shows the mapping
of components to hardware or software nodes.
5. Incorporate Design Patterns: Consider the application of design patterns
in the system's architecture. Design patterns provide proven solutions to
common design problems. Identify if any design patterns, such as the
Model-View-Controller (MVC) pattern or the layered architecture pattern,
are suitable for your system. Represent the application of these patterns in
the architectural diagram.

6. Refine and Iterate: Architecture modeling is an iterative process. As you

gain more insights and make design decisions, refine and iterate on the
architectural diagram. Seek feedback from stakeholders, software
architects, or development teams to ensure that the architecture aligns with
the system's requirements and design goals.

7. Document and Communicate: Document the system's architecture by

creating a clear and concise architectural diagram. Use standardized
notations, such as UML, to represent the components, relationships, and
deployment details. This diagram serves as a communication tool to
convey the high-level structure of the system to stakeholders, developers,
and other team members.

By following these steps, you can effectively model a system's architecture.

The resulting architectural diagram provides a visual representation of the
system's structure, component interactions, and deployment
considerations. It serves as a blueprint for the development and helps
guide the implementation and integration of the system's components.
5.
6.
Types of Models in Object Oriented Modeling and Design
Intention of object oriented modeling and design is to learn how to apply object
-oriented concepts to all the stages of the software development life
cycle.Object-oriented modeling and design is a way of thinking about problems
using models organized around real world concepts. The fundamental construct
is the object, which combines both data structure and behavior.

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Testing a physical entity before building it

Communication with customers

Visualization

Reduction of complexity

Types of Models:
There are 3 types of models in the object oriented modeling and design are:
Class Model, State Model, and Interaction Model. These are explained as
following below.

1. Class Model:
The class model shows all the classes present in the system. The
class model shows the attributes and the behavior associated with
the objects.

The class diagram is used to show the class model.The class

diagram shows the class name followed by the attributes followed
by the functions or the methods that are associated with the object
of the class.Goal in constructing class model is to capture those
concepts from the real world that are important to an application.

2. State Model:

State model describes those aspects of objects concerned with time and the
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sequencing of operations – events that mark changes, states that define the

context for events, and the organization of events and states.Actions and events

in a state diagram become operations on objects in the class model. State

diagram describes the state model.

3. Interaction Model:
Interaction model is used to show the various interactions between objects, how
the objects collaborate to achieve the behavior of the system as a whole. The
following diagrams are used to show the interaction model:

● Use Case Diagram

● Sequence Diagram
● Activity Diagram
7.

The System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a structured approach used to

guide the development of software systems or information systems. It consists
of several phases, each with its own set of activities, goals, and deliverables.
The following are the typical phases of the SDLC, along with their salient
features:

1. Requirements Gathering and Analysis:

- In this phase, the project team identifies and documents the system
requirements by gathering information from stakeholders and users. - The
main goal is to understand the needs of the system, define its scope, and
establish clear and achievable objectives.
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- Activities include conducting interviews, workshops, and surveys; analyzing

existing systems or processes; and documenting the requirements in a
requirements specification document.

2. System Design:
- This phase focuses on designing the system's architecture and defining its
structure, interfaces, and behavior.
- The design phase translates the requirements into a blueprint for the system's
implementation.
- Activities include creating high-level and detailed designs, developing data
models and class diagrams, specifying system interfaces, and creating
prototypes or mock-ups.

3. Implementation and Coding:

- In this phase, the design specifications are transformed into working software
code.
- Developers write the code, following coding standards and best practices, and
integrate different software components.
- Activities include writing and reviewing code, conducting unit testing,
integrating modules, and ensuring that the implemented system meets the
defined requirements.
4. Testing and Quality Assurance:
- The testing phase focuses on verifying and validating the system to ensure
that it functions correctly and meets the specified requirements. - Various
testing techniques, such as unit testing, integration testing, system testing,
and user acceptance testing, are employed.
- Activities include creating test plans and test cases, executing tests, identifying
and fixing defects, and ensuring system quality and reliability.

5. Deployment and Implementation:

- In this phase, the system is deployed and implemented in the production
environment.
- Activities include installing the software, configuring hardware and software
components, migrating data, and conducting user training.
- The system is made available to end-users, and any necessary support or
maintenance processes are established.

6. Operation and Maintenance:

- Once the system is in operation, it requires ongoing maintenance and support.
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- Activities include monitoring system performance, addressing user issues and

feedback, fixing bugs, and implementing updates or enhancements. - System
maintenance can involve corrective, adaptive, perfective, or preventive
maintenance activities.

7. System Retirement or Replacement:

- Eventually, a system reaches the end of its life cycle and may need to be
retired or replaced.
- The retirement phase involves decommissioning the system, archiving
data, and ensuring a smooth transition to a new system if applicable.

It's important to note that different SDLC models (e.g., Waterfall, Agile,
Spiral) may have variations in the specific phases and their order. However,
the key objective of the SDLC is to provide a systematic and structured
approach to developing and maintaining software systems, ensuring that they
meet user needs, quality standards, and project constraints.
8.UML Class Diagram

The class diagram depicts a static view of an application. It represents the types of
objects residing in the system and the relationships between them. A class consists of
its objects, and also it may inherit from other classes. A class diagram is used to
visualize, describe, document various different aspects of the system, and also
construct executable software code.

It shows the attributes, classes, functions, and relationships to give an overview of the
software system. It constitutes class names, attributes, and functions in a separate
compartment that helps in software development. Since it is a collection of classes,
interfaces, associations, collaborations, and constraints, it is termed as a structural
diagram.

Purpose of Class Diagrams

The main purpose of class diagrams is to build a static view of an application. It is the
only diagram that is widely used for construction, and it can be mapped with
object-oriented languages. It is one of the most popular UML diagrams. Following are
the purpose of class diagrams given below:

1. It analyses and designs a static view of an application.

2. It describes the major responsibilities of a system.

3. It is a base for component and deployment diagrams.

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4. It incorporates forward and reverse engineering.

Benefits of Class Diagrams

1. It can represent the object model for complex systems.

2. It reduces the maintenance time by providing an overview of how an application

is structured before coding.

3. It provides a general schematic of an application for better understanding.

4. It represents a detailed chart by highlighting the desired code, which is to be
programmed.

5. It is helpful for the stakeholders and the developers.

Vital components of a Class Diagram

The class diagram is made up of three sections:

○ Upper Section: The upper section encompasses the name of the class. A class is
a representation of similar objects that shares the same relationships, attributes,
operations, and semantics. Some of the following rules that should be taken into
account while representing a class are given below:

a. Capitalize the initial letter of the class name.

b. Place the class name in the center of the upper section.

c. A class name must be written in bold format.

d. The name of the abstract class should be written in italics format.

○ Middle Section: The middle section constitutes the attributes, which describe the
quality of the class. The attributes have the following characteristics:

a. The attributes are written along with its visibility factors, which are public
(+), private (-), protected (#), and package (~).

b. The accessibility of an attribute class is illustrated by the visibility factors.

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c. A meaningful name should be assigned to the attribute, which will explain

its usage inside the class.

○ Lower Section: The lower section contain methods or operations. The methods
are represented in the form of a list, where each method is written in a single line.
It demonstrates how a class interacts with data.

Usage of Class diagrams

The class diagram is used to represent a static view of the system. It plays an essential
role in the establishment of the component and deployment diagrams. It helps to
construct an executable code to perform forward and backward engineering for any
system, or we can say it is mainly used for construction. It represents the mapping with
object-oriented languages that are C++, Java, etc. Class diagrams can be used for the
following purposes:

1. To describe the static view of a system.

2. To show the collaboration among every instance in the static view.

3. To describe the functionalities performed by the system.

4. To construct the software application using object-oriented languages.

9.
UML stands for Unified Modeling Language. It is a standardized modeling language
used in software engineering to visually represent and communicate the design and
structure of software systems. UML provides a set of notations and diagrams that allow
developers, designers, and stakeholders to create a common understanding of the
system being developed. The purpose of UML is to facilitate effective communication,
analysis, design, and documentation of software systems.
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UML addresses the four aims of modeling in the following ways:

1. Visualization: UML provides visual notations and diagrams that allow

stakeholders to visualize the system's structure, behavior, and interactions. This
aids in understanding and communicating complex systems more effectively
than textual descriptions alone.
2. Specification: UML allows the specification of system requirements,
components, and their relationships. It captures the system's functionality,
constraints, and design decisions in a standardized and structured manner.
3. Construction: UML assists in the construction of software systems by providing a
blueprint for developers to follow. The visual models serve as a guide for writing
code, designing interfaces, and implementing the system's functionality.
4. Documentation: UML serves as a documentation tool for software systems. The
visual models and diagrams provide a comprehensive and concise
representation of the system's architecture, design, and behavior. This
documentation aids in future maintenance, understanding, and collaboration
among development teams.

Overall, UML plays a vital role in the software development process by providing a
common language and notation for modeling and communication. It enables
stakeholders to share a common understanding of the system, facilitates effective
analysis and design, and promotes better collaboration and documentation throughout
the software development lifecycle.
10.
11.

12.

13.

REFER 9

14.

i. 9 -> Relationships -> 2. Associations -> Role ii. 9 ->

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Relationships -> 2. Associations -> Multiplicity iii. 9 ->

Relationships -> 2. Associations -> Aggregation iv. 9 ->

Relationships -> 3. Generalization

15.
Unit-3
1. What is a nature of Class and Object? How to

identify Classes and Objects with suitable Examples.

2. Differences between Class and Object with suitable

examples. What are the Objectives of Design?

3. Discuss about modeling techniques for object

diagrams and draw the object diagram for any structural
organization of any educational system.
4. Define and explain the following with examples:
i) Class ii) Object iii) Attributes iv) Operations v) Stereotype
vi) Tagged value
5 Explain the forward engineering and reverse engineering
for a sample code with respect to the class diagram.
6. Explain about links and associations in Class Diagram?
Discuss different types of relationships in class and object
diagrams with examples.
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7. What are relationships? What are the relations

accommodated by class diagrams? Compare and contrast
link, association and navigation? Define the terms package
and package generalization?
1, 2.
Class is a detailed description, the definition, and the
template of what an object will be. But it is not the object
itself. Also, what we call, a class is the building block that
leads to Object-Oriented Programming. It is a user-defined
data type, that holds its own data members and member
functions, which can be accessed and used by creating an
instance of that class. It is the blueprint of any object. Once
we have written a class and defined it, we can use it to create
as many objects based on that class as we want. In Java, the
class contains fields, constructors, and methods. For example,
consider the Class of Accounts. There may be many accounts
with different names and types, but all of them will share
some common properties, as all of them will have some
common attributes like balance, account holder name, etc.
So here, the Account is the class.

Object is an instance of a class. All data members and

member functions of the class can be accessed with the help
of objects. When a class is defined, no memory is allocated,
but memory is allocated when it is instantiated (i.e. an object
is created). For Example, considering the objects for the class
Account are SBI Account, ICICI account, etc.
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Fig-1: Pic Descriptions Class and object

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Fig-2: Class Diagram To Understand Class and Object

Difference Between Class And Object:

There are many differences between object and class. Some differences

between object and class are given below:

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Class Object

Class is used as a template for

An object is an instance of a
declaring and
class.
creating the objects.

Objects are allocated memory

When a class is created, no memory is
space whenever they are
allocated.
created.

The class has to be declared first and

An object is created many times
only once.
as per requirement.

A class can not be manipulated as they

are not
Objects can be manipulated.

available in the memory.

A class is a logical entity. An object is a physical entity.

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It is created with a class name in

C++ and
It is declared with the class keyword

with the new keywords in Java.

Class does not contain any values

Each object has its own values,
which
which are

can be associated with the field.

associated with it.

A class is used to bind data as well as

Objects are like a variable of the
methods together as a single unit.
class.

class <classname> {};

Syntax: Instantiating an object
for a Class in C++ is as follows:

class Student {

public:

void put(){
Syntax: Declaring Class in C++ is as
follows: cout<<“Function
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Called”<<endl; Student s1; // Object

created

}
s1.put();

}; // The class is declared here

}

int main(){

Example:Ducati, Suzuki,
Example:Bike Kawasaki

3.

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I: P1:
S: P: S1: H1:

4.
i) Class: A class is a blueprint or a template that defines the properties
(attributes) and behaviors (operations) of a particular type of object. It
represents a category or a set of objects that share common
characteristics. ForDownloaded
example, a class
by Lakshman called
Virijala "Car" can define attributes like
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"color," "model," and "year" and operations like "startEngine()" and

"accelerate()".

ii) Object: An object is an instance of a class. It is a specific entity that

exists in memory and possesses the attributes and behaviors defined by its
class. Objects are created from classes and can interact with each other to
perform actions. For example, if we have a class "Car," an object of that
class could be "myCar," representing a specific car instance with its own set
of attributes and the ability to perform operations.

What is Stereotypes and Tagged Values

in UML?
What is Stereotypes?
Stereotype is a profile class which defines how an existing
metaclass may be extended as part of a profile. It enables the use of a
platform or domain specific terminology or notation in place of, or in
addition to, the ones used for the extended metaclass.
● A stereotype cannot be used by itself, but must always be
used with one of the metaclasses it extends. Stereotype cannot
be extended by another stereotype.
● A stereotype uses the same notation as a class, with the
keyword «stereotype» shown before or above the name of the
stereotype. Stereotype names should not clash with keyword
names for the extended model element.
● For example, Servlet Stereotype extends
Component. What is Tagged Values?
A tagged value is a tag value pair that can be used to add properties
to model elements in UML. In UML 2 tagged values can only be
applied to model elements that use a stereotype with a tag definition.
Tagged values are shown in the formtag = value where tag is the tag
name and value is a literal value.
5.
6,7.
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1. Write the features that distinguish sequence diagrams from collaboration

Diagrams? draw collaboration and sequence diagram for simple
telephone call.
2.Draw the use case diagram for online railway reservation
system.
3. Forward engineering is possible for both sequence and
collaboration diagrams. Justify the validity of the statement.
4. Draw the activity diagram for online quiz management system.
5. Write the five standard stereotypes that can be applied to components in UML
6. Prepare an activity diagram that elaborates the details of logging into an email
system. Explain the steps with a neat diagram.
7. Explain about forking and joining concepts in activity diagram with an example.
8. Consider modeling a student information system. Consider the use case “student
registers for a course". Draw a sequence diagram and explain briefly. 9. Explain
the following with an example:
i) use case ii) Actor iii) flow of events.
10. Draw swimlane flowchart for financial accounting template and customize it to show
your processes and procedures.
11. What is meant by usecase? Explain about use case description with
an example. 12. State and explain the common modeling techniques of
usecase diagrams.
13. Draw an use case diagram for hospital information system aimed at collecting and
storing complete information pertaining to the patients.
14. Draw sequence diagram for hospital information system.
15. Explain common modeling techniques of collaboration
diagram. 16. Illustrate swimlanes and object flow in Activity
Diagram.
17. Compose the Interaction diagram for check out item usecase of library
application. 18. What is the purpose of a use-case model? Illustrate the different types
of relationships between use cases with an example.
19.Draw the sequence diagram that specifies that specify the flow of control involved
in initiating a simple, two party phone calls.
20. Explain any four differences between the two kinds of
interaction diagrams. 21. Discuss Use Cases in Library application.
22. What is need of interaction and how it is modeled?
23. Give the structural and semantic differences between sequence and
collaboration diagrams? 24. Give the sequence diagram for Electronic voting
machine (EVM)?
25. Give the components and interface semantics for Library Automation.
26. Draw the activity diagram for online shopping cart.
27.Discuss clearly about different representations used in interaction diagrams.
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