Discourse analysis is sometimes defined as the analysis of language 'beyond the sentence'.

This
contrasts with types of analysis more typical of modern linguistics, which are chiefly concerned with the
study of grammar: the study of smaller bits of language, such as sounds (phonetics and phonology),
parts of words (morphology), meaning (semantics), and the order of words in sentences (syntax).
Discourse analysts study larger chunks of language as they flow together.

Some discourse analysts consider the larger discourse context in order to understand how it affects the
meaning of the sentence. For example, Charles Fillmore points out that two sentences taken together as
a single discourse can have meanings different from each one taken separately. To illustrate, he asks you
to imagine two independent signs at a swimming pool: "Please use the toilet, not the pool," says one.
The other announces, "Pool for members only." If you regard each sign independently, they seem quite
reasonable. But taking them together as a single discourse makes you go back and revise your
interpretation of the first sentence after you've read the second.

Discourse and Frames

'Reframing' is a way to talk about going back and re-interpreting the meaning of the first sentence.
Frame analysis is a type of discourse analysis that asks, What activity are speakers engaged in when they
say this? What do they think they are doing by talking in this way at this time? Consider how hard it is to
make sense of what you are hearing or reading if you don't know who's talking or what the general topic
is. When you read a newspaper, you need to know whether you are reading a news story, an editorial,
or an advertisement in order to properly interpret the text you are reading. Years ago, when Orson
Welles' radio play "The War of the Worlds" was broadcast, some listeners who tuned in late panicked,
thinking they were hearing the actual end of the world. They mistook the frame for news instead of
drama.

Turn-taking

Conversation is an enterprise in which one person speaks, and another listens. Discourse analysts who
study conversation note that speakers have systems for determining when one person's turn is over and
the next person's turn begins. This exchange of turns or 'floors' is signaled by such linguistic means as
intonation, pausing, and phrasing. Some people await a clear pause before beginning to speak, but
others assume that 'winding down' is an invitation to someone else to take the floor. When speakers
have different assumptions about how turn exchanges are signaled, they may inadvertently interrupt or
feel interrupted. On the other hand, speakers also frequently take the floor even though they know the
other speaker has not invited them to do so.
Listenership too may be signaled in different ways. Some people expect frequent nodding as well as
listener feedback such as 'mhm', 'uhuh', and 'yeah'. Less of this than you expect can create the
impression that someone is not listening; more than you expect can give the impression that you are
being rushed along. For some, eye contact is expected nearly continually; for others, it should only be
intermittent. The type of listener response you get can change how you speak: If someone seems
uninterested or uncomprehending (whether or not they truly are), you may slow down, repeat, or
overexplain, giving the impression you are 'talking down.' Frederick Erickson has shown that this can
occur in conversations between black and white speakers, because of different habits with regard to
showing listenership.

Discourse Markers

'Discourse markers' is the term linguists give to the little words like 'well', 'oh', 'but', and 'and' that break
our speech up into parts and show the relation between parts. 'Oh' prepares the hearer for a surprising
or just-remembered item, and 'but' indicates that sentence to follow is in opposition to the one before.
However, these markers don't necessarily mean what the dictionary says they mean. Some people use
'and' just to start a new thought, and some people put 'but' at the end of their sentences, as a way of
trailing off gently. Realizing that these words can function as discourse markers is important to prevent
the frustration that can be experienced if you expect every word to have its dictionary meaning every
time it's used.

Speech Acts

Speech act analysis asks not what form the utterance takes but what it does. Saying "I now pronounce
you man and wife" enacts a marriage. Studying speech acts such as complimenting allows discourse
analysts to ask what counts as a compliment, who gives compliments to whom, and what other function
they can serve. For example, linguists have observed that women are more likely both to give
compliments and to get them. There are also cultural differences; in India, politeness requires that if
someone compliments one of your possessions, you should offer to give the item as a gift, so
complimenting can be a way of asking for things. An Indian woman who had just met her son's American
wife was shocked to hear her new daughter-in-law praise her beautiful saris. She commented, "What
kind of girl did he marry? She wants everything!" By comparing how people in different cultures use
language, discourse analysts hope to make a contribution to improving cross-cultural understanding.

Discourse analysis meaning

Discourse analysis (sometimes named discourse studies) is a qualitative research method that involves
an in-depth examination of any written, spoken, non-verbal, and visual language in context.

Discourse analysts are interested in how language can impart meaning. This could be vocabulary, use of
grammar, gestures, facial expressions, imagery, language techniques, and many more. They analyse
whole chunks (rather than individual utterances) of both planned and spontaneous written, spoken, and
visual language.

An essential part of discourse analysis is examining language use within its social context. This means
the societal norms, political climate, time, place, intended audience, and the speaker's socio-cultural
background must all be considered as they can play a role in the meaning of language and how it's
interpreted.

Discourse analysis (DA) is a varied and diverse research method used across multiple disciplines, such as
linguistics, sociology, media studies, history, and more.

Why conduct discourse analysis?

We analyse discourse to understand the world better and how language is used in real life. By examining
the social use of language, we can appreciate its multiple functions, such as creating meaning and
maintaining certain social norms and common knowledge.

Example:

A discourse analyst may examine the written language and images used on the front page of a
newspaper to see what narrative it might be trying to portray and why. To understand this, they would
have to consider the owner of the newspaper, the intended audience, and the current political climate
and world events.

When to use discourse analysis?

Discourse analysis is the perfect method for looking at the relationship between language and broader
social issues, such as language and power, language and gender, language and inequality, and language
in the media.

We can also use discourse analysis to see how people interact with each other in different situations and
the impact language can have on society and vice versa.
Common examples of discourse we can conduct discourse analysis on are;

Newspapers

Novels

Conversations

Song lyrics

Adverts

Speeches

These are just a few examples - you can really conduct discourse analysis on anything!

Discourse analysis: what's analysed

There are no guidelines on what aspects of language you should analyse when conducting DA. How you
undertake your analysis will depend on your research question and the purpose of your study. However,
here is a list of language features that are commonly analysed as they can impart meaning.

Vocabulary - e.g. word choice, jargon, special lexicon.

Grammar - e.g. type of sentences, grammatical voice, use of affixes.

Punctuation - e.g. use of exclamation marks, capital letters etc.

Genre - Is it a newspaper, song, novel, etc.

Non-verbals - e.g. facial expressions, body language, pauses.

Paralinguistic features - e.g. tone, pitch, intonation.

Pragmatics - what are the extended or hidden meanings?

Grice's conversational maxims - are useful for reviewing power relations in spoken discourse.
Images and colour - how do they add to the meaning of the discourse?

Relationship between the discourse and the wider social context

What is Discourse Analysis?

Discourse analysis, by definition, is a scientific approach and an interdisciplinary field that is part of
humanities and social sciences. As an academic discipline, discourse analysis includes the inquiry and
investigation of verbal or written conversation, or any other way of communication, to understand its
social and/or linguistic meanings and implications.

Since discourse can include all kinds of verbal and spoken acts of communication, there are various
types of discourse that are subject to analysis. One of the main categorizations divides discourse into
four types: Argument, narration, description, and exposition. The argument is a discourse aiming to
convince others, narration is a result of storytelling, description helps people visualize a concept, and
exposition refers to informative discourses.

The main purpose of studies and research using discourse analysis is to explore the social, political,
cultural, and historical meanings of language or a message. This includes understanding how a language,
narrative, or type of communication is constructed, what it is used for, and how it is related to the social
context and power.

Discourse Analysis Components

The components of discourse analysis vary depending on the chosen theoretical approach and the type
of the analyzed discourse. However, most of the discourse analysis studies include information about
content and context. More specifically, discourse analysis often has components such as text, genres,
and gestures focusing on various aspects and elements of communication.

Approaches to Discourse Analysis

A variety of theoretical perspectives shape discourse analysis studies by emphasizing different aspects of
communication and language. These can be categorized as the sociopolitical approach, the language-in-
use approach, and the analytical discourse approach, the latter of which includes critical discourse
analysis and conversation analysis.

Discourse Analysis Examples

Discourse analysis examples include various studies and research using the approaches mentioned
above to understand the social implications of discourses.