ELECTROMAGNETISM

Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:
Appreciate that a force might act on a current carrying conductor placed in a
magnetic field.
Defi ne magnetic flux density and the tesla.
Derive and use the equation F=BIL sin0 with directions.
4- Understand how the force on a current carrying conductor can be used to measure
the magnetic flux density of a magnetic field using a current balance.
Describe and sketch flux patterns due to a long straight wire.
Define magnetic flux and the weber.
Derive and use the relation <t> = B.A.
Understand and describe Ampere’s law.
Appreciate the use of Ampere's law to find magnetic flux density inside a solenoid.
10 Appreciate that there acts a force on a charged particle when it moves in a uniform
magnetic field and in electric field.
Describe the deflection of beams of charged particles moving in a uniform magnetic
field.
12. Understand and doschbe method to measure e/m.
13. Know the basic principle of cathode ray oscilloscope and appreciate its use
14 Derive the expression of torque due to couple acting on a coil.
15. Know the principle, construction and working of a galvanometer.
16. Know how a galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter and an ammeter.
1? Describe and appreciate the use of AVO meter/multimeter.
16 Read through analogue scale and digital display on electrical meters.

lectric current generates magnetic field. At the same time, a changing magnetic field
produces electric current. This interplay of electricity and magnetism is widely used in a
number of electrical devices and appliances in modem age technology.

56
14.1 MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO CURRENT
IN A LONG
Take a straight, thick copper wire and pass it vertically
through a hole in a horizontal piece of cardboard. Place
small compass needles on the cardboard along a circle with
the centre at the wire. All tho compass needles will point in
the direction of N - S. Now pass a heavy current through the
wire. It will be seen that the needles will rotate and will set
themselves tangential to the circle (Fig. 14.1 a). On reversing
the direction of current, the direction of needles is also
reversed. As the current through the wire is stopped, all the
needles again point along the N-Sdirection.
Following conclusions can be drawn from the above
mentioned experiment:
(i) A magnetic field is set up in the region
surrounding a current carrying wire.
(ii) The lines of force are circular and their
direction depends upon the direction of
current.
(ni) The magnetic field lasts only as long as the
current is flowing through the wire.
The direction of the lines of force can be found by a rule
concluded directly from the above experiment which is stated
as follows:

If the wire is grasped in fist of right hand with

the thumb pointing in tho direction of the
current, the fingers of the hand will circle the
wire in the direction of the magnetic field.

This is known as right hand rule and is illustrated in

Fig. 14.1 (b).

14.2 FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING

CONDUCTOR IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC
FIELD
We have seen that a current carrying conductor sets up its
own magnetic field. If such a conductor is placed in an Fig. 14.1 (*)
external magnetic field, the magnetic field of the conductor
will interact with the external magnetic field, as a result of
which the conductor may experience a force. To demonstrate

57
Do You Know? this effect, consider a rod of copper, capable of moving on a
If tno irwMIo fmoof ot tbe rigM hand pair of copper rails. The whole arrangement is placed in
pontj m tbo OrtxXcrt of »» magnoOc between the pole pieces of a horsoshoc magnet so that the
fwk) ttw thumb in toe cjrecticb o<
cu»r*nt, th« k*co on to* oocductor
copper rod is subjected to a magnetic field directed verttcalfy
w«t>* normal to to* paVn towards to* upwards (Fig. 14.2).

Fig. 142 I
When a current is passed through the copper rod from a
battery, the rod moves on the rails. The relative directions o{
the current, magnetic field and the motion of the conductor
are shown in Fig. 14.3. It can bo seen that the force on a
conductor is always at right angles to the plane which
Fig. 14.3 contains the rod and the direction of the magnetic field. The
magnitude of the force depends upon the following factors:
(i) The force F is directly proportional to sina where a is
the angle between the conductor and the field. From
Do You Know? this, it follows that the force is zero if the rod is placed
parallel to the field and is maximum when the
conductor is placed at right angles to the field.
Fcrsina
(ii) The force F is directly proportional to the current I
flowing through the conductor. The more the current,
Roputtton greater is the force.
Fx I
(tii) The force F is directly proportional to the length L of
the conductor inside the magnetic field.
Fxl
(iv) The force F is directly proportional to the strength of
the applied magnetic field. The stronger the field, the
greater is the force. If we represent the strength of the
field by 8. then
(a) Two long parallel wm carrying
curronSs /. ard /, In oppos-t* brecton FxB
ropol each other (fc; The w«r®» attract Combining all these factors.
each otoar wtoen the currants are in
the same dradton Fx ILBsinu

58
or F = k/LBsina
where k is constant of proportionality. If we follow SI units, the
value of k is 1. Thus in SI units
F-ILBsinn ....................................... (14.1)
Eq.14.1 provisos a definition for the strength of magnetic
field. If / = 1 A. L = 1m and a = 90’. then F = B. Thus B. the
strength of magnetic field which is also known as magnetic
induction is defined as the force acting on one metre length of
the conductor placed at right angle to the magnetic field when ForrbUf Information
1 A current is passing through it. In SI units the unit of B is
X XX x
tesla. A magnetic field is said to have a strength of one tesla A
X XX X
it exerts a force of one newton on one metre length of the
X XX X
conductor placed at right angles to the field when a current of
one ampere passes through the conductor. Thus Out or Into page
Convention »ropremnt dnocbon
1 T = 1 NA'm
It can be seen that the force on a current carrying conductor is
given both in magnitude and direction by the following
equation:
F = / L x B .................................. (14.2)
where the vector L is in the direction of current flow. The
magnitude of the vector / LxB is I LB sina. where a is the
angle between the vector L and B. This gives the magnitude
of the force. The direction of the force F (Fig. 14.3) is also
correctly given by the right hand rule of the cross product of I N
vectors of L and B i.e.. rotate L to coincide with B through the
smaller angle. Curl the fingers of right hand in the direction of
rotation. The thumb points in the direction of force. In some
situations the direction of the force is conveniently ►
determined by applying the following rule:
Consider a straight current carrying conductor held at right
angle to a magnetic field such that the current flows out of the
plane of paper i.e.. towards the reader as shown in
Fig. 14.4. It is customary to represent a current flowing
towards the reader by a symbol dot (•) and a current flowing
away from him by a cross (x). n 5
In order to find the direction of force, consider the lines of Fig. 14 4 Tha megnooc force on tie
force (Fig. 14.4). The two fields tend to reinforce each other current canytng conductor pieced al
rghtangle loatnagntOcFaW
on left hand side of the conductor and cancel each other on
the right side of it. The conductor tends to move towards the
weaker part of the field i.e.. the force on the conductor will be
directed towards right in a direction at right angles to both the

59
conductor and the magnetic field. This rule is often referred as
extension of right hand rule. It can be seen that the direction of
the force is the same as given by the direction of the vector L x B

Example 14.1: A 20.0 cm wire carrying a current of 10.0 A is

placed in a uniform magnetic field of 0.30 T. If tho wire makes
an angle of 40° with the direction of magnetic field, find the
magnitude of the force acting on the wire.

Solution:
Length of the wire = L = 20.0 cm = 0.20 m
Current =/= 10.0 A
Strength of magnetic field =S = 0.30T
Angle = a = 40'
Substituting these values in the equation
F=1BL sinu
10.0 A x 0.30 Tx 0.20 mxsin40 = 0.39 N

Like electric flux, the magnetic flux <t>, through a plane

element of area A in a uniform magnetic field B is given by dot
product of Band A (Fig. 14.5).
O, = B.A
<&,= 8Acos0 ....................................... (14.3)
Note that A is a vector whose magnitude is the area of the
element and whose direction is along the normal to the
surface of the element. 0is the angle between the directions
of the vectors Band A
In Fig. 14.5 (b) the field is directed along the normal to the
area, so 0 is zero and the flux is maximum, equal to BA.
When the field is parallel to the plane of the area (Fig. 14.5 c).
the angle between the field and normal to area is 90’ i.e..
0 = 90°. so the flux through the area in this position is zero.
In case of a curved surface placed in a non uniform magnetic
field, the curved surface is divided into a number of small
surface elements, each element being assumed plane and
the flux through the whole curved surface is calculated by
sum of the contributions from all the elements of the surface.
From the definition of tesla, the unit of magnetic flux is NmA'
which is called weber (Wb).

60
According to Eq. 14.3. the magnetic induction B is the flux per
unit area of a surface perpendicular to B. hence if is also
called as flux density. Its unit is then. Wbm'. Therefore,
magnetic induction, i.e.. the magnetic field strength is
measured in terms of Wbm' or N A m1 (tesla).

Example 14.2: The magnetic field in a certain region is

given by B * (40i-18k) Wbm '. How much flux passes through
a 5.0 cm' area loop in this region if the loop t»es flat In the
xy- plane?

Solution:
Magnetic induction = B = 40«-18 k
Area of the loop * \A = 5 0 x10 ‘m; k
F/ux = <&,» B. \A
«(40i-18k).(5.0x10"m'k)
d>.= 90x10'* Wb

We know that an electric current produces a magnetic field.

Ampere, after carrying out a series of expenments.
generalized his results into a law known as Ampere circuital
law by which the magnetic flux density B at any point due to a
curront carrying conductor can be easily computed as
explained below:
Consider a closed path in the form a arete of radius r
enclosing the current carrying wire (Fig. 14.6). This closed
path is referred as Amperean path. Divide this path into small
elements of length like AL. Let B be the value of flux density at
the site of AL. Determine the value of B.AL. If 0 is the angle
between B and AL. then
HJ Amcwr*'* tow to «nd
B..\L = BAL cos0 MtcMlnn far*, o* ‘
9 cvci»ri-;arryt-*}
B cos0 represents the component of B along the element of
length ,\L i e., Component of B para'tel»o\L ThusB. \L
represents the product of the length of the element AL and
the component of B parallel to AL. Ampere stated that the
sum of the quantities B.AL for all path elements into which the
complete loop has been divided equals times the total
current enclosed by the loop, where p. is a constant, known

61
as permeability of free space. In SI units its value is
4s x 10 ’WbA mThis can be mathematically expressed as
(B.AL), ♦ (B.AL), ♦....♦ (B.ALX (B.AL),. = p*/
N

or £(B.Al-Up./ ............. (14.4)

>•1
where (B.AL), is tho value of B.AL along the r th element and
N is tho total number of elements into which the loop has
been divided. This is known as Ampere's circuital law.

Field Due to a Current Carrying Solenoid

A solenoid is a long, tightly wound, cylindrical coil of wire.
When current passes through such a coil, it behaves like a
For Your Information
bar magnet. The magnetic field produced by it is shown in
Fig. 14.7(a). The field inside a long solenoid is uniform and
much strong whereas out side the solenoid, it is so weak that
it can be neglected as compared to the field inside.
The value of magnetic filed B can be easily determined by
applying Ampere's circuital law. Consider a rectangular loop
abed as shown in Fig. 14.7 (b). Divide it into four elements of
length ab = t„ be ■ cd = (, and da »

Asotanort

fig 147

Applying Ampere’s law. we have

4

I<B.AL), = ^ x current enclosed

r-1

(B.aL),+(B.aL)j+(B.aL),*(B.aL).=h,x current enclosed

Now we will calculate the value of B.AL for each of the

elements. First we will consider the olement ab = t, that lies
inside the solenoid. Field inside the solenoid is uniform and is
parallel tor,(Fig. 14.7b). so

62
(B.AL ),= t,B COSO*

For tho element cd = that lies outside the solenoid . the

field Bis zero, so
Do You Know?
(B. AL),= 0
Again B is perpendicular to r, and I. inside the solenoid and is Ptttttem Mr <nagn*«

zero outside, so

(B. AL )2 = (B. AL), * 0

4

X (B. AL),=81“ p. x current enclosed

r«1 The cutronl loco tan be rrjgmod to
be a phantom bar tnagnat wtt> a north
To find the current enclosed, consider the rectangular potaandaaoutipola
surface bounded by the loop abcda.
If n is the number of turns per unit length of tho solenoid, the
rectangular surfaco will intercept nt. turns, each carrying a
current /. So the current enclosed by the loop is nf, /. Thus
Ampere's law gives
Bt, = p,xr>F,/ For Your Information
or B =p n/ (14.5)

The field B is along the axis of the solenoid and its direction is
given by right hand grip rule which states "hold the solenoid in
the right hand with fingers curling in the direction of the
current, the thumb will point in the direction of the field*. * (s'Attraction

Example 14.3: A solenoid 15.0 cm long has 300 turns of

wire. A current of 5.0 Allows through it. What is the magnitude
of magnetic field inside the solenoid?

Solution: A.
Length of the solenoid = L= 15.0cm = 0.15m
Total number of turns = N = 300
T"T (b) R«pul»kxi
Current = /=5.0 A The 'phantom* magnat ndu4M tof
•acti loop r>etp» to axptan to*
Permeability of free space = p. = 4:: x 10' WbA’m1 attraction and itpiMn MCwaan tha
loop*
N 300
Number of turns per unit length = n=— = —
f 0.15m
= 2000 tums/m
Magnetic field = B = p. n /

63
(B.AL), = ',8cosO*
*(,B
For the element cd a that lies outside the solenoid . the
field Bis zero, so
Do You Know?
<B.AL),«0
Again B is perpendicular to f, and inside the solenoid and is
zero outside, so

(B.AL ); = (B..\L), = 0
4

X (B • AL) = 8 f, = p. x current enclosed

I ho curroflt loop can Oo «rognod lo
bo a phantom bar magnat «*•» • north
To find the current enclosed, consider the rectangular pdoondotouthpo**
surface bounded by tho loop abcda.
If n is the number of turns por unit length of the solenoid, the
rectangular surface will intercopt n/, turns, each carrying a
current /. So the current enclosed by the loop is nf, /. Thus
Ampere's law gives
8 /, = p. x n f,/ For Your Information
or B =,!/»/ (14.5)
The field B is along the axis of the solenoid and its direction is
given by right hand grip rule which states "hold the solenoid in
the right hand with fingers curling in the direction of the
current. the thumb will point in the direction of the field*. *

Example 14.3: A solenoid 15.0 cm long has 300 turns of

wire. Acurrent of 5.0 A flows through it. What is the magnitude
■NOW
-i .
of magnetic field inside the solenoid?
r\
Solution:
•
Length of the solenoid » L = 15.0 cm = 0.15 m
Total number of turns = N = 300 (b) Ropuloloo
Current = / = 5.0A Tho •phoroom" magnat mcJuOoO kx
aach loop hotpa lo axpian no
Permeability of free space = p. = 4s x 10' WbA m ’ asrocbon ond tafAjHon botwoen tio
loop*
N 300
Number of turns per unit length = n=- = —
r 0.15 m
= 2000 tums/m
Magnetic field = 8 = p. n t

63
In Fig. 14.8. it can be seen that the direction of the segment L
is the same as the direction of the velocity of the charge
earners. If L is a unit vector along the direction of the segment
L and v. a unit vector along tho velocity vector v. then L = v
vL = vL L
-vvL = vL
Substituting the value of v L in Eq. 14.7. we have
Ft=nAq(vL)xB
= nALqvxB
n AL is the total number of charge carries in the segment L. so
the force experienced by a single charge carrier is

F =—V; = wg v x B
nAL
Thus tho force experienced by a single charge carrier moving
with velocity v in magnetic field of strength B is
F = Q(vxB) (14.8)
Although the Eq.14.8 has been derived with reference to
charge carrier moving in a conductor but it does not involve
any parameter of the conductor, so the Eq.14.8 is quite
general and it holds for any charge carrier moving in a
magnetic field.
If an electron is projected in a magnetic field with a velocity v.
it will experience a force which is given by putting q = - e in
Eq . 14.8 where e is the magnitude of the electronic charge.
F = -evxB (14.9)
In case of proton. Fis obtained by putting q = * e.
F=+evxB (14.10)
Note that in case of proton or a positive charge the direction
of the force is given by the direction of the vector v x B i.e
rotate v to coincide with B through the smaller angle of
rotation and curl the fingers of right hand in the direction of
rotation. Thumb will point in the direction of the force. This is
illustrated in Fig. 14.9 in which the proton enters into a
magnetic field, as shown in figure, along the direction of
dotted Ime. It experiences a force in the upward direction as Flo. 14.* '«*<* F ■*
porp*r»x»AV to bom tho megnooc
given by the vector v x 8 As a result of this force the proton is
rttU B and me vctoony v and cautat
deflected upwards as shown in Fig. 14.9. The direction of thetho pwMo's trajectory to bend in a
force on a moving negativo charge will be opposite to that ofvertical piano
positive charge. Due to this force, the electron is deflected in
tho downward direction as it enters into a magnetic field. It

65
may be noted that the magnitude of the force on a moving
charge carrier is qvSsinG where 0 is the angle between the
velocity of the carrier and the magnetic field. It is maximum
when 0 = 90° i.e., when the charged particle is projected at
right angles to the field. It is zero when 0 = 0° i.e.. a charged
particle projected in the direction of the field experiences no
force.

14.6 MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLE IN

AN ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELD
When an electric charge g is placed in an electric field E, It
experiences a force F parallel to electric field (Fig. 14.10). It is
given by
F = gE
If the charge is free to move, then it will accelerate
according to Newton's second law as

a F- = 2f .................... (14.11)
m m
If electric field is uniform, then acceleration is also uniform
and henco. the position of the particle at any instant of time
can be found by using equations of uniformly accelerated
motion.
When a charge particle q is moving with velocity v in a region
where there is an electric field E and magneticfield B. the
total force F is the vector sum of theelectric force
Do You Know?
q E and magnetic force q (v x B) that is.
F = F. + F.
F = gE + g(vxB) (14.12)
This force F is known as the lorentz force. It is to be pointed
out that only the electric force does work, while no work is
done by the magnetic force which is simply a deflecting force.

14.7 DETERMINATION OF e/m OF AN

ELECTRON
Let a narrow beam of electrons moving with a constant speed
Ttw «t*ctric kxce F ffiat acts on a
v be projected at right angles to a known uniform magnetic
pOMrrs cftargo is paraM to (he field B directed into plane of paper. Wo havo seen that
•tectnc l«M I and causes the electrons will experience a force
particle's trajectory to bend in a
horizontal ptsne F = -evxB

66
The direction of the force will be perpendicular to both v and
B. As the electron is experiencing a force that acts at right BOTftopap*)
angle to its velocity, so it will change the direction of the
velocity. The magnitude of velocity will remain unchanged.
The magnitude of the force is evSsinO. As 0 is 90*. so
F = evB. As both v and B do not change, the magnitude of F is
constant. Thus the electrons are subjected to a constant
force evB at right angle to their direction of motion. Under the
action of this force, the electrons will move along a circle as
showninFig. 14.11.

The magnetic force F = Bev provides the necessary

mv"'
centripetal force to the electron of mass m to move along
a circular trajectory of radius^. Thus we have An otocfron n moving
porpervPoAw to a constant magnetic
Bev*—j~ Tho magnate loreo F couvm
tho panda to movo on a areolar pan

«■ (14.13)
m or

If v and r are known, e/m of the electron is determined. The

radius r is measured by making the electronic trajectory
visible. This is done by fiBing a glass tube with a gas such as
hydrogen at low pressure. This tube is placed in a region
occupied by a uniform magnetic field of known value. As
electrons are shot into this tube, they begin to move along a
circle under the action of magnetic force. As the electrons
move, they collide with atoms of the gas. This excites the
atoms due to which they emit light and their path becomes
lips
visible as a circular ring of light (Fig. 14.12). The diameter of
the ring can be easily measured.
In order to measure the velocity vof the electrons, we should
know the potential difference through which the electrons are
accelerated before entering into the magnetic field. If V is 1
this potential difference, the energy gained by electrons Fig. 1A.12
during their acceleration is Ve. This appears as the kinetic
energy of electrons

2
— mv = Ve

or
m
Substituting the value of v in Eq. 14.13. we ha ve

(14.14)
m ' BV

67
Example 14.4: Find the radius of an orbit of an electron
moving at a rate of 2.0 x 10r ms ’ in a uniform magnetic field
1.20x10’T.
Solution:
Speed of the electron = v =2.0x10’ ms’
Magneticfietd strongth =8 = 1.20 x 10’T
Mass of the electron = m = 9.11 x 10 ” kg
Charge on electron =e = 1.61 x 10 ”C
The radius of the orbit is
mv
ra eB
9.11*1Q-a,kgx2.0xlO,ms ’
1.61x 10"1® Cx 1.20x 10 3 T

r=9.43x10’m
Example 14.5: Alpha particles ranging in speed from
1000 ms' to 2000 ms ’ enter into a velocity selector where th
electric intensity is 300 Vm' and tho magnetic induction
0.20 T. Which particle win move undeviated through the fiel

r« * rr « i Solution:
-' «e E=300 Vm ‘ = 300 NC ‘ 8 = 0.20T
Only those particles will be able to pass through the plate fo
which the electric force eE acting on the particles balances
' - &*v the magnetic force Bev on the particle as shown in the figu
Therefore eE = Bev
Thus, the selected speed is
E 300 NC ’ ‘_,
V" — - ------------- -—r = 1500 ms
8 0.20 NA Vn 1
The alpha particles having a speed of 1500 ms ’ will move
undeviated through the field.

14.8 CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a very versatile electroni
instrument which is. in fact, a high speed graph plotting
device. It works by deflecting beam of electrons as they pas
through uniform electric field between the two sets of paral
plates as shown in the Fig. 14.13{a). The deflected beam the
falls on a fluorescent screen where it makes a visible spot.

68
F* Ftemeot A. A, A, • ATOM*

t Jr \
C'CHbodo X X > HonzonM Mlocbon putn
G* Grid VY*
S* FkxroKonl tenon

—2—irn nh rh M
P
Fig.
It can display graphs of functions which rapidly vary with time.
It is called cathode ray oscilloscope because it traces the
desired waveform with a beam of electrons which are also
callod cathode rays.
The beam of the electrons is provided by an electron gun
which consists of an indirectly heated cathode, a grid and
three anodes. The filament F heats the cathode C which
emits electrons. The anodos A.. A., A, which are at high
positive potential with respect to cathode, accelerate as well

A
as focus the electronic beam to fixed spot on the screen S.
The gnd G is at a negative potential with respect to cathode. It
controls the number of electrons which are accelerated by
anodes, and thus it controls the brightness of the spot formed
on the screen.
Str* toodi vOlt*g« w*v*tOfm
Now we would explain how the waveform of various voltages
Fig 14.13(1))
is formed in CRO.

Tho two set of deflecting plates, shown in Fig. 14.13(a) are

usually referred as x and y deflection plates because a
voltage applied between the x plates deflects the beam
horizontally on the screen i.e.. parallel to x-axis. A voltage
applied across the y plates deflects the beam vertically on the
screen i.e., along the y-axis The voltage that is applied
across the x plates is usually provided by a circuit that is built
in the CRO. It is known as sweep or timo base generator. Its
output waveform is a saw tooth voltage of period T
(Fig. 14.13-b). The voltage increases linearly with time for a
period Tand thon drops to zero. As this voltage is impressed
across the x plates, the spot ts deflected linearly with time Fig. 14.13 (b)
along the x-axis for a time T. Then the spot returns to its Thru annftbonal vww o< CRO
starting point on the screen very quickly because a saw tooth
voltage rapidly falls to its initial value at the end of each

69
period. We can actually see the spot moving on the x-axis. If
the time period T is very short, we see just a bright line on tho
screen.

If a sinusoidal voltage is applied across the y plates when,

simultaneously, the time base voltage is impressed across
the x plates, the sinusoidal voltage, which itself gives rise to a
vertical line, will now spread out and will appear as a
sinusoidal trace on the screen. The pattern will appear
•stationary only if the time T is equal to or is some multiple of
the time of one cycle of the voltage on y plates. It is thus
necessary to synchronize the frequency of the time base
generator with the frequency of the voltage at the y plates.
This is possiblo by adjusting the synchronization controls
provided on the front panel of the CRO.
Uses of CRO
The CRO is used for displaying the waveform of a given
voltage. Once the waveform is displayed, we can measure
the voltage, its frequency and phase. For example.
Fig. 14.14(a) shows the waveform of an alternating voltage.
As the y-axis is calibrated in volts and the x-axis in time, we
can easily find the instantaneous value and peak value of the
voltage. The time period can also be determined by using the
time calibration of x-axis. Information about the phase
difference between two voltages can be obtained by
simultaneously displaying their waveforms. For example, the
waveforms of two voltages are shown in Fig. 14.14(b). These
waveforms show that when the voltage of I is increasing, that
of II is decreasing and vice versa. Thus the phase difference
between these voltages is 180'.

14.9 TORQUE ON A CURRENT CARRYING

COIL
Consider a rectangular cod carrying a current /. The cod is
capable of rotation about an axis. Suppose it is placed in unifor
magnetic field B with its plane along the field (Fig. 14.15). We
know that a current carrying conductor of length L when placed
in a magnetic field experiences a force F-/LB sin6 where 0 is
the angle between conductor and the field. In case of sides AB
and CD of the cod. the angle 0 is zero or 180°, so the force on
these sides wi be zero. In case of sides DA and BC. the angle 0
is 90s and the force on these sides wfl be

70
F, = F } = ILB
where L is tho length of these sides. F, is tho force on the side
DA and F, on BC. The direction of the force is given by the
vector / L x B. It can be seen that F, is directed out of the plane
of paper and F, into the plane of papor (Fig. 14.15 a).
Therefore, the forces F, and F, being equal and opposite
form a couple which tends to rotate it about the axis. The
torque of this couple is given by

x = Force x Moment arm

-ILBxa

where a is the moment arm of the couple and is equal to the

length of the side AB or CD. La is the area A of the coil.

x-IBA ........................................ (14.15)

Note that the Eq.14.15 gives the value of torque when the
field B is in the plane of the coil. However if the field makes an
angle a with the plane of the coil, as shown in Fig 14.15(b).
the moment arm now becomes a cosa. So

x = /L8xacosa

or x = /BAcosa (14.16)
(Top vktwoT COM)

Fig 14.15 (6)

14.10 GALVANOMETER
A galvanometer is an electrical instrument used to
detect the passage of current. Its working depends upon
the fact that when a conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, it experience a force as soon as a current passes
through it. Due to this force, a torque t acts upon the
conductor if it is in the form of a coil or loop.
x = N/8Acosu
where N is the number of turns in the coil. A is its area. / is
current passing through it. B is the magnetic field in which the
coil is placed such that its plane makes an angle a with the
direction of B. Due to action of the torque, the coil rotates and

71
thus it detects the current. The construction of a moving coil
galvanometer is shown in Fig. 14.16(a).
A rectangular coil C is suspended between the concave
shaped poles N and S of a U-shaped magnet with the help of
a fine metallic suspension wire. The rectangular coil is made
of enameled copper wire. It is wound on a frame of non­
magnetic material. The suspension wire F is also used as
one current lead to the coil. The other terminal of the coil is
connected to a loosely wound spiral E which serves as the
second current lead. A soft iron cylinder D is placed inside the
coil to make the field radial and stronger near the coil as
showninFig. 14.16(b).
When a current is passed through the coil, it is acted upon by
a couple which tends to rotate the coil. This couple is known
as deflecting couple and is given by N IB A cosu. As the coil is
placed in a radial magnetic field in which tho plane of the coil
is always parallel to the field (Fig. 14.16 b). so « is always
zero. This makes cosu = 1 and thus.
Deflecting couple = N /BA
As the coil turns under the action of deflecting couple,
the suspension wire Fig. (14.16 a) is twisted which gives
rise to a torsional couple. It tends to untwist the
suspension and restore the coil to its original position.
This couple is known as restoring couple. The restoring
couple of the suspension wire is proportional to the
angle of deflection 8 as long as the suspension wire
obeys Hooke's law. Thus
Restoring torque = c0
where the constant c of the suspension wire is known as
torsional coupte and is defined as couple for unit twist.
Under the effect of these two couples, coil comes to rest
when Deflecting torque = Restoring torque
Fig. 14.19 (a) Moving coll
Oafvaixm*** (b) Concave pcto
N/8A=c9
piece and soft non cy*nOof maU* tho
f»eW radial and wronger or (14.17)
'■as*
Thus / * 0 since —= Constant
BAN
Thus the current passing through the coil is directly
proportional to the angle of deflection.

72
There are two methods commonly used for observing the
anglo of deflection of the coil. In sensitive galvanometers the
anglo of deflection is observed by means of small mirror
attached to the coil along with a lamp and scale arrangement
(Fig.14.17). Abeam of light from the lamp is directed towards
the mirror of tho galvanometer. After reflection from the mirror
it produces a spot on a translucent scale placed at a distance
of one metre from the galvanometer. When the coil rotates,
the mirror attached to coil also rotates and spot of light moves
along the scale. The displacement of the spot of light on the
scale is proportional to the anglo of deflection (provided the n» 14.17
angle of deflection is small).
The galvanometer used in school and college laboratories is
a pivoted typo galvanometer. In this type of galvanometer,
the coil is pivoted between two jewelled bearings The
restoring torque is provided by two hair springs which also
serve as current leads. A light aluminium pointer is attached Upperspring
to the coil which moves over a scale (Fig.14.18). It gives the
angle of deflection of the coil.
It is obvious from Eq. 14.17 that a galvanometer can be made
rrtoro sensitive (to give large deflection for a given current) if
core!
c/SAN is made small. Thus, to increase sensitivity of a
galvanometer, c may be decreased or S. A and N may be
increased. The couple c for unit twtst of the suspension wire
can be decreased by increasing its length and by decreasing magnet
its diameter. This process, however, cannot be taken too far.
as the suspension must be strong enough to support the coil. Lower spring
Another method to increase the sensitivity of galvanometer is
to increase N. the number of turns of the coil. In case of Flfr 14.14
suspended coil type galvanometer, the number of turns can
not be increased beyond a limit because it will make the coil
heavy. To compensate for the loss of sensitivity, in case
fewer turns are used in tho coil, we increase the value of the
magnetic field employed. Wo define current sensitivity of a
galvanotneter as the current, in microamperes, required to
produce one millimetre deflection on a scale placed one
metre away from the mirror of the galvanometer.
When the current passing through the galvanometer is
discontinued, the coil will not come to rest as soon as the
current flowing through the coil is stopped. It keeps on
oscillating about its mean position before coming to rest. In
the same way if the current is established suddenly in a
galvanometer, the coil will shoot beyond its final equilibrium
position and will oscillate several times before coming to rest

73
at its equilibrium position. As it is annoying and time
consuming to wait for the coil to come to rest, artificial ways
are employed to make the coil come to rest quickly. Such
galvanometer in which the coil comes to rest quickly after the
current passed through it or the current is stopped from
flowing through it. is called stable or a dead beat
galvanometer.

Ammeter
An ammeter is an electrical instrument which is used to
measure current in amperes. This is basically a
galvanometer. The portion of the galvanometer whose
motion causes the needle of the device to move across the
scale is usually known as meter - movement. Most meter
movements are very sensitive and full scale deflection is
obtained with a current of few milliamperos only. So an
ordinary galvanometer cannot be used for measuring large
currents without proper modification.
Suppose we have a galvanometer whose meter - movement
(coil) has a resistance R,and which gives full scale deflection
when current /, is passed through it. From Ohm's law we
Fla 14 An ammeter ■* a
Qalranorreter w«ch to ttvrtaC by • know that the potential difference V, which causes a current /,
proper lew revtUr'CO to pass through the galvanometer is given by

If we want to convert this galvanometer into an ammeter

which can measure a maximum current /. it is necessary to
connect a low value bypass resistor called shunt. The shunt
resistance is of such a value so that the curront /, for full scale
deflection of the galvanometer passes through the
galvanometer and the remaining current (/ - IJ passes
through the shunt in this situation (Fig 14 19).

The shunt resistance R. can be calculated from the fact that

as the meter - movement and the shunt are connected in
parallel with each other, the potential difference across the
meter - movement is equal to the potential difference across
the shunt.

/
°r R' = T^T R ‘ ............................................... (1418>

9
The resistance of the shunt is usually so small that a piece of

74
copper wire serves the purpose. The resistance of the
ammeter is the combined resistance of the galvanometer's
meter - movement and the shunt. Usually it is very small. An
ammeter must have a very low resistance so that it does not
disturb the circuit in which it is connected in series in order to
measure the current.

Voltmeter
A voltmeter is an electrical device which measures the
potential difference in volts between two points. This. too. is
made by modifying a galvanometer. Since a voltmeter is
always connected in parallel, it must have a very high
resistance so that it will not short the circuit across which the
voltage is to be measured. This is achieved by connecting a
very high resistance R. placed in series with the meter -
<................... v >
movement (Fig.14.20). Suppose we have a meter •
movement whoso resistance is R, and which deflects full A patvanoiviatsf A mom
with a Ngh rasatancn acts as a
scale with a current /,. In order to make a voltmeter from it
»o«ma«af
which has a range of V volts, the value of the high resistance
R, should be such that full scale deflection will be obtained
when it is connected across V volt. Under this condition the
current through the meter - movement is /,. Applying Ohm's
law(Fig.14.20)wehave
V=It(R,+R.)
V
R h-T- R 9 .................................................. <14-19>
9
If the scale of the galvanometer is calibrated from 0 to
V volts, the combination of galvanometer and the series
resistor acts as a voltmeter with range 0 -.Vvolts. By properly
arranging the resistance R, any voltage can be measured.
Thus, we see that a voltmeter possesses high resistance.
It may be noted that a voltmeter is always connected across
the two points between which potential difference is to bo
measured. Before connecting a voltmeter, it should be
assured that its resistance is very high in comparison with the
resistance of the circuit across which it is connected
otherwise it will load the circuit and will alter the potential
difference which is required to be measured.
Example 14.6: What shunt resistance must be connected
across a galvanometer of 50.011 resistance which gives full
scale deflection with 2.0 mA current, so as to convert it into an
ammeter of range 10.0 A?

75
Solution:

Resistance of galvanometer = Ra = 50.0 O

Current for full scale deflection = /, = 2.0 mA
Current to be measured = / =10.0 A
The shunt resistance R, is given by

R=-^- R = 20x10 * A ... x50.0A = 0.01 Q

‘ I-I J 10.0 A - 2 . 0 x 10 A
o

Ohmmeter

It is a useful device for rapid measurement of resistance. It

consists of a galvanometer, and adjustable resistance r, and
a cell connected in senes (Fig.14.21-a). The series
resistance r, is so adjusted that when terminals c and d are
short circuited, i.o.. when R ■ 0. the galvanometer gives full
scale deflection. So the extreme graduation of the usual
scale of the galvanometer is marked 0 for resistance
measurement When terminals c and d are not joined, no
current passes through the galvanometer and its deflection is
zero. Thus zero of the scale is marked as infinity
* (Fig. 14 21-b). Now a known resistance R is connoctcd
jr. across the terminals c and d. The galvanometer deflects to
C some intermediate point. This point is calibrated as R. In this
way the whole scale is calibrated into resistance. The
resistance to be measured is connected across the terminals
c and d. The deflection on the calibrated scale reads the
value of the resistance directly.

on 14.11 AVO METER -MULTIMETER

i0n-A It is an instrument which can measure current in
amperes, potential difference in volts and resistance in
ohms. It basically consists of a sensitive moving coil
galvanometer which is converted into a multirange ammeter,
voltmeter or ohmmeter accordingly as a current measuring
circuit or a voltage measunng circuit or a resistance measuring
circuit is connected with the galvanometer with the help of a
switch known as function switch (Fig. 14 22) Here X. Y are the
main terminals of the AVO meter which are connected with the
circuit in which measurement is required FS is the function
selector switch which connects the galvanometer with relevant
measuring circuit.

Voltage Measuring Part of AVO Meter

The voltage measuring part of the AVO meter is actually a
multirange voltmeter. It consists of a number of resistances
each of which can be connected in series with the moving coil
galvanometer with the help of a switch called the range
switch (Fig. 14.23). The value of each resistance depends
upon the range of the voltmeter which it controls.
Alternating voltages are also measured by AVO meter.
AC voltage is first converted into DC voltage by using diodo
150V
as rectifier and then measured as usual.

Current Measuring Part of AVO Meter

Tho current measuring part of the AVO meter is actually a
multirange ammeter. It consists of a number of low
resistances connected in parallel with the galvanometer. The Fig. 14 23
values of these resistances depend upon the range of the
ammeter(Fig. 14.24). 5 mA

The circuit also has a range selection switch RS which is

used to select a particular range of the current.

Resistance Measuring Part of AVO M e t e r

The resistance measuring part of AVO meter is. in fact, a
multirange ohmmeter. Circuit for each range of this meter
consists of a battery of emf V0 and a variable resistance r,
connected in series with galvanomoter of resistance Rr
When the function switch is switched to position X,
(Fig. 14.22). this circuit is connected with tho terminals X. Y of
the AVO meter (Fig . 14.25 a).
Before measuring an unknown resistance by an ohmmeter it
is first zoroed which means that we short circuit the terminals
X. Y and adjust r„ to produce full scale deflection.

Digital Multimeter (DMM)

Another useful device to measure resistance, current and

voltage is an electronic instrument called digital multimeter.

77
It is a digital version of an AVO meter. It has become a very
■cm; popular testing device because the digital values are
displayed automatically with decimal point, polarity and the
unit for V. A or O. These meters are generally easier to use
because they eliminate the human error that often occurs in
reading the dial of an ordinary AVO meter. A portable DMM is
shown in Fig. 14.26.

esmmb
A magnetic field is set up in the region surrounding a current carrying conductor.
The right hand rule states. 'If the wire is grasped in the fist of right hand with the
thumb pointing in the direction of current, the fingers of the hand will circle the wire
the direction of the magnetic field’.
The strength of the magnetic fiold or magnetic induction is the force acting on one
metre length of the conductor placed at right angle to the magnetic field when 1 A
current is passing through it.
A magnetic field is said to have a strength of one tesla if it exerts a force of one
newton on one metre length of the conductor placed at right angle to the field when
current of one ampere passes through the conductor.
The magnetic flux <t»B through plane element of area Aina uniform magnetic field B
is given by dot product of B and A.
Ampere circuital law states the sum of the quantities B. AL for all path elements into
which the complete loop has been divided equals p., times the total current enclose
by the loop.
The force experienced by a single charge carrier moving with velocity v in magnetic
field of strength B is F = q (v * B).
Cathode ray osoi'kjscope (CRO) is a high speed graph plotting device. It works by
deflecting beam of electrons as they pass through uniform electric field between th
two sets of parallel plates.
Atorque may act on a current carrying coil placed in a magnetic field.
t = MB cos«
A galvanometer is an electric device which detects the flow of current. It usually
consists of a coil placed in a magnetic field. As the current passes through the coil,
tho coil rotates, thus indicating the flow of current.
A galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by properly shunting it.
A galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in
series.

78
14.1 A plane conducting loop is located in a uniform magnetic field that is directed along
the x-axis. For what orientation of the loop is the flux a maximum? For what
orientation is the flux a minimum?
142 A current in a conductor produces a magnetic field, wriich can be calculated using
Ampere's law. Since current is defined as tho rato of flow of charge. what can you conc
about the magnetic field due to statxsnary charges? What about moving charges?
14.3 Describe the change in tho magnetic field inside a solenoid carrying a steady current
/. if (a) tho length of the solenoid is doubled but the number of turns remains the
same and (b) the number of turns is doubled, but the length remains the same.
14.4 At a given instant, a proton moves in the positive x direction in a region where there is
magnetic field in the negative z direction. What is the direction of the magnetic
force? Wdl the proton continue to move in the positive x direction? Explain.
14.5 Two charged particles are projected into a region where there is a magnetic field
perpendicular to their velocities If the charges are deflected in opposite directions,
what can you say about them?
14.6 Suppose that a charge q is moving in a uniform magnetic field with a velocity v. Why
is there no work done by the magnetic force that acts on tho charge g?
14.7 If a charged particle moves in a straight line through some region of space, can you
say that the magnetic field in the region is zoro?
14.8 Why does the picture on a TV screen become distorted when a magnet is brought
near the screen?
14.9 Is it possible to orient a current loop in a uniform magnetic field such that the loop will
not tend to rotate? Explain.
14.10 How can a current loop be used to determine the presence of a magnetic field in a
given region of space?
14.11 How can you use a magnetic field to separate isotopes of chemical element?
14.12 What should be the orientation of a current carrying coil in a magnetic field so that
torque acting upon the coil is (a) maximum (b) minimum?
14.13 A loop of wire is suspended between the poles of a magnet with its plane parallel to
tho polo faces. What happens if a direct current is put through the coil?What
happens if an alternating current is used instead?
14.14 Why the resistance of an ammeter should be very low?
14.15 Why the voltmeter should have a very high resistance?

79
14.1 Find the value of the magnetic field that will cause a maximum force of
7.0 * 10 ’ N on a 20.0 cm straight wire carrying a current of 10.0 A.
(Ans: 3.5 x 10’ T)
14.2 How fast must a proton move in a magnetic field of 2.50 * 10 ’ T such that the
magnetic force is equal to its weight? (Ans: 4.09 x 104 ms')
14.3 A velocity selector has a magnetic field of 0.30 T. If a perpendicular electric field
of 10.000 Vm ' is applied, what will be the speed of the particle that will pass
through the selector? (Ans: 3.3x10* ms’)
14.4 A coil of 0.1 m x 0.1 m and of 200 turns carrying a current of 1.0 mA is placed in
a uniform magnetic field of 0.1 T. Calculate the maximum torque that acts on the
coil. (Ans: 2.0x104Nm)
14.5 A power line 10.0 m high carries a current 200 A. Find the magnetic field of
the wire at the ground. (Ans: 4.0x104T)
14.6 You are asked to design a solenoid that will give a magnetic field of 0.10 T. yet
the current must not exceed 10.0 A. Find the number of turns per unit length
that the solenoid should have. (Ans: 7.96 x 10’)
14.7 What current should pass through a solenoid that is 0.5 m long with 10.000
turns of copper wire so that it will have a magnetic field of 0.4 T? (Ans: 16.0A)

14.8 A galvanometer having an internal resistance Rt = 15.0 O gives full scale

deflection with current /, = 20.0 mA. It is to be converted into an ammeter of
range 10.0 A. Find the value of shunt resistance/?.. (Ans: 0.0300)
14.9 The resistance of 8 galvanometer is 50.0 O and reads full scale deflection with a
current of 2.0 mA Show by a diagram how to convert this galvanometer
into voltmeter reading 200 V full scale. (Ans: R = 99950Q)
14.10 The resistance of a galvanometer coil is 10.0 O and reads full scale with a current
of 1.0 mA. What should be the values of resistances R,. R, and R, to convert this
galvanometer into a multirange ammeter of 100. 10.0 and 1.0 A as shown in the
Fig.P.M.10? (Ans: R, = .0001 O. /?, = 0.001 O. R, = 0.01 O)

R, R, R,

100A 10A 1A

Fig. *14 10

80