—_——— Science and Numerical Methods Book: A Journey Through Computational Science and Numerical Methods: An Undergraduate Guide Prof. John B. Oladosu Lecture 2: Mathematical Foundations2.1 Fundamentals of Calculus * Calculus forms the bedrock of mathematical analysis in Computational Science. * It provides the tools to understand how quantities change and is essential for modeling dynamic systems. * Two core branches of calculus are integral calculus and differential calculus.2.1.1 Differential Calculus Differential calculus focuses on rates of change and slopes of curves. Key concepts include: Derivatives: The derivative of a function measures how it changes at a specific point. It is defined as the limit of the ratio of the change in the function's output to the change in its input as the change approaches zero. Rules of Differentiation: Various rules, such as the product rule, chain rule, and quotient rule, enable us to differentiate complex functions by breaking them down into simpler parts. Applications: Differential calculus is used in optimization problems, physics (e.g., describing motion), and many other fields to understand how quantities change with respect to each other.2.1.2 Integral Calculus Integral calculus deals with accumulation and integration of quantities. Key concepts include: Definite and Indefinite Integrals: The definite integral computes the accumulated quantity over a specified interval, while the indefinite integral finds an antiderivative of a function. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus: This theorem connects differentiation and integration, stating that the integral of a function's derivative over an interval is equal to the difference in the function's values at the interval's endpoints. Applications: Integral calculus is used for finding areas under curves, calculating total accumulated quantities (e.g., total distance traveled), and solving differential equations.2.2 Linear Algebra Linear algebra provides tools to work with vectors, matrices, and linear transformations. It is indispensable in Computational Science for solving systems of linear equations and understanding multidimensional data. + 2.2.1 Vectors and Matrices {1 Vectors: Vectors represent quantities with both magnitude and direction. They are used to describe positions, velocities, forces, and more. In computational applications, vectors are essential for data storage and manipulation. {i Matrices: Matrices are arrays of numbers arranged in rows and columns. They are used to represent linear transformations, solve systems of linear equations, and perform operations like matrix multiplication. + 2.2.2 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors + Eigenvalues and eigenvectors are crucial concepts in linear algebra, especially in numerical simulations and optimization. They describe how a matrix behaves when multiplied by itself repeatedly. Eigenvalues represent scaling factors, while eigenvectors define the directions of stretching or compression.2.3 Differential Equations + Differential equations are fundamental in modeling dynamic systems where quantities change with respect to time or other independent variables. There are two main types: + 2.3.1 Ordinary Differential Equations (ODEs) + ODEs describe how a single variable changes with respect to an independent variable (usually time). They are classified by their order, which represents the highest derivative involved. 5 First-Order ODEs: These involve the first derivative of the unknown function. They are often used to model simple exponential growth or decay. )) Second-Order ODEs: These involve the second derivative and are used to describe oscillations, such as the motion of a pendulum. + 2.3.2 Partial Differential Equations (PDEs) + PDEs involve multiple variables and their partial derivatives. They are used to model phenomena like heat diffusion, fluid flow, and electromagnetic fields. 3. Classification: PDEs can be categorized into elliptic, parabolic, and hyperbolic types based on their characteristics and mathematical properties.2.4 Probability and Statistics Probability and statistics provide the tools for dealing with uncertainty, randomness, and data analysis. Key concepts include + 2.4.1 Probability 5. Probability Distributions: These describe the likelihood of different outcomes in random experiments. ‘Common distributions include the normal distribution, binomial distribution, and Poisson distribution 5. Random Variables: Random variables represent outcomes of random experiments and have associated probability distributions. + 2.4.2 Statistics Descriptive Statistics: Descriptive statistics summarize and present data, including measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode), dispersion (variance, standard deviation), and percentiles. 41 Inferential Statistics: inferential statistics involve making inferences or predictions about a population based ‘on a sample. Techniques include hypothesis testing and confidence intervals. 3) Regression Analysis: Regression analysis models the relationship between variables and is used for prediction and understanding causal relationships.2.5 Discrete Mathematics Discrete mathematics deals with countable and distinct objects. It plays a crucial role in algorithm design, graph theory, and combinatorics, which are essential in Computational Science. 2.5.1 Graph Theory Graph theory studies networks of nodes and edges. It is used in various applications, including network analysis, social networks, and transportation planning 2.5.2 Combinatorics Combinatorics explores counting and arranging objects. It is vital in analyzing permutations, combinations, and probabilities in discrete structures. Understanding these mathematical foundations is essential for developing the analytical and problem-solving skills required in Computational Science. In the subsequent chapters, we will apply these mathematical concepts to solve complex problems using computational methods.