Computer

Networks
Module 1
Networks
• A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)
connected by communication links.
• A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network.
Computer Networks
• Computer Network is a group of computers connected
with each other through wires, optical fibres or optical
links so that various devices can interact with each other
through a network.
• The aim of the computer network is the sharing of
resources among various devices.
• In the case of computer network technology, there are
several types of networks that vary from simple to
complex level.
How does a Computer Network works?

Basics building blocks of a Computer

network are Nodes and Links.

A node is any physical device within a

network that can send, receive, or forward
information.

In computer networks, a link is the physical

or logical connection between two nodes
that allows for data transfer.

Links can be either wired (using cables like

Ethernet, fiber optics, etc.) or wireless
(using technologies like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth,
etc.).
How does a Computer Network works?

The working of Computer Networks can be simply defined as

rules or protocols which help in sending and receiving data via
the links which allow Computer networks to communicate.

Each device has an IP Address, that helps in identifying a

device.
Components
of Computer
Network
Components of
Computer Network
• NIC(Network Interface
Card)
• A Network Interface Card
(NIC) is a hardware
component that allows a
computer to connect to a
network.
• It plays a crucial role in
enabling communication
between computers and
other network devices.
Components of
Computer Network
• Hub
• A hub is a basic networking device used to
connect multiple computers or network
devices in a local area network (LAN).
• When computer requests for some
information from a network, it first sends
the request to the Hub through cable.
• Hub will broadcast this request to the entire
network.
• All the devices will check whether the
request belongs to them or not.
• If not, the request will be dropped.
Hub
Components of Computer Network
Switches
• A switch is an essential networking device used to connect
multiple devices within a local area network (LAN).
• Unlike hubs, which broadcast data to all ports, switches
intelligently forward data only to the intended recipient based on
MAC addresses.
Components of Computer
Network
• Cables
Cable is a transmission media that transmits the
communication signals.
There are three types of cables:
Twisted pair cable: It is a high-speed cable that transmits
the data over 1Gbps or more.
Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable resembles like a TV installation
cable. Coaxial cable is more expensive than twisted pair
cable, but it provides the high data transmission speed.
Fibre optic cable: Fibre optic cable is a high-speed cable
that transmits the data using light beams. It provides high
data transmission speed as compared to other cables.
Components of
Computer Network

Router
• A router is a device that connects two or more
packet-switched networks or subnetworks.
• It serves two primary functions: managing traffic
between these networks by forwarding data
packets to their intended IP addresses and
allowing multiple devices to use the same
Internet connection.
Components of
Computer Network

Modem
• A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a
hardware device that enables a computer or
network to send and receive data over
telephone lines, cable systems, or satellite
connections.
• It converts digital data from a computer into
analog signals that can be transmitted over
these mediums and then converts incoming
analog signals back into digital data.
Types of Computer
Networks
• A computer network can be categorized by
their size.
• A computer network is mainly of four types:
LAN(Local Area
Network)
• Local Area Network is a group of
computers connected to each other in a
small area such as building, office.
• LAN is used for connecting two or more
personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted
pair, coaxial cable, etc.
• It is less costly as it is built with
inexpensive hardware such as hubs,
network adapters, and ethernet cables.
• The data is transferred at an extremely
faster rate in Local Area Network.
• Local Area Network provides higher
security.
• Egs: office Networks, School Networks
PAN(Personal Area
Networks)
• Personal Area Network is a network arranged
within an individual person, typically within a
range of 10 meters.
• Personal Area Network is used for connecting
the computer devices of personal use is
known as Personal Area Network.
• Thomas Zimmerman was the first research
scientist to bring the idea of the Personal
Area Network.
• Personal Area Network covers an area of 30
feet.
• Personal computer devices that are used to
develop the personal area network are the
laptop, mobile phones, media player and
play stations.
Egs: Bluetooth-enabled devices, personal
hotspots.
Types of
PAN
• Wireless Personal
Area Network: Wireless
Personal Area Network is
developed by simply using
wireless technologies such
as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a
low range network.
• Wired Personal Area
Network: Wired Personal
Area Network is created
by using the physical
cables typically ethernet,
firewire, USB etc.
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

• A metropolitan area network is a network that

covers a larger geographic area (as the size of a
metropolitan city) by interconnecting a
different LAN to form a larger network.
• The LANs are connected each other through
routers/bridges.
• The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-
232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
• It has a higher range than Local Area
Network(LAN).
Uses of MAN

o MAN is used in communication between

the banks in a city.
o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in
the military.
WAN(Wide Area
Networks)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a

large geographical area such as states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the
LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single
location, but it spans over a large geographical area
through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite
links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of
Business, government, and education.
o Examples: The Internet, corporate networks spanning
multiple cities or countries.
Network Topologies

Network topology refers to the

arrangement of different It defines how these
elements like nodes, links, and components are connected
devices in a computer and interact with each other.
network.

Common types include point

Understanding various types of
to point , bus, star, ring, mesh,
network topologies helps in
tree and hybrid topologies,
designing efficient and robust
each with its own advantages
networks.
and disadvantages.
Point-to-Point(P2P) Topology

• A Point-to-Point (P2P) topology is

one of the simplest and most
straightforward network topologies.
• It consists of a direct connection
between two nodes, such as
computers, switches, or other
network devices.
• This topology can be used in both
wired and wireless networks.
• Provides high band-width.
Bus Topology

• All of the devices in a bus topology

network are linked together by a
single cable, which is referred to as a
“bus” and the cable is known as
backbone cable.
• All of the network’s devices can
simultaneously receive the same
signal due to the shared
communication medium provided by
this connection.
Bus Topology

• Bus topology carries transmitted data

through the cable because data reaches
each node, the node checks the
destination address (MAC/IP address) to
determine if it matches their address.
• If the address does not match with the
node, the node does nothing more.
• But if the addresses of nodes match to
addresses contained within the data then
they process knowledge.
• In the bus, communication between
nodes is done through a foremost network
cable.
Advantages of Bus Topology

• Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are

directly connected to the cable without
passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial
cost of installation is low.
• Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair
cables are mainly used in bus-based networks
that support upto 10 Mbps.
• Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar
technology as the installation and
troubleshooting techniques are well known,
and hardware components are easily available.
• Limited failure: A failure in one node will not
have any effect on other nodes.
Disadvantages o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite
simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.

of Bus Topology o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires

specialized test equipment to determine the
cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable,
then it would disrupt the communication for
all the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the
messages simultaneously, then the signals of
both the nodes collide with each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new
devices to the network would slow down the
network.
Ring Topology
o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with
connected ends.
o The node that receives the message from the previous
computer will retransmit to the next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is
unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known
as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected
to other node and having no termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise
direction.
o The most common access method of the ring
topology is token passing.
Ring Topology

Token Passing
• A common method of data transmission in
ring topology is token passing.
• A token, a small data packet, circulates
around the ring, and only the node possessing
the token can send data.
• This helps in avoiding data collisions and
managing network traffic efficiently.
Advantages of Ring
Topology
o Network Management: Faulty devices can
be removed from the network without
bringing the network down.
o Product availability: Many hardware and
software tools for network operation and
monitoring are available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and
easily available. Therefore, the installation
cost is very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network
because the communication system is not
dependent on the single host computer.
Disadvantages of Ring
Topology
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires
specialized test equipment to determine the
cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then
it would disrupt the communication for all the
nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to
the failure of the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices
to the network would slow down the network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly
proportional to the number of nodes. Adding
new devices increases the communication
delay.
Star Topology
• All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central
device, known as hub device, using a point-to-point
connection.
• Star topology is an arrangement of the network in
which every node is connected to the central hub,
switch or a central computer.
• The central computer is known as a server, and the
peripheral devices attached to the server are known
as clients.
• Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the
computers.
• Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection
devices in a physical star topology.
• Star topology is the most popular topology in network
implementation.
Advantages of star topology
Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as compared to
bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star
topology, all the stations are connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the network
administrator has to go to the single station to troubleshoot the problem.

Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the star
topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically accommodated.

Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable, therefore
failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
Advantages of star topology
Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are
cost-effective.

Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to

the open ports on the hub.

Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses

inexpensive coaxial cable.

High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet

100BaseT is one of the most popular Star topology networks.
Disadvantages of star
topology

o A Central point of failure: If the central hub

or switch goes down, then all the connected
nodes will not be able to communicate with
each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes
difficult when a significant amount of routing
is required.
Tree Topology
• Tree topology combines the characteristics of
bus topology and star topology.
• A tree topology is a type of structure in which all
the computers are connected with each other in
hierarchical fashion.
• The top-most node in tree topology is known as
a root node, and all other nodes are the
descendants of the root node.
• There is only one path exists between two nodes
for the data transmission. Thus, it forms a
parent-child hierarchy.
Advantages of Tree Topology

• Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology

is mainly used to provide broadband transmission,
i.e., signals are sent over long distances without
being attenuated.
• Easily expandable: We can add the new device to
the existing network. Therefore, we can say that
tree topology is easily expandable.
• Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole
network is divided into segments known as star
networks which can be easily managed and
maintained.
• Error detection: Error detection and error
correction are very easy in a tree topology.
• Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does
not affect the entire network.
• Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring
for individual segments.
Disadvantages of Tree
Topology
• Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault
occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult
to troubleshoot the problem.
• High cost: Devices required for broadband
transmission are very costly.
• Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on
main bus cable and failure in main bus cable
will damage the overall network.
• Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices
are added, then it becomes difficult to
reconfigure.
Mesh Topology
• Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in
which computers are interconnected with each other
through various redundant connections.
• There are multiple paths from one computer to
another computer.
• It does not contain the switch, hub or any central
computer which acts as a central point of
communication.
• The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
• Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN
implementations where communication failures are a
critical concern.
• Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
• Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;
• Where n is the number of nodes that represents the
network.
Mesh Topology

• Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh

topology, each computer is connected to all
the computers available in the network.
• Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh
topology, not all but certain computers are
connected to those computers with which
they communicate frequently.
Advantages of Mesh Topology

• Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not
affect the communication between connected computers.
• Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
• Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication
between other devices.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

• Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router and more
transmission media than other topologies.
• Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and manage.
If the network is not monitored carefully, then the communication link failure goes undetected.
• Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency of the
network.
Hybrid Topology
• The combination of various different
topologies is known as Hybrid topology.
• A Hybrid topology is a connection
between different links and nodes to
transfer the data.
• When two or more different topologies
are combined together is termed as
Hybrid topology and if similar topologies
are connected with each other will not
result in Hybrid topology.
• For example, if there exist a ring topology
in one branch of ICICI bank and bus
topology in another branch of ICICI bank,
connecting these two topologies will
result in Hybrid topology.
Advantages of Hybrid
Topology
o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the
network will not affect the functioning of the
rest of the network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily
expanded by adding new devices without
affecting the functionality of the existing
network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it
can be designed according to the
requirements of the organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective
as it can be designed in such a way that the
strength of the network is maximized, and
weakness of the network is minimized.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
Complex design: The major drawback of Hybrid topology is the design of the
Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid
network.

Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as
these hubs are different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.

Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid

network requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.
Network Architecture

• Computer Network Architecture

is defined as the physical and
logical design of the software,
hardware, protocols, and media
of the transmission of data.
• Simply we can say that how
computers are organized and
how tasks are allocated to the
computer.
Network Architecture- Peer-To-Peer network
• Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which
all the computers are linked together with
equal privilege and responsibilities for
processing the data.
• Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small
environments, usually up to 10 computers.
• Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated
server.
• Special permissions are assigned to each
computer for sharing the resources, but this
can lead to a problem if the computer with
the resource is down.
Network Architecture- Client-Server
Network
• Client/Server network is a network model
designed for the end users called clients, to access
the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a
central computer known as Server.
• The central controller is known as a server while
all other computers in the network are
called clients.
• A server performs all the major operations such as
security and network management.
• A server is responsible for managing all the
resources such as files, directories, printer, etc.
• All the clients communicate with each other
through a server. For example, if client1 wants to
send some data to client 2, then it first sends the
request to the server for the permission. The
server sends the response to the client 1 to
initiate its communication with the client 2.
Reference Models
• In the past couple of decades, many networks that were
built used different hardware and software
implementations as a result they were incompatible, and
thus it became difficult for networks using different
specifications to communicate with each other.
• In order to address this problem: the incompatibility of
networks and their inability to communicate with each
other., the International Organization of
Standardization(ISO) researched various network schemes.
• After that, they recognized there is a need to create a
Network Model that will help vendors to create
interoperable implementations of the network.
Reference Models
• It is a conceptual layout mainly used to describe how the communication
between devices should occur.
• One of the main advantages of the reference model is that it defines the
standards for building components of the network thereby permitting
multiple-vendor development.
• Reference models define which functions should be performed at each layer
of the model and thus they promote standardization.
• The most important reference models are:
1. OSI reference model.
2. TCP/IP reference model.
OSI Reference Model
• OSI stands for Open System Interconnection
• OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural
model for the inter-computer communications.
• Also known as ISO-OSI model.
• OSI Model consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular
network function.
• OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks.
Each layer is assigned a particular task.
• Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be
performed independently.
OSI Model-
7 layers
Physical Layer

• The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node to
another node.
• It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
• Deals with all aspects of physically moving data from one computer to the next
• Converts data from the upper layers into 1s and 0s for transmission over media
• Defines how data is encoded onto the media to transmit the data
• Defined on this layer: Cable standards, wireless standards, and fiber optic standards, Copper
wiring, fiber optic cable, radio frequencies, anything that can be used to transmit data is defined
on the Physical layer of the OSI Model.
Functions of Physical Layer
• Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of
the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and
receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level.
• Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate
i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
• Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
• Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows
between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes
possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
DataLink Layer

• The Data Link Layer is the second layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
model.
• It is responsible for node-to-node data transfer and error detection and correction,
ensuring reliable communication between devices on the same network segment.
Functions of Data Link Layer
• Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits
that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the
beginning and end of the frame.
• Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC addresses)
of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
• Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and
retransmits damaged or lost frames.
• Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus, flow
control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
• Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of
the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.
Network Layer

• The network layer works for the

transmission of data from one host to the
other located in different networks.
• It also takes care of packet routing i.e.
selection of the shortest path to transmit
the packet, from the number of routes
available.
• The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are
placed in the header by the network
layer.
Functions of Network
Layer

• Routing: The network layer protocols

determine which route is suitable from
source to destination. This function of the
network layer is known as routing.
• Logical Addressing: To identify each device
inter-network uniquely, the network layer
defines an addressing scheme. The sender &
receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the
header by the network layer. Such an
address distinguishes each device uniquely
and universally.
Transport Layer

• The transport layer provides services to the

application layer and takes services from the
network layer.
• The data in the transport layer is referred to
as Segments. It is responsible for the end-to-
end delivery of the complete message.
• The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgment of the successful data
transmission and re-transmits the data if an
error is found.
• Two types of protocols used in this layer is:
TCP and UDP.
Functions of Transport Layer

Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the
(session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the
segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at
the destination station reassembles the message.

Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process,

the transport layer header includes a type of address called service point
address or port address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport
layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.
Session Layer

• This layer is responsible for the

establishment of connection,
maintenance of sessions, and
authentication, and also ensures
security.
Functions of Session
Layer
• Session Establishment, Maintenance, and
Termination: The layer allows the two
processes to establish, use, and terminate a
connection.
• Synchronization: This layer allows a process
to add checkpoints that are considered
synchronization points in the data. These
synchronization points help to identify the
error so that the data is re-synchronized
properly.
• Dialog Control: The session layer allows
two systems to start communication with
each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
Presentation Layer

• The presentation layer is also called

the Translation layer. The data from the
application layer is extracted here and
manipulated as per the required format to
transmit over the network.
Functions of Presentation
Layer
• Translation: Converts data between different
formats to ensure that data sent by the
application layer of one system can be read by
the application layer of another. Handles
syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged, converting between character
encoding schemes (e.g., ASCII, EBCDIC) and
data formats (e.g., JSON, XML).
• Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption
translates the data into another form or code.
The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext
and the decrypted data is known as plain text.
A key value is used for encrypting as well as
decrypting data.
• Compression: Reduces the number of bits that
need to be transmitted on the network.
Application Layer

• At the very top of the OSI Reference Model

stack of layers, we find the Application
layer which is implemented by the network
applications.
• These applications produce the data to be
transferred over the network. This layer
also serves as a window for the application
services to access the network and for
displaying the received information to the
user.
• Example: Application –
Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc. playing
the received information to the user.
Functions of
Application Layer
• Network Virtual Terminal(NVT): It allows
a user to log on to a remote host.
• File Transfer Access and
Management(FTAM): This application
allows a user to
access files in a remote host, retrieve files
in a remote host, and manage or
control files from a remote computer.
• Mail Services: Provide email service.
• Directory Services: This application
provides distributed database sources and
access for global information about various
objects and services.
Interaction
between the
layers in the
model
TCP/IP Model

• The TCP/IP model is a fundamental framework

for computer networking.
• It stands for Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol, which are the core
protocols of the Internet.
• This model defines how data is transmitted
over networks, ensuring reliable communication
between devices.
• TCP/IP was designed and developed by the
Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1960s and
is based on standard protocols.
• The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the
OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike the
seven layers in the OSI model.
TCP/IP Model
• It consists of four layers:
➢ Host-to –network Layer
➢ Internet Layer
➢Transport Layer
➢ Application Layer
• Each layer has specific functions
that help manage different aspects
of network communication, making
it essential for understanding and
working with modern networks.
TCP/IP
Model
Application Layer
• Application layer protocols define the rules
when implementing specific network
applications
• Rely on the underlying layers to provide
accurate and efficient data delivery
• Typical protocols:
• FTP – File Transfer Protocol - For file transfer
• Telnet(Teletype Network) – Remote terminal
protocol
• For remote login on any other computer on the
network
• SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol - For mail
transfer
• HTTP – Hypertext Transfer Protocol- For
webbrowsing
This layer is essentially the same as the OSI Model
layer 7 .
Transport Layer

• The TCP/IP transport layer protocols

exchange data receipt acknowledgments and
retransmit missing packets to ensure that
packets arrive in order and without error.
• End-to-end communication is referred to as
such.
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
User Datagram Protocol are transport layer
protocols at this level (UDP).
• TCP is a connection-oriented protocol which
ensures data is delivered accurately and in
order.
• UDP is a connectionless protocol and is
unreliable.
Internet Layer
• This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s
Network layer.
• It defines the protocols which are
responsible for the logical transmission
of data over the entire network.
• The main protocols residing at this layer
are as follows:
• IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it
is responsible for delivering packets from
the source host to the destination host
by looking at the IP addresses in the
packet headers.
IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6.
Internet Layer
• ICMP: ICMP stands for
Internet Control Message
Protocol. It is encapsulated
within IP datagrams and is
responsible for providing hosts
with information about
network problems.
• ARP: ARP stands for Address
Resolution Protocol. Its job is
to find the hardware address
of a host from a known IP
address.
Host-to-Network Layer

• This layer is also known as the Link Layer.

• A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP
model.
• A network layer is the combination of the Physical
layer and Data Link layer defined in the OSI
reference model.
• It defines how the data should be sent physically
through the network.
• This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission
of the data between two devices on the same
network.
• The functions carried out by this layer are
encapsulating the IP datagram into frames
transmitted by the network and mapping of IP
addresses into physical addresses.
• The protocols used by this layer are ethernet,
token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.
TCP/IP
Protocol Suite
TCP/IP Model v/s Slno OSI Model TCP/IP Model

OSI Model 1 Seven Layers 4 Layers

2 Developed by ISO Developed by DoD(Department

of Defense)

3 Model was defined before Model defined after protocol

implementation takes were implemented
place.

4 It gives guarantee of reliable It does not give guarantee of

delivery of packet. reliable delivery of packet.
Slno OSI Model TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP Model v/s 5 Has separate presentation and

session layer
Combines the session and
presentation layer in the application
OSI Model layer.

6 Protocols are hidden in OSI model Replacing protocols is not easy

and are easily replaced as the
technology changes.

7 Primarily used as a teaching tool and The foundation of the modern Internet
reference model to understand and most contemporary networks.
network architecture.
Critiques of OSI Model and
Protocols
1. Bad Timing
• The OSI model suffered from bad timing because
its standards were often written too early, before
thorough research was completed, leading to
misunderstandings.
• By the time the OSI model was fully developed,
significant research time had passed, and
companies had already heavily invested in the
TCP/IP model.
• As a result, manufacturers were reluctant to
switch to or invest in the OSI model.
• No company wanted to be the first to adopt it,
which led to its lack of initial adoption and
ultimately, its failure to gain traction.
Critiques of OSI Model and
Protocols
2. Bad technology
• The OSI model was not widely adopted because it
faced competition from the already popular TCP/IP
protocols and had several fundamental flaws.
• These flaws included overly complex service
definitions, protocols, and documentation, making
it difficult to implement and inefficient in operation.
• Additionally, the design of the OSI model was
influenced more by political considerations than
technical ones, leading to duplicated error and flow
control mechanisms across multiple layers.
• Furthermore, the model was dominated by a
communications mentality, further hindering its
practicality and adoption.
Critiques of OSI Model and
Protocols
3. Bad Implementation
• The OSI model's complexity led to slow, bulky, and
inefficient initial implementations, making it
synonymous with poor quality early on.
• It became clear that not all seven layers needed to
be designed together to function effectively.
• In contrast, TCP/IP implementations were more
reliable and quickly gained a large user community.
• Simply put, the complexity of the OSI model
resulted in poor implementation, making it difficult
to use effectively.
Critiques of OSI Model and
Protocols
4. Bad Politics
• The OSI model suffered from bad politics, as it
wasn't associated with UNIX, unlike TCP/IP, which
gained popularity in academia through this
connection.
• Instead, OSI was linked with European
telecommunications, the European community,
and the U.S. government, and was seen as
technically inferior to TCP/IP.
• This led to negative reactions and widespread
support for TCP/IP.
• Despite these challenges, the OSI model remains
a general standard reference for networking
documentation, with organizations still interested
in it. Efforts to update it resulted in a revised model
published in 1994.
Critiques of TCP/IP Model and
Protocols
• It does not distinguish between the data link
and the physical layers, which has very different
functionalities. The data link layer should
concern with the transmission of frames. On the
other hand, the physical layer should lay down
the physical characteristics of transmission. A
proper model should segregate the two layers.
• It was originally designed and implemented for
wide area networks. It is not optimized for small
networks like LAN (local area network) and PAN
(personal area network).
• The model doesnot clearly distinguish the
concepts of services, interfaces and
protocols.
END