Introduction to

Software
Engineering
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What is software?

• Computer programs and associated

documentation

2
What is software?

Programs

Operating
Documentation
Procedures

Software=Program+Documentation+Operating Procedures
Components of software
3
Documentation manuals are…
Formal Specification
Analysis Context-Diagram
/Specification
Data Flow Diagrams

Flow Charts
Design
Entity-Relationship
Documentation Diagram
Manuals
Source Code Listings
Implementation Cross-Reference
Listing
Test Data
Testing Test Results

List of documentation manuals

4
Operating procedure manuals are…
System Overview
User Beginner’s Guide
Manuals Tutorial
Reference Guide

Operating
Procedures

Installation Guide
Operational
Manuals
System
Administration Guide

List of operating procedure manuals.

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Software Products

• Software products may be developed for a particular

customer or may be developed for a general market

• Software products may be

–Generic - developed to be sold to a range of different
customers
–Bespoke (custom) - developed for a single customer according
to their specification

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Software products
Generic products
Stand-alone systems that are marketed and sold to any
customer who wishes to buy them.
Examples – PC software such as graphics programs,
project management tools; CAD software; software for
specific markets such as appointments systems for
dentists.
Customized products
Software that is commissioned by a specific customer to
meet their own needs.
Examples – embedded control systems, air traffic control
software, traffic monitoring systems.
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Software Product
Software product is a product designated for
delivery to the user
Source Reports Documents
Codes

Manuals
Objects Plans
Codes Data

Test
Suites Test
Prototypes
results

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Product specification
Generic products
The specification of what the software should do
is owned by the software developer and
decisions on software change are made by the
developer.
Customized products
The specification of what the software should do
is owned by the customer for the software and
they make decisions on software changes that are
required.
9
What is software engineering?

Software engineering is an engineering discipline which

is concerned with all aspects of software production
Software engineers should
– adopt a systematic and organised approach to their
work
– use appropriate tools and techniques depending on
• the problem to be solved,
• the development constraints and
– use the resources available
1
0
What is software engineering?
At the first conference on software engineering in 1968, Fritz Bauer
defined software engineering as “The establishment and use of
sound engineering principles in order to obtain economically
developed software that is reliable and works efficiently on real
machines”.

Stephen Schach defined the same as “A discipline whose aim is the

production of quality software, software that is delivered on time,
within budget, and that satisfies its requirements”.

Both the definitions are popular and acceptable to majority.

However, due to increase in cost of maintaining software, objective
is now shifting to produce quality software that is maintainable,
delivered on time, within budget, and also satisfies its requirements.
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Frequently asked questions about software
engineering
Question Answer

What is software? Computer programs and associated documentation.

Software products may be developed for a particular
customer or may be developed for a general market.
What are the attributes of good Good software should deliver the required functionality
software? and performance to the user and should be
maintainable, dependable and usable.
What is software engineering? Software engineering is an engineering discipline that
is concerned with all aspects of software production.
What are the fundamental software Software specification, software development,
engineering activities? software validation and software evolution.
What is the difference between software Computer science focuses on theory and
engineering and computer science? fundamentals; software engineering is concerned with
the practicalities of developing and delivering useful
software.
What is the difference between software System engineering is concerned with all aspects of
engineering and system engineering? computer-based systems development including
hardware, software and process engineering. Software
engineering is part of this more general process.

12
Frequently asked questions about software engineering

Question Answer
What are the key challenges facing Coping with increasing diversity, demands for reduced
software engineering? delivery times and developing trustworthy software.
What are the costs of software Roughly 60% of software costs are development costs,
engineering? 40% are testing costs. For custom software, evolution
costs often exceed development costs.
What are the best software engineering While all software projects have to be professionally
techniques and methods? managed and developed, different techniques are
appropriate for different types of system. For example,
games should always be developed using a series of
prototypes whereas safety critical control systems
require a complete and analyzable specification to be
developed. You can’t, therefore, say that one method is
better than another.
What differences has the web made to The web has led to the availability of software services
software engineering? and the possibility of developing highly distributed
service-based systems. Web-based systems
development has led to important advances in
programming languages and software reuse.
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Essential attributes of good software
Product characteristic Description

Maintainability Software should be written in such a way so that it can evolve to

meet the changing needs of customers. This is a critical
attribute because software change is an inevitable requirement
of a changing business environment.
Dependability and Software dependability includes a range of characteristics
security including reliability, security and safety. Dependable software
should not cause physical or economic damage in the event of
system failure. Malicious users should not be able to access or
damage the system.
Efficiency Software should not make wasteful use of system resources
such as memory and processor cycles. Efficiency therefore
includes responsiveness, processing time, memory utilisation,
etc.
Acceptability Software must be acceptable to the type of users for which it is
designed. This means that it must be understandable, usable
and compatible with other systems that they use.

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Software Application Domains
System software : A collection of programs written to
service other programs. Some system software (e.g.,
compilers, editors, and file management utilities)
Application software : Stand-alone programs that solve
a specific business need. Application software is used to
control business functions in real time (e.g., point-of-sale
transaction processing, real-time manufacturing process
control).
Web applications : These Applications called
“WebApps,” this network-centric software category spans
a wide array of applications. In their simplest form,
WebApps can be little more than a set of linked hypertext
files that present information using text and limited
graphics. 15
Software Application Domains
Engineering/scientific software : It has been characterized by
“number crunching” algorithms. Applications range from astronomy
to volcanology, from automotive stress analysis to space shuttle
orbital dynamics, and from molecular biology to automated
manufacturing.

Embedded software : It resides within a product or system and is

used to implement and control features and functions for the end
user and for the system itself. Embedded software can perform
limited and esoteric functions (e.g., key pad control for a microwave
oven) or provide significant function and control capability (e.g.,
digital functions in an automobile such as fuel control, dashboard
displays, and braking systems).

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Software Application Domains
Batch processing systems
These are business systems that are designed to process
data in large batches. They process large numbers of
individual inputs to create corresponding outputs.
Entertainment systems
These are systems that are primarily for personal use
and which are intended to entertain the user.
Systems for modeling and simulation
These are systems that are developed by scientists and
engineers to model physical processes or situations,
which include many, separate, interacting objects.

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Software Application Domains
Product-line software : Designed to provide a specific
capability for use by many different customers. Product-line
software can focus on a limited and esoteric marketplace (e.g.,
inventory control products) or address mass consumer markets
(e.g., word processing, spreadsheets, computer graphics,
multimedia, entertainment, database management, and
personal and business financial applications).
Artificial intelligence software : These makes use of non
numerical algorithms to solve complex problems that are not
amenable to computation or straightforward analysis.
Applications within this area include robotics, expert systems,
pattern recognition (image and voice), artificial neural
networks, theorem proving, and game playing. 18
Software engineering fundamentals
Some fundamental principles apply to all types of software
system, irrespective of the development techniques used:
Systems should be developed using a managed and
understood development process. Of course, different
processes are used for different types of software.
Dependability and performance are important for all
types of system.
Understanding and managing the software
specification and requirements (what the software
should do) are important.
Where appropriate, you should reuse software that has
already been developed rather than write new software.
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Software Characteristics:
./Software does not wear out.
Software doesn’t wear out because the hard drive, USB drive,
computer memory, or other “container” it’s stored in (or on)
protects it from being damaged and degrade.
./ Software is developed or engineered not manufactured
./ Reusability of components (Maintenance is without spare
parts)
./ Software is flexible (Intangible)

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Cont…
Well-Engineered Software
Well-engineered software is one that has the following
characteristics:
It is reliable
It has good user-interface
It has acceptable performance
It is of good quality
It is cost-effective

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Software Development Life Cycle
Software Development Life Cycle : Suggests a systematic
sequential approach to SW development that begins at the
system level and progresses through analysis, design,
coding, testing and support

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Software Process framework
A generic process framework for software engineering
encompasses five activities:
Communication: Before any technical work can commence,
it is critically important to communicate and collaborate
with the customer. The intent is to understand stakeholders
objectives for the project and to gather requirements that
help define software features and functions.
Planning: Defines the software engineering work by
describing the technical tasks to be conducted, the risks that
are likely, the resources that will be required, the work
products to be produced, and a work schedule. 23
Software Process framework
Modeling: Creation of models to help developers and
customers understand the requires and software design
Construction: This activity combines code generation and
the testing that is required to uncover errors in the code.
Deployment: The software is delivered to the customer
who evaluates the delivered product and provides
feedback based on the evaluation.

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Software Process models

Waterfall/Linear Sequential model

Prototype model

Evaluation model

Spiral model

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Waterfall model
Feasibility Study

Requirement Analysis
And Specification

Design and
Specification
Coding and
Module Testing
 Document Driven
Integration and
 The phases don't overlap System Testing
i.e. design can’t begin until Delivery
analysis is finished
Maintenance

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Feasibility Study
 Main aim – determine whether developing the product is financially and
technically feasible
 Purpose is to produce a feasibility study document that evaluates the
costs and benefits of the proposed application
 Document should contain:
 Definition of the problem
 Formulation of different solution strategies
 Alternative solutions and their expected benefits
 Cost/benefit analysis performed – determine which solution is the
best
 Any solution – not feasible – due to high cost, resource
constraints etc
 Required resources, costs, delivery dates in each proposed
alternative solutions
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Requirement Analysis and Specification
(What to solve)
Studied by the customer and developer .
 New project – much interaction is required between the user
and the developer
 Functional Requirements : what the product does
 Non- Functional Requirements : This may be classified into
the following categories: Reliability (availability, integrity etc),
accuracy, performance, operating constraints, human-computer
interface issues, portability issues etc

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Design Specification (How to solve)
Description of architecture, module description
and relationships

High level /architectural design : Deals with

overall module structure and organization, rather
than the details of the modules

Detailed design : High level design is refined by

designing each module in detail

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Coding and Testing
Individual modules are tested before being delivered
to the customers
Alpha Testing : Carried out by the test team inside

the organization
 Beta Testing : Performed by a selected group of

friendly customers
 Acceptance Testing : Performed by the customer

to determine whether or not to accept the deliver of

the system
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Maintenance
Requires much more effort than development phase
 Development : Maintenance effort = 40:60 ratio
 Involves performing any one/more of the following activities:
 Corrective Maintenance : Correcting errors – not
discovered during the product development phase
 Perfective Maintenance : Improving the implementation
and enhancing the functionalities according to customer’s
requirements
 Adaptive Maintenance : Porting the SW to a new
environment

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Strength and weakness
Strength of Waterfall model
It is document driven

 It is a good model to use when requirements are well understood and are

quite stable.
 Late changes to requirements or design are limited

 Implementing the product should be postponed until understanding the

objectives well.
Weakness of Waterfall model
 The model is inflexible for change as each phase results are frozen.

This model forces the software developer to completely fulfill the scope of

each phase before moving on.

Requirements must be well-reviewed early

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Cont…

Model is
Linear : Not possible. Need feedback
Rigid : results of each phase are frozen before proceeding to the
next phase
Monolithic : All planning is oriented to a single delivery date

When to use Waterfall model

It works well for products that are well understood.
It works well for projects that are repeats of earlier work.
It is suitable with which the development team have a lot
of experience.

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Prototype model
Working prototype of the system should be built first before
the actual SW
Usually exhibiting limited functionalities, low reliability,
inefficient performance
In the case where requirements are not clear, Prototyping
may be the most suitable approach.
Such situations as the following require prototyping:

- Users do not have clearly defined procedures and

processes.
- Systems are complex and are not amenable to clear
analysis.
- Requirements are changing due to various reasons:
(markets, regulations, uncommitted management, etc.)34
Cont…
Reasons for developing prototype:

 To illustrate the input data formats, messages,

reports etc – valuable mechanism to gain better
understanding of the customer’s needs

 Much easier for the customer to form opinion by

experimenting with a working model

 Helps to critically examine the technical issues

associated with the product development (efficiency of
the sorting algorithm, response time of a HW
controller)
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Building a Prototype Model
Begins with requirements gathering
Developer + customer meet and define overall objectives
Identify the known requirements + mark ones which
needs further discussion
Quick design occurs
Prototype evaluated -->requirements refined
Prototype serves as a mechanism for identifying
software requirements

36
Cont…
Requirements gathering

Quick design

Customer
Refine Requirements
suggestion Build prototype

Acceptance by user
Customer evaluation –
prototype

Design Iterative process

Implement, Test

Maintain 37
Prototype model
 Actual system developed using classical waterfall model
 In development effort, requirement analysis and specification
phase becomes redundant.
 Prototype code – thrown away
 However, experience gained - helps in developing actual
system
 Prototype construction – additional cost. But, overall cost
lower than developed using Waterfall model
 Experimenting with prototype - user requirements properly
defined, technical issues satisfactorily resolved
 Minimizing change requests & redesign costs after the system
is delivered to customer
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Strengths and weakness
Strengths of the Prototyping Model
There is a much lower risk of confusion in terms of
miscommunication, misunderstanding user requirements or
system features.
New or unexpected user requirements can easily be
incorporated.
Prototyping development costs are offset by avoidance of the
usual high cost of rework and repair.
The prototype can be used as a formal specification because it
is tangible and well tried.

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Cont…
 Weaknesses of the Prototyping Model
Lack of early planning may cause project management problems:
unknown schedules, budgets and deliverables.
This Model results in potentially longer development cycles.
Seeing functions in working mode early in the life cycle
stimulates users into requesting additional functions.
When to use the Prototyping Model?
When requirements are not known at the beginning of the project
When requirements are unstable and constantly changing
When users, for various reasons, do not have the capability of
expressing their requirements clearly.
When user requires proof of concept
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Evolutionary model
 Also known as successive version model
 System – first broken into several modules or
functional units – incrementally developed and
delivered
 Developers first develop core modules – i.e., basic
requirements are addressed, but many supplementary
features remain undelivered
 Initial product skeleton – refined into increasing levels
of capability by adding new functionalities in
successive versions
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Cont…
 Each version is a functioning system capable of
performing some more useful work
 Core modules will be tested thoroughly
 Disadvantage : difficult to subdivide the problem
 Useful only for very large problems – where it is easier to
identify modules for incremental implementation
 Evolves over a period of time

42
Cont…

43
Spiral model
•Focuses on identifying and eliminating high risk problems by
careful process design (Requirement analysis and Design Phases)
• Consequently, minimum and manageable risks filtered into
development phase
Development cycle is divided into 4 task areas
Requirement analysis – (identifies the objectives of the portion of

the product, in terms of qualities to achieve, identifies alternatives –

design, buy, reuse )
Risk analysis – (alternatives are evaluated and potential areas are
identified and dealt with)
Prototype and detailed designing

Construction, testing and implementation

44
Cont…

1- Requirement Analysis
4 5 2 -Risk Analysis
3 -Prototype 1
1 2 4 - Software Requirement
Analysis
9 5 - Risk Analysis
3
6 6- Prototype 2
8 7-Detailed Design
7
8-Construction
9-Testing and Evaluation

45
Cont…
Expects lot of rework in reverting to an earlier
phase and incorporating client feedback
 Needs to perform risk analysis effectively

 To eliminate losses arising due to uncertain dev

models, resource requirement, time etc

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Selection of a Process Model
Following criteria can be considered:
Business goals of the organization - Indicates the mindset of an
organization
 Past history of developing projects in accordance with well
defined plans – Waterfall
 If it is used to work in an experimental and constant feedback
mode – Prototype
Expected size of the project
 Large size, customers expect all the features at the first delivery -
Waterfall
 Customers want to start unit testing – Evolutionary (Incremental)
 Size is doubtful – Prototype/Spiral (These models help to develop
projects with vague and uncertain project size) 47
Cont…
Customer needs and project requirements
 Customer needs and requirements – certain and approved –
waterfall
 Customer needs and requirements – uncertain and likely to
change in the future –Spiral / Prototype/ Incremental

Availability of funds and development staff

 Adequate resources at the start of the project – Waterfall /
Prototype
 Expecting additional funds and resources – Incremental /
Spiral
Risks perceived in the project
 Risks and impacts are minimum – Waterfall / Incremental
model
 Risks and impacts are high – Spiral model
48
Comparison of Process Models
Strengths Weaknesses Types of projects
Waterfall  Requirements frozen early  For well understood
 Simple  Disallows changes problems
Cycle time too long  Short duration project
 Easy to execute


 May choose outdated  Automation of

HW technology existing manual system

 User feedback not allowed

Prototyping  Front heavy process  Systems with novice

 Helps in requirements  Possible higher cost users
refinement  Disallows later changes  When uncertainties in
Reduces risk

requirements
Lead to a better
 When UI very
system
important

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Advantages of Software Process
SW Process models have a twofold effect :
Provide guidance to software engineers on the order in
which the various technical activities should be carried
out within a project
Provide a framework for managing development and
maintenance- enable to estimate resources, define
intermediate milestones, monitor progress etc

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Difficulties of Software Process
The software process is the way in which we produce
software.
Why is it difficult to improve software process ?

• Not enough time

• Lack of knowledge
• Wrong motivations
• Insufficient commitment

51
Software Metrics
 A software metric is a measure of software characteristics
which are measurable or countable.
 Software metrics are valuable for many reasons,
including measuring software performance, planning work
items, measuring productivity, and many other uses.
Software metrics can be classified into two types as follows:
1. Product Metrics
2. Process Metrics

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Software Metrics
1. Product Metrics: These are the measures of various
characteristics of the software product. The two important
software characteristics are:
 Size and complexity of software.
 Quality and reliability of software.
These metrics can be computed for different stages of SDLC.
2. Process Metrics: These are the measures of various
characteristics of the software development process. For
example, the efficiency of fault detection. They are used to
measure the characteristics of methods, techniques, and tools
that are used for developing software.
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Types of Software Metrics
Internal metrics: Internal metrics are the metrics used for
measuring properties that are viewed to be of greater importance
to a software developer. For example, Lines of Code (LOC)
measure.
External metrics: External metrics are the metrics used for
measuring properties that are viewed to be of greater importance
to the user, e.g., portability, reliability, functionality, usability,
etc.
Hybrid metrics: Hybrid metrics are the metrics that combine
product, process, and resource metrics. For example, cost per FP
where FP stands for Function Point Metric.
Project metrics: Project metrics are the metrics used by the
project manager to check the project's progress.

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Advantages of Software Metrics
 For analysis, comparison, and critical study of different programming
language concerning their characteristics.
 In comparing and evaluating the capabilities and productivity of people
involved in software development.
 In the preparation of software quality specifications.
 In the verification of compliance of software systems requirements and
specifications.
 In making inference about the effort to be put in the design and
development of the software systems.
 In getting an idea about the complexity of the code.
 In taking decisions regarding further division of a complex module is to
be done or not.
 In guiding resource manager for their proper utilization.
 In comparison and making design tradeoffs between software
development and maintenance cost and etc.

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Disadvantages of Software Metrics
 The application of software metrics is not always easy, and in
some cases, it is difficult and costly.
 The verification and justification of software metrics are based
on historical/empirical data whose validity is difficult to
verify.
 These are useful for managing software products but not for
evaluating the performance of the technical staff.
 The definition and derivation of Software metrics are usually
based on assuming which are not standardized and may
depend upon tools available and working environment.
 Most of the predictive models rely on estimates of certain
variables which are often not known precisely.

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End of Chapter
One
Don’t forget to start your project

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