Contents 2

5.3 Octal, Hexadecimal Output with ostream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

5.4 Floating Point Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.5 Named Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.6 Enumerated Types: enum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
C Programming for Engineers
6 Expressions 26
A Review of C. Introducing iostream
6.1 Arithmetic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.2 Arithmetic Operators and Precedence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.3 All Operators and their Precedence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Nick Urbanik [email protected] 6.4 Relational Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
This document Licensed under GPL—see slide 87 6.5 Logical Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.6 Assignment Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2006 February 6.7 Increment, Decrement Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.8 Comma Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.9 Arithmetic if Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Outline 6.10 Bitwise Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6.11 Casts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Contents 7 Statements 40
7.1 Simple Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1 Who am I? Who are You? 3 7.2 Compound Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.3 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2 Overview 4 7.4 Looping Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.1 Quick Tour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 7.5 while Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2 Standard Input, Standard Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 7.6 do statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3 Redirecting Output and Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 7.7 Avoid Confusing == with = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7.8 Using a constant or single variable as a test condition . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3 C++ and iostreamlibrary 7 7.9 while and the null statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.1 An overview of the iostream library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 7.10 for Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.11 Comparing while and for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4 Continuing our tour 9
7.12 if and switch Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.1 hello.cpp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7.13 break, continue, goto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.2 Basic Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7.14 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.3 Input characters without skipping whitespace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.4 I/O of other data to standard output and from standard input . . . . . . . . . 11 8 Functions 52
4.5 Reading into strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 8.1 Defining Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.6 Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 8.2 Calling Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.7 Reading till the end of file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 8.3 Using return Value from Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.8 Infinite Loop while reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 8.4 Function Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5 Data Types 14
5.1 Integer Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.2 Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1. Who am I? Who are You? 3 2. Overview 4

9 Arrays 58 – Call me Nick

9.1 Defining Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
9.2 Arrays and Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 • My email address is [email protected]
9.3 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 • The notes for this class are always available at
9.4 Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 http://nicku.org/c-for-engineers/
10 Pointers 63 • I taught in Hong Kong for ten years
10.1 Pointers as Function Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
• I taught in Macau one year before that
11 Arrays and Pointers 65 • Before that I wrote software in C++ to collect data for medical experiments
11.1 Strong relationship between arrays and pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

12 Multidimensional Arrays and arrays of pointers 68 How we will work in these classes
12.1 Arrays of pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 • We will learn by doing
12.2 Memory Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
12.3 Multidimensional Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 – I will explain something for a short time
12.4 Command Line Arguments: argc, argv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 – you will then try it out for a short time

13 Structures 73 • Next week:

13.1 Passing Structures to Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
– I will print the notes out for you, now that I know what you need
13.2 typedef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
– I will give you more information about this course
14 Reading and Writing Files 77
• This is always available from http://nicku.org/; click on the link on the left
14.1 fstream: file input and output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
“C for Engineers”.
14.2 Error Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
14.3 Binary files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 • I will publish all the teaching material also on http://gonzo.org.au/, and I’ll
14.4 Character I/O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 explain to you how to use it
14.5 Reading a Line at a time: getline() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
14.6 I/O of other data to/from Text Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2 Overview
15 Guidelines 82
15.1 Style Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 2.1 Quick Tour
15.2 Program Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
15.3 Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 C — Quick tour
• C was originally designed as a low-level systems programming language for an early
16 Some Things to Read 86
version of the UNIX operating system.
• Combine:
1 Who am I? Who are You?
– efficiency and hardware access capability of assembler with
Welcome! – high level language structures and
• Welcome to our class in Electrical Control, C Programming – portability

• My name is Nick Urbanik • Most of the Linux and UNIX operating systems are written in C.
2.2 Standard Input, Standard Output 5 2.3 Redirecting Output and Input 6

C is portable

• Although C matches the capabilities of many computers, it is independent of any par-

ticular machine architecture.
• it is not difficult to write portable programs that can be run without change on a variety
of hardware
• the standard makes portability issues explicit, and prescribes a set of constants that
characterize the machine on which the program is run.
– See limits.h

2.3 Redirecting Output and Input

C — quick tour (continued)
Output Redirection
• The standard library is a suite of ready-written commonly used functions
• We redirect output using ’>’
• header files declare the library functions, and any symbolic constants required.
• For example:
• The (obsolete) header file for the iostream library is included into your program
file with:
C:\STUDENT> command > output
#include <iostream>
Creates the file output (or overwrites it if it already exists) and places the standard
• Header files tell the compiler about the library functions and about the type of the output from command into it
parameters and return types • We can append to a file rather than overwriting it by using >>
• linker automatically links in the required functions at compile-time.
• C programs make use of functions from the standard library; e.g., all input and output
operations are usually performed using standard library functions. normally

2.2 Standard Input, Standard Output

command
Standard Input, Output
> output (file)
• If you run a program in Windows or Linux, it usually has three files already open: with redirection

Name File Descriptor normally connected to

Standard Input 0 keyboard Input Redirection

Standard output 1 screen
• < redirects standard input from a file, e.g.,
Standard error 2 screen
C:\STUDENT> analyse < numbers.txt
• These are normally connected to the keyboard and your command prompt window
3. C++ and iostream library 7 3.1 An overview of the iostream 8
library
• analyse now take the contents of the file numbers.txt as its input std::cin pronounced see-in
numbers.txt (file) – an istream class object representing standard input
std::cout pronounced see-out
– an ostream class object representing standard output
< std::cerr pronounced see-err
n
di
st – an ostream class object representing standard error
analyse
Input and Output operators
stdo • Output is done using the left shift operator <<
ut
• Input is done using the right shift operator >>
#include <iostream>

int main( void )

{
3 C++ and iostreamlibrary char name[ 1000 ];
std::cout << "what is your name? ";
std::cin >> name;
C++
if ( name[ 0 ] == ’\0’ )
std::cerr << "error: name is empty!\n";
• C++ is forwards compatible with C
else
• If a C++ compiler cannot compile a C program, the C program may be poorly written std::cout << "hello, " << name << "!\n";
}
• We will use some basic C++ features in this course, where they make things easier
How do I remember?
• One of these ways is file input and output using the iostream standard library.
• A way of remembering which operator is which:
• Another is the standard string library, but I don’t think that Borland C++ 3.1 sup-
ports it. • each operator points in the direction the data moves, e.g.,
>> x
3.1 An overview of the iostreamlibrary
puts data into x, while
Overview of iostreamlibrary
<< x
• To use iostream library in programs, we must include the header file like this: gets data out from x

#include <iostream>
Why is this better than printf() and scanf()?

• If you are using a very old C++ compiler, put this instead: • std::cin, std::cout and std::cerr “know” the type of data they are working with, so
• there is no need for you to remember which format string is needed for which data
#include <iostream.h> type;

• The library defines three standard stream objects: • “it all just works”
4.3 Input characters without skipping 10
4. Continuing our tour 9 whitespace

4 Continuing our tour Variable declarations

4.1 hello.cpp • Variables are declared and defined with a data type and a name.

First example • The name is also called an identifier.

• Program hello.cpp: • First character of a variable must be letter or underscore (_). Special characters (e.g.,
$ and #) are illegal.
// A first program in C++
#include <iostream> • Some people (including me!) recommend using lowercase letters and underscores
int main( void ) only.
{
std::cout << "Hello World\n";
4.3 Input characters without skipping whitespace
}
Input characters without skipping whitespace
• Output for Program hello.cpp:
• We can input and output characters one at a time:
Hello World • Program one-char-io.cpp:

Good programming practice #include <iostream>

int main( void )
• Indentation can improves clarity and readability. It can be enhanced by placing braces {
or blank lines. char letter ;
std::cin >> letter ;
• Use variable and function names that explain themselves std::cout << letter ;
}
• Functions should be shorter than one A4 page and should be simple to understand
• Every long or complicated function should be preceded by a comment describing the • Note that by default, std::cin >> letter ; will skip over whitespace, such as spaces,
purpose of the function. tabs and newlines

• Aim: make the program as easy for a human to understand as possible • You can use the iostream member function std::cin.get() to input characters one
at a time, including whitespace:
• Saves money: less time to change/update program = less money.
#include <iostream>
int main( void )
4.2 Basic Syntax {
char letter ;
Format of main() function without parameters
std::cin.get( letter );
std::cout << letter ;
int main( void )
}
{
hdeclarationsi;
hstatementsi;
}
4.4 I/O of other data to standard output 11
and from standard input 4.5 Reading into strings 12

Data Types Output of program celcius.cpp:

• Three of the most commonly used data types:
212 deg F => 100 deg C
int integer
double floating point number Using std::cin for input
char character • std::cin object performs the opposite operation.
• Program vars.cpp:
• reads text from standard input and assigns to variables
#include <iostream>
int main( void ) • automatically converts the input text data to appropriate types
{
int num = 5; • Program cin-cout-2.cpp:
float cost = 9.5;
std::cout << "Hello: num = " << num #include <iostream>
<< " cost = " << cost int main( void )
<< ’\n’; {
} int num;
float cost;
std::cout << "Enter number: ";
The std::endl manipulator std::cin >> num;
• The iostream libraries support manipulators std::cout << "Enter cost: ";
std::cin >> cost;
• A manipulator changes the state of a stream std::cout << "Num = " << num << ", cost = "
<< cost << ’\n’;
• The std::endl manipulator:
}
– prints a newline ’\n’, and
– sends any remaining characters stored ready for output, to the output 4.5 Reading into strings
∗ We say that this “flushes the buffer”
Strings — array of characters

4.4 I/O of other data to standard output and from standard input • A string is an array of characters, i.e., text.
Input and output with iostream • The length of the string can be defined with a number enclosed in brackets. e.g., array
• Simple input and output operations using iostream library objects std::cout and of 10 characters with name lname:
std::cin
char lname[ 10 ];
• Program celcius.cpp:
#include <iostream>
int main( void )
{
double fahr = 212, cel;
cel = ( 5.0 / 9.0 ) * ( fahr − 32 );
std::cout << fahr << " deg F => "
<< cel << " deg C\n";
}
4.6 Loops 13 4.8 Infinite Loop while reading 14

• Program cin-cout-3.cpp: Reading till the end of file

#include <iostream> • If you execute the code std::cin >> name; after reaching end of file, the result is
int main( void )
false.
{
int num; • That means you can write code like this:
char lname[ 1000 ];
std::cout << "Enter class number: "; if ( std::cin >> name ) {
std::cin >> num; // do something with name
std::cout << "Enter last name: "; }
std::cin >> lname;
std::cout << "class number is " << num
• You can also write a loop that automatically terminates when there is no more to read:
<< ", lastname is " << lname
<< ’\n’; float num;
} while ( std::cin >> num ) {
// Now we know that num is a valid float,
4.6 Loops // so do something with it
}
Loops
– After this loop is finished, either we have reached end of file, or the next input is
• A loop will cause statements to be executed repeatedly until a test condition proves not a valid float
false
• Program while-1.cpp: 4.8 Infinite Loop while reading
#include <iostream> Infinite Loop while reading
int main( void )
{ • If you do something like this:
int j = 0;
while ( j < 5 ) { float num = 1.0;
std::cout << "j has the value " << j << ’\n’; std::cout << "enter positive floats: ";
j = j + 1; while ( num > 0 ) {
} std::cin >> num;
} std::cout << "You gave me " << num << ’\n’;
}
4.7 Reading till the end of file
if you enter something that is not a valid float, you get an infinite loop.
End of file
• Use the method I described in the last slide.
• When there is no more input, a program has reached the end of file
• See http://www.parashift.com/c++-faq-lite/input-output.html#faq
• When reading standard input: for more about this.
– that is redirected from a file (see section 2.3 on page 6), the program has reached
end of file when, well, the last line is read. 5 Data Types

– from the keyboard, you can type Control-Z on Windows, or Control-d on
Linux to tell your program that it has reached the end of file Data Types
5. Data Types 15 5.1 Integer Types 16

• Data is represented in memory by a sequence of bits, arranged into bytes, eight bits to Integer and floating point data types
a byte
• Types of integer data (each has an unsigned counterpart):
• These bits could represent
– character
– strings or characters
– integer
– integers
– short integer
– floating point values
– long integer
– memory addresses
– long long integer
– binary values representing music or video
• Types of floating point values:
– ...
– single precision (float)
• Each item of data has a data type
– double precision (double)
• The data type determines how the program will interpret the data
– long double precision (long double)

Declaration & data types • The range of values that can be held are machine dependent.

• A variable declaration consists of a data type and an identifier, followed by a semi- • The ranges of integer types are in limits.h
colon:
• The ranges of floating types are in float.h
hData Typei hVariable Namei hsemicoloni
5.1 Integer Types
• Example: Signed integers — 1
int count; • An unsigned integer has only positive values while a signed integer can have a positive
or negative value.
• Signed Integers:
Basic data types Keywords
character char
signed character signed char int use: standard integer
unsigned character unsigned char
integer int size: system dependent, usually size of a word.
unsigned integer int range: INT_MIN to INT_MAX, defined in limits.h. For 4
long integer long byte word, −231 − 1 to 231 , i.e., −2147483648 to
unsigned long integer unsigned long 2147483647
long long integer long long example declaration: int num;
unsigned long long integer unsigned long long
short integer short example constant: 1000
floating point float or double or long double
5.1 Integer Types 17 5.2 Characters 18

Signed integers — 2
unsigned int
long use: large numbers
size: system dependent; always same size as int
size: usually 4 bytes. range: 0 to UINT_MAX. For 4 byte word, 0 to 232 − 1, i.e., 4294967295
31 31
range: LONG_MIN to LONG_MAX. For 4 bytes, −2 to 2 − 1, i.e., declaration: unsigned int unum; or unsigned unum;
−2147483648 to 2147483647
constants: 5530u
example declaration: long lnum;
example constant: 5212000L
Unsigned integers — 2
short use: smaller numbers
unsigned long
size: 2 bytes or same size as integer
size: usually 4 bytes; always same size as long
range: SHRT_MIN to SHRT_MAX. For 2 bytes, −215 to 215 − 1, i.e., −32768 range: 0 to UINT_MAX. For 4 byte, 0 to 232 − 1 = 4294967295
to 32767
example declaration: unsigned long ulnum;
declaration: short snum;
example constant: 76212000uL
constants: 120
unsigned short

long long size: usually 2 bytes; always same size as short int
range: 0 to USHRT_MAX. For 2 bytes, 0 to 65536
long long use: very large numbers example declaration: unsigned short usnum;
size: usually 8 bytes. example constant: 34000u
range: for 8 bytes, −263 to 263 − 1, i.e., −9,223,372,036,854,775,808
to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807
5.2 Characters
example declaration: long long lnum;
Characters
example constant: 5212000LL
• When working with characters, use the type char.
unsigned long long use: very large positive numbers • Note that the type char can be signed or unsigned, depending on the compiler.

size: usually 8 bytes.

range: for 8 bytes, 0 to 264 − 1, i.e., 0 to 18,446,744,073,709,551,615 char

example declaration: unsigned long long lnum; size: usually 8 bits; CHAR_BIT in limits.h
example constant: 5212000LL range: CHAR_MIN to CHAR_MAX. For 1 byte, could be −27 to
27 − 1, i.e., −127 to 128 or 0 to 255
example declaration: char ch;
Unsigned integers — 1
example constant: ’a’
5.3 Octal, Hexadecimal Output with 20
5.2 Characters 19 ostream

#include <iostream>
Characters: signed, unsigned
int main( void )
• specify the type as signed or unsigned only if you care. {
char letter = ’A’; // ’A’ is character constant
int num = letter ;
signed char char ch1 = ’b’; // ASCII code = 98
char ch2 = ’B’; // ASCII code = 66
size: usually 8 bits; CHAR_BIT in limits.h
std::cout << "letter = " << letter
range: SCHAR_MIN to SCHAR_MAX. For 1 byte, −27 to 27 − 1,
<< ", num = " << num << ’\n’;
i.e., −127 to 128
std::cout << "letter + 1 = " << letter + 1
example declaration: signed char ch; << ", num = " << num << ’\n’;
std::cout << ch1 << " - " << ch2
example constant: ’a’
<< " = " << ch1 − ch2 << std::endl;
}
unsigned char
Output for Program princhar.cpp:
size: usually 8 bits; CHAR_BIT in limits.h
letter = A, num = 65
range: 0 to UCHAR_MAX. For 1 byte, 0 to 28 − 1 = 255
letter + 1 = 66, num = 65
example declaration: unsigned char ch; b - B = 32

Character types 5.3 Octal, Hexadecimal Output with ostream

Integer constants: octal and hexadecimal
• Characters are represented in C with integer values.
• The correspondence between a given character and an integer value is determined by • An integer can be represented in an octal or a hexadecimal form. Octal integer con-
an agreed-upon character set, such as the ASCII character set. stants are represented with a leading zero. Hexadecimal integer constant is represented
with the leading characters 0x, or 0X.
• Examples of declarations:

char letter ; Integer Octal Hexadecimal

signed char sletter ;
unsigned char uletter ;
4 04 0x4
12 014 0xc
Program princhar.cpp 123 0173 0x7b

• The long integer qualifier L can also used with the octal and hexadecimal
• Example of octal constant: 0553000L
• Example of hexadecimal constant: 0x2f6c7a333L
5.3 Octal, Hexadecimal Output with 21
ostream 5.4 Floating Point Types 22

Program printvar.cpp std::dec Changes the state of the ostream to displaying all integer type numbers
in decimal
#include <iostream> std::showbase a state that displays octal with leading “0”, hexadecimal with
#include <iomanip> leading “0x”

int main( void )

{
5.4 Floating Point Types
int num = 77; Floating point data types — 1
short int small = 0173;
short little = 0x7b; • The floating point data type is used to represent real numbers. Real numbers include
long int big = 88000; the fractional number between integers. two components: an exponent and a fraction
long large = −43000L;
unsigned int unum = 45000;
unsigned long ubig = 330000000UL; float

std::cout << std::showbase; size: system dependent, usually four bytes.

std::cout << "num (dec) = " << num
range: FLT MIN to FLT MAX defined in float.h
<< ", (oct) = " << std::oct << num
<< ", (hex) = " << std::hex << num << ’\n’; example declaration: float fnum;
std::cout << "small (oct) = " << std::oct << small
example constant: 3.456f
<< ", little (hex) = " << std::hex << little << ’\n’;
std::cout << "big (dec) = " << std::dec << big
<< ", large (dec) = " << large << ’\n’; Floating point data types — float
std::cout << "unum = " << unum
<< ", ubig = " << ubig << ’\n’;
std::cout << "small (dec) = " << small double
<< ", little (dec) = " << little << std::endl;
size: twice the size of float, usually eight bytes
}
range: DBL MIN to DBL MAX defined in float.h
example declaration: double dnum;

Output for Program printvar.cpp example constants: floating point notation: 3.4567 exponential notation: 4.788e+5,
3e1
num (dec) = 77, (oct) = 0115, (hex) = 0x4d
small (oct) = 0173, little (hex) = 0x7b
big (dec) = 88000, large (dec) = -43000 Floating point data types — long double
unum = 45000, ubig = 330000000
small (dec) = 123, little (dec) = 123 long double

• We need to include iomanip here for the manipulators: size: bigger than the size of double.

std::oct Changes the state of the ostream to displaying all integer type numbers range: LDBL MIN to LDBL MAX defined in float.h
in octal. All numbers printed while in this state are in octal. example declaration: long double ldnum;
std::hex Changes the state of the ostream to displaying all integer type numbers example constants: 3.4567L exponential notation: 4.788e+5L
in hexadecimal
5.4 Floating Point Types 23 5.5 Named Constants 24

Program float-io.cpp

#include <iostream> Output for Program float.cpp

int main( void ) float min: 1.17549e-38

{ float max: 3.40282e+38
float cost = 15.92; double min: 2.22507e-308
float total = 3.6e5; double max: 1.79769e+308
float value = 357e−1; // value is 35.7 long double min: 3.3621e-4932
double debt = 1.2e15;
long double max: 1.18973e+4932
long double decrease = 5e−6;
float epsilon: 1.19209e-07
std::cout << "cost = " << cost double epsilon: 2.22045e-16
<< ", total = " << total << ’\n’; long double epsilon: 1.0842e-19
std::cout << "value = " << value << ’\n’; A long double constant: 478800

std::cout << "debt = " << debt << ’\n’

5.5 Named Constants
<< "decrease = " << decrease << ’\n’;
} Symbolic constants: #define, const, and enum
Output for Program float-io.cpp
• #define can be thought of as a global substitution command.
cost = 15.92, total = 360000
value = 35.7 • The #define directive consists of the #define keyword, a define symbol, and a re-
debt = 1.2e+15 placement text.
decrease = 5e-06
• Program define.cpp:

Program float.cppshowing limits of floating values #include <iostream>

#define RATE 1.5 // Note: terminated by comment or newline
#include <float.h>
#include <iostream> int main( void )
{
int main() float cost = RATE * 8.0;
{ std::cout << "Cost = " << cost
<< ", rate = " << RATE << ’\n’;
std::cout << "float min: " << FLT MIN << ’\n’;
std::cout << "float max: " << FLT MAX << ’\n’; }
std::cout << "double min: " << DBL MIN << ’\n’;
std::cout << "double max: " << DBL MAX << ’\n’;
std::cout << "long double min: " << LDBL MIN << ’\n’;
std::cout << "long double max: " << LDBL MAX << ’\n’; 5.6 Enumerated Types: enum
std::cout << "float epsilon: " << FLT EPSILON << ’\n’;
Kconst and enum
std::cout << "double epsilon: " << DBL EPSILON << ’\n’;
std::cout << "long double epsilon: " << LDBL EPSILON << ’\n’;
• Using const is better than #define. Program const.cpp:
std::cout << "A long double constant: " << 4.788e+5L << ’\n’;
return 0;
}
5.6 Enumerated Types: enum 25 6. Expressions 26

• Output of program enum-3.cpp:

#include <iostream>
30 5 255 1
int main( void )
{
const float rate = 1.5; // with “;” 6 Expressions
float cost = rate * 8;
Expressions
std::cout << "cost = " << cost
<< ", rate = " << rate << ’\n’; • Expressions define the tasks to be performed in a program do calculations perform
} function calls and assignment operations
• Program enum-2.cpp: • Arithmetic expressions perform the standard arithmetic operations.
– Arithmetic operator — is a symbol or a binary operator, i.e. acts upon 1 or more
#include <iostream> operands or values.

enum weather { clouds, rain, sunny, storm };

– Operand —- may be constant, variable, or function.

int main( void )

{
operator
weather today = sunny ;

std::cout << clouds << ’ ’ << rain << ’ ’

<< sunny << ’ ’ << storm << ’\n’; 8 + x
std::cout << "today: " << today << ’\n’;
}

operands
Enumerated types — 2
6.1 Arithmetic Expressions
• Program enum-3.cpp:
Arithmetic operators — unary
#include <iostream>
• Unary arithmetic operators:
enum weather { clouds = 30, rain = 5,
sunny = 255, storm = 1 }; + plus, or positive
enum boolean { TRUE = 1, FALSE = 0 };
− negative
int main( void )
{
−6 negative 6
weather today = rain;
std::cout << clouds << ’ ’ << rain << ’ ’ −( −6 ) positive 6
<< sunny << ’ ’ << storm << ’\n’; −( 3 − 7 ) positive 4
std::cout << "today: " << today << ’\n’;
} −y change the sign of operand y
6.2 Arithmetic Operators and 27
Precedence 6.3 All Operators and their Precedence 28

Arithmetic operators — binary • Example:

• Additive operators: 2 + 4 * 5 − 3

+ addition evaluates to the same as:

− subtraction
2 + 20 − 3
total = 8 + 5 − 2;
sum = num − 3; Arithmetic Precedence and Associativity (cont’)
• Multiplicative operators: • If the operators share the same operand, the priority of one operator over the other will
* multiplication be determined by its associativity. Associativity describes how an operator associates
its operands.
/ division
% modulo or remainder • Arithmetic operators associate left to right, whereas assignment operators associate
right to left.
int total;
total = 8 * 5; • Example:
total = 23 / 4; // now total has the value 5
total = 23 % 4; // now total has the value 3 2 + 10 − 5

evaluates the same as

6.2 Arithmetic Operators and Precedence
12 − 5
Arithmetic precedence and associativity

• One operator may take precedence over another. • The following table lists the precedence and assciativity of operators.

• When an expression is evaluated, it is broken down into a series of subexpressions,

6.3 All Operators and their Precedence
one for each operator.
All Operators and their Precedence
• The order in which these subexpressions are evaluated is determined by either paren- See table 1 for a list of all C operators and their precedence and associativity.
theses or precedence. Associativity tells you whether, if the precedence is equal, whether the operators be
• Example: applied from left to right (left associative), or from right to left (right associative).

( 2 + 4 ) * ( 5 − 3 ) 6.4 Relational Expressions

evaluates to the same as Comparison Expressions

6 * 2 • Relational, equality, and logical expressions compare their operands. the result of the
comparison is the integer value of either one or zero.
• If there are no parentheses, precedence determines the order of evaluation
• If an operation compares successfully, the result of the expression is an integer value
• All operators are ranked according to their precedence. of 1. If an operation compares fails, the result of the expression is an integer value of
0.
• Operators with greater precedence are evaluated first.
6.4 Relational Expressions 29 6.5 Logical Expressions 30

Level Operator Function Relational expressions — 1

15L −>, . structure member selectors • Relational expressions can be combined with other expressions.
[] array index
() function call • Example:
14R sizeof size in bytes num = 3;
++, −− increment, decrement abc = ( num < 5 );
∼ bitwise NOT As 3 < 5, the resulting value of abc is 1.
! logical NOT
+, − unary plus, minus • Example:
*, & dereference, address-of num = 8;
() type conversion (cast) abc = 5 + ( num < 5 );
13L *, /, % multiply, divide, modulus
As 8 > 5, the value of abc is 5 + 0 = 5.
12L +, − arithmetic operators
11L <<, >> bitwise shift
Relational expressions — 2
10L <, <=, >, >= relational operators
9L ==, != equality, inequality • The equality operators test a relationship between two operands
8L & bitwise AND • result is 1 or 0.
7L ^ bitwise XOR == equal,
6L | bitwise OR != not equal
5L && logical AND
• equality operator is a double equal sign ==
4L || logical OR
3L ?: arithmetic if • assignment operation is a single equals sign = e.g
2R = assignment operator
while ( test == 1 ) // comparison operation for equality
*=, /=, %= compound assignment operators
test = 1; // assignment operation
+=, −=, <<=
>>=, &=, |=, ^=
1L , comma operator 6.5 Logical Expressions
Logical expressions — 1
Table 1: Table of C operators and their precedence
• The logical operators compare the truth or false of their operands. determined by
whether or not it has a zero value
• A relational operator compares two operands and determines whether one is greater
or less than the other. – If an expression evaluates to zero, the expression is false
– If an expression evaluates to a non-zero, it is true.
< less than
> greater than • The operands of a logical operation are often relational expressions.

<= less than or equal && logical AND

>= greater than or equal || logical OR
! logical NOT
6.5 Logical Expressions 31 6.6 Assignment Expressions 32

Logical expressions — 2 6.6 Assignment Expressions

• Here is the truth table for the logical AND operation: Assignment expressions
expr1 expr2 (expr1) && (expr2) • assignment operation is an expression.
T non-zero T non-zero T 1
• resulting value of the assignment expression is the value assigned to the variable in the
T non-zero F 0 F 0 assignment operation.
F 0 T non-zero F 0
• assignment operation can be combined with other operators to form a complex expres-
F 0 F 0-zero F 0 sion:
• Truth table for the logical OR operation:
total = ( num = ( 4 + 2 ) );
expr1 expr2 (expr1) || (expr2)
• Parentheses can be left out since assignment evaluate from right to left.
T non-zero T non-zero T 1
T non-zero F 0 T 1 total = num = 4 + 2;
F 0 T non-zero T 1
which is identical to
F 0 F 0-zero F 0
total = 4 + 2;
• Truth table for the logical NOT operation: num = 4 + 2;

expr !(expr)
Arithmetic assignment operators
T non-zero F 0
F 0 T 1 • provide a shorthand applying an arithmetic operation to a variable
– j += 3; is equivalent to j = j + 3;
Program countdig.cpp
– j *= 3; is equivalent to j = j * 3;
/* Counts only the numeric characters ’0’ - ’9’ • List of arithmetic assignment operators:
read from standard input */
+= add and then assign
#include <iostream> −= subtract and then assign
int main( void )
{ *= multiply and then assign
int n = 0; /= divide and then assign
char c;
%= modulo; assign remainder
while ( std::cin >> c ) {
if ( c >= ’0’ && c <= ’9’ ) 6.7 Increment, Decrement Operators
n = n + 1;
} Increment and decrement assignment operators
std::cout << "Count of digits = " << n << ’\n’;
} • an assignment operation in which 1 is added/subtracted to a variable and the result
assigned to that variable.
6.8 Comma Operator 33 6.9 Arithmetic if Expressions 34

• The increment or decrement operator can operate in two ways: Prefix places the in- • Example:
crement or decrement operator before its operand. Postfix places the increment or
decrement operator after its operand. r = ( 3 * 5, 8.00 + 2.5, num = 5 );

• Example: • The result is the value of the last expression in its list i.e.,
x = 32;
y = ++x; r = num = 5

imply x = 32 + 1 = 33 and y = x = 33 • The main use of comma is in the headers of for loops:
• But for ( i = 0, j = n; i < n; ++i, −−j )
x = 32;
y = x++; 6.9 Arithmetic if Expressions
imply y = x = 32 and x = 32 + 1 = 33 Arithmetic if Expressions

Program plusequl.cpp • A conditional expression implements an if-else decision format.

• The conditional expression consists of three subexpressions: test expression and two
#include <iostream> alternative result expressions
int main( void ) hexpression1i ? hexpression2i : hexpression3i
{
int n, j, k ; • If the test is true, the result will be the value of the second expression.
k = j = n = 4;
std::cout << "n = " << n << ", j = " << j • If the test is false, the result will be the value of the third expression.
<< ", k = " << k << ’\n’;
n += j = 3;
Arithmetic if expressions — 2
std::cout << "n = " << n << ", j = " << j
<< ’\n’;
• When used in an assignment operation, the arithmetic if expression works like an if-
}
else statement.
Output for Program plusequl.cpp:
max = ( a > b ) ? a : b;
n = 4, j = 4, k = 4
n = 7, j = 3 • equivalent to

if ( a > b )
6.8 Comma Operator max = a;
Comma operator expressions else
max = b;
• The comma operator expression is an expression that consists of a list of other expres-
sions.
• The comma does not perform any operation on these expressions.
– they are simply evaluated sequentially as if they were a series of statements.
6.10 Bitwise Operators 35 6.10 Bitwise Operators 36

6.10 Bitwise Operators • The bitwise exclusive OR operator, ^, results in 1 if the corresponding two bits are
different:
Bitwise operators — 1
• The bitwise operations allow the programmer to manipulate specific bits.
bit m bit m m ^ n
• The bitwise operations can be combined with masks to turn specific bits on and off.
0 0 0
• The bitwise AND operation, &, is used to clear specific bits in an integer operand,
leaving the other bits unchanged. 0 1 1
1 0 1
• The bitwise OR operation, |, is used to set specific bits in an integer operand, leaving
the other bits unchanged 1 1 0

Bitwise operators — 2 Shift Operators

• Here is the truth table for the bitwise AND operation: • There are two shift operators:

bit n bit m m & n << left shift operator

T 1 T 1 T 1 >> right shift operator
T 1 F 0 F 0 • useful for accessing individual parts of a bit pattern
F 0 T 1 F 0
• shift the bits of the left operand some number of positions to the left or right.
F 0 F 0 F 0
unsigned char bits = 1; // 0000 0001
• Truth table for the bitwise OR operation: bits = bits << 1; // 0000 0010
bits = bits << 2; // 0000 1000
bit n bit m m | n bits = bits >> 3; // 0000 0001
T 1 T 1 T 1
T 1 F 0 T 1
F 0 T 1 T 1 Right Shift Operator
F 0 F 0 F 0
• the right shift operator will fill negative signed numbers with ‘1’s from the left, but
will shift 0 into the MSb (most significant bit) of unsigned numbers.
Bitwise operators — 3
• Program shiftright-demo.cpp
• The one’s complement operator, ∼, is a unary operator.
• The resulting value is set to the opposite of that of the operand’s bit.

bit m ∼m

0 1
1 0
6.10 Bitwise Operators 37 6.11 Casts 38

#include <iostream> ∗ so the signed value 0xfffffff0 (−16) shifted right two places is 0xfffffffc
#include <iomanip>

int main( void )

Use of bitwise operators
{ • Use the AND operator ‘&’ to clear individual bits, leaving the others unchanged
int test numbers[ ] = { −16, 16, −1, 1 };
const int len = sizeof( test numbers ) / sizeof( test numbers[ 0 ] ); – For example,
for ( int i = 0; i < len; ++i ) {
int n = test numbers[ i ]; x = x & 0xf;
unsigned u = n;
std::cout << showbase; will clear all but the least significant four bits of x
std::cout << "dec n: " << dec << n << "; n >> 2: " << ( n >> 2 )
• Use the OR operator ‘|’ to set individual bits, leaving the others unchanged
<< "\thex n: " << hex << n << "; n >> 2: " << ( n >> 2 )
<< ’\n’; – For example,
std::cout << "dec u: " << dec << u << "; u >> 2: " << ( u >> 2 )
<< "\thex u: " << hex << u << "; u >> 2: " << ( u >> 2 ) y = y | ˜0xf ;
<< ’\n’;
will set all bits except for the least significant four bits of y
}
} • Use the Exlusive OR operator ‘^’ to toggle (flip) individual bits, leaving the others
unchanged
– For example,
Right Shift Operator: example output z = z ^ 0xf;
• output of program shiftright-demo.cpp (folded to fit):
will toggle the least significant four bits of z, i.e., make 1s ↔ 0s
dec n: -16; n >> 2: -4
hex n: 0xfffffff0; n >> 2: 0xfffffffc 6.11 Casts
dec u: 4294967280; u >> 2: 1073741820
hex u: 0xfffffff0; u >> 2: 0x3ffffffc Cast expressions
dec n: 16; n >> 2: 4 hex n: 0x10; n >> 2: 0x4 • The cast operation returns the value of an expression, converting it to the type in the
dec u: 16; u >> 2: 4 hex u: 0x10; u >> 2: 0x4 brackets
dec n: -1; n >> 2: -1
hex n: 0xffffffff; n >> 2: 0xffffffff • Example:
dec u: 4294967295; u >> 2: 1073741823
hex u: 0xffffffff; u >> 2: 0x3fffffff ( float ) 7
dec n: 1; n >> 2: 0 hex n: 0x1; n >> 2: 0
dec u: 1; u >> 2: 0 hex u: 0x1; u >> 2: 0 – This converts the integer 7 to a floating point value, 7.00.

• Notice that when shifted right: • The operand may be any expression

– unsigned values have the upper two bits zero – Examples:

∗ so the unsigned value 0xfffffff0 shifted right by two is 0x3ffffffc ( int ) ( 5.8 * 2.7 )
– signed values have the upper two bits the same as the previous value of the MSb ( double ) ( k = 10 )
(most significant bit) ( float ) num
6.11 Casts 39 7. Statements 40

• If a floating point value is cast to an integer, the floating point fraction is lost. 7 Statements
– Example: Statements: an introduction
( int ) 3.75
• A C program is a sequence of declarations and statements.
– resulting value is 3
• We have seen:
• Casts overide the compiler’s concept of correctness — use rarely
– how to declare variables, and
Conversions – how to create expressions using operators
– examples of putting this all together.
• Expressions can include operands of different number types
• Now let’s look at statements.
• Example: An integer can be multiplied by a float.
• C handled operands of different types by converting one of them into the same type as Statements: intro — 2
that of the other operand.
• We can turn an expression such as x = 0 or std::cout << "a" into a statement simply
• Conversion determines which operand to convert by a process of promotion and de- by putting a semicolon at the end:
motion.
x = 0;
std::cout << "a";
Conversions: promotion
• In expressions with two different types of operands, the operand with the smaller type • We can join these into a compound statement by putting braces { } around them.
is always promoted to that of the largest type. • There are some which are used to create loops and make decisions. These are some-
• Example: times called control-flow statements.

int num = 6;
float cost; 7.1 Simple Statements
cost = num * 5; Expression statements
• The expression num * 5 results in the integer 30 and will be promoted to a float, • An expression statement consists of any valid expression, followed by a semicolon.
30.0 before assigned into the cost variable.
• Often the expression is an assignment operation or a function call.
Conversions: demotion • Example:
• Demotion from a floating point type to an integer type results in the loss of the floating count = 8;
point’s fraction. num = 3 + 4;
calc();
• Example:
int num; • However, the expression could just as easily be an arithmetic expression or relational
float cost = 62.65; expression.
num = cost;
• Example:
• The fraction will be cut off, leaving just the integer, 62. The value 62 is then assigned 4 + 5; // nothing done with the result, 9.
to the variable num. ( n < 3 );
7.2 Compound Statements 41 7.3 Scope 42

Null statement (empty statement)

• If there is no expression in the expression statement, nothing happens. This is called #include <iostream>
as the null statement. int main( void )
{
• Example: int num = 10;
float cost = 100.0;
; // just a semicolon {
float cost = 50.0;
num = 5;
7.2 Compound Statements std::cout << "Inside: " << cost
<< ", " << num << ’\n’;
Compound Statements
}
std::cout << "Outside: " << cost
• A compound statement is a statement composed of one or more statements.
<< ", " << num << ’\n’;
• A compound statement consists of opening and closing braces within which statements }
are placed.
• Output of program blocks.cpp:
• Example:
Inside: 50, 5
{ Outside: 100, 5
num = 6;
fact = ( 5 − 3 );
std::cout << fact << ", " << num << ’\n’;
7.3 Scope
} Scope

Blocks — 1 • A new scope is created in each block

• Variables can be declared at the beginning of compound statement. A compound • the compiler searches for an identifier defined in the innermost scope first
statement with variable declarations is referred to as a block. • then searches the scopes that the enclose current scope. . .
• The body of a function is a compound statement itself, and is often referred to as the • . . . until it reaches global scope
function block.
– global scope is outside of any block
Program blocks.cpp
• identifiers defined in an inner scope “hide” identifiers defined in an outer scope
• For example, in program blocks.cpp, there are two variables called cost in differ-
ent nested scopes
– The inner output statement prints the value of the cost variable defined in the
inner scope
– The outer output statement prints the cost defined in the outer scope.
7.4 Looping Statements 43 7.6 do statement 44

7.4 Looping Statements 7.6 do statement

Iteration statements Iteration Statements — do loop

• Loops are implemented with three iteration statements: • The do statement is a variation on the while statement.
– while • Instead of the test occurring at the beginning of the loop, it occurs at the end,
– do • Example:
– for
i = 0;
• Each statement repeats a statement called the body of the loop do {
std::cout << "abc\n";
• The body of the loop can be any statement, including: ++i; // loop counter
} while ( i < 4 );
– compound statement, or
– another loop, or Program square-1.cpp
– a null statement.
#include <iostream>
7.5 while Statement
int main( void )
while statement {
int num;
• while loop consists of the keyword while, a test expression in parentheses, and a std::cout << "Enter a number: ";
statement. std::cin >> num;
• statement is repeated for as long as the test expression evaluates to a non-zero value. while ( num != 0 ) {
int square = num * num;
while ( htest expressioni ) std::cout << "Square of " << num
hstatementi; << " = " << square << ’\n’;
std::cout << "Enter a number (0 to quit): ";
• Example: std::cin >> num;
}
i = 0; // initialize the loop counter }
while ( i < 5 ) {
std::cout << "ABC "; • This program has a major problem.
++i; // update the loop counter
// very important • What happens if we input a character that is not part of an integer?
} // the loop becomes infinite
// without this statement that
// changes the loop counter
7.7 Avoid Confusing == with =
Test Expression

• The test expression for the while, for, and if statements can be any valid expression,
• Example:
7.8 Using a constant or single variable 46
7.7 Avoid Confusing == with = 45 as a test condition

– assignment operation
– simple primary expression consisting of a variable or a constant #include <iostream>
• A zero result evaluated is considered to be false while any non-zero result is true. /* This program shows problems that come from
confusing assignment with comparison */
Traps with = and ==
int main( void )
• Don’t confuse comparison with assignment in a test expression. {
int quit = 0, num = 1, square;
while ( i = k ) { ... } while ( quit = 0 ) // Oh dear; always false
{
• If k equals 0, the test will always be false // the loop body will never be executed
square = num * num;
• If k is not equal to zero, the test will always be true. std::cout << "Square of " << num
<< " = " << square << ’\n’;
• Examples of incorrect test expressions:
if ( num = 10 ) // Oh dear; always true
while ( n = 0 ) { /* always false */ ... } quit = 1;
num++;
while ( n = 3 ) { /* always true, an infinite loop */ ... }
}
}
• The correct way to write these test expressions is:

while ( n == 0 ) {
...
7.8 Using a constant or single variable as a test condition
}
Using a constant or single variable as a test condition
while ( n == 3 ) {
... • Constants are often used to write infinite loops.
}
• Variables are used as a shorthand for comparing the value of the variable to zero.

Program quit-1.cpp • Example:

while ( 1 ) // infinite loop

while ( 0 ) // never execute loop
while ( i ) // is equivalent to
// while ( i != 0 )

Program square-2.cpp
7.9 while and the null statement 47 7.10 for Statement 48

7.10 for Statement

#include <iostream> The for Statement

int main( void ) • The for statement consists of three expressions followed by a statement.
{
for ( hexpression 1i; hexpression 2i; hexpression 3i )
int num;
while ( 1 ) { // or for (;;) hstatementi;
std::cout << "Please enter a number: ";
• hexpression 1i is executed once, before loop begins. It is often used to initialize vari-
if ( ! ( std::cin >> num ) )
break;
ables used in the test expression.
int square = num * num; • hexpression 2i is the test expression for the loop. When it evaluates as false, the loop
std::cout << "Square of " << num stops.
<< " = " << square << ’\n’;
char ch; • hexpression 3i update expression. It is executed within the loop and is usually used to
std::cout << "Another square? (y/n) "; update variables used in the test expression.
if ( std::cin >> ch && ch != ’y’ )
break;
Example of for loop
}
}
for ( int i = 1; i < 3; ++i ) {
std::cout << "OK\n";
}

7.9 while and the null statement

while test and null statement
7.11 Comparing while and for
• A while statement can be written in which the test expression does all the work. The
for and while: a comparison
statement following the test expression is simply a null statement.
for loop: while loop:
• Example:

while ( std::cin.get( ch ) && ch != ’\n’ ) for ( hiniti; htesti; hupdatei ) { hiniti;

; // do nothing hbody of loopi while ( htesti ) {
} hbody of loopi
• Three actions take place in the above example: hupdatei;
}
– function call to the istream member function get()
– std::cin.get( ch ) will return false if reach end of input file; example: example:
– inequality operation in which character value obtained by std::cin.get() is tested
against a newline constant. for ( int i = 0; i < 3; ++i ) int i = 0;
std::cout << "loop " << i while ( i < 3 ) {
• End result is that we wait till we get a newline character, or end of file << ’\n’; std::cout << "loop " << i
<< ’\n’;
++i;
}
7.12 if and switch Statements 49 7.13 break, continue, goto 50

Nested loops — loop within a loop • Only one action is performed

• The inner loop executes fully within each iteration of the outer loop • the first that matches is done.
• Example:
The switch statement — 1
for ( int k = 0, i = 0; i < 3; ++i ) {
for ( int j = 0; j < 3; ++j ) { • The switch statement provides a convenient way to choose among several alterna-
++k ;
tives.
std::cout << k << ’ ’;
} • It is a conditional statement (selection)
std::cout << ’\n’;
}
switch ( hinteger expressioni ) {
• See example program nested-for.cpp case hintegeri:
hstatementsi;
• Output: break;
case hintegeri:
1 2 3 hstatementsi;
4 5 6
break;
7 8 9
default:
hstatementsi;
7.12 if and switch Statements break;
}
Conditions: if statement
• The if and switch statements are decision making structures that determine which The switch statement — 2
statements are to be executed and which are not.
• The switch compares an integer value against a set of integer constants.
• if is a condition placed on a statement’s execution.
– if the condition is true, the statement is executed • The execution will continue unless a break is encountered.
– if the condition is false, the statement is not executed
7.13 break, continue, goto
if ( htest expressioni )
hstatementi; The jump Statements

• The jump statements are non-structured control statements that allow the program to
if and else jump across statements.
• The if statement can choose between several choices using else:
• Strickly speaking, these are not allowed in structured programming.
if ( hconditioni ) {
• However, break and continue are especially useful.
doThis();
} else if ( hcondition 2i ) { • break and continue statements are used with while, for, and switch statements.
doThat();
} else { • break provides an exit condition other than that of the statement’s test expression.
doTheOther();
}
7.14 Exercises 51 8. Functions 52

Example of use of continue 2. Save your source to a different file name, but replace all the ifs (except the first) to
else ifs.
• Kernighan and Ritchie provide this example of using continue:
3. Run your two programs and compare the output.
for ( i = 0; i < n; ++n ) {
if ( a[ i ] < 0 ) // skip negative elements 4. Write a program contianing a while loop and a for loop that both output data and do
continue; the same thing.
// do positive elements
}
8 Functions
• See also my example program cat.cpp Functions — 1

goto: use it seldom • A big program may be too complex to hold in your head.

• goto and label statements allow the program to jump to any statement. • I need a way to break a big problem into many small, easy-to-understand problems.

• Using goto can cause the program to become very hard to understand • One way to break a problem into small problems is to divide a problem into small
parts that can be written as functions.
• Use it only when you really have to
• A function is a number of statements that:
– An example is to break out of a nested loop from the inner loop
– Perform one easily-understood job
for ( i = small; i < big; ++i ) – are given a single name.
for ( j = small2; j < bigger ; ++j )
if ( i == j ) • A function is a little bit like a simple IC, with input pins and output pins.
goto equal;
equal:
Functions — 2
• equal here is a label
• A function may have inputs and outputs:

7.14 Exercises
1. Write a program using the following code fragment as a guide:
x sin() y
int i = 10;
if ( i > 0 )
std::cout << "i > 0\n";
if ( i > 1 )
std::cout << "i > 1\n"; • The function call:
if ( i > 2 )
std::cout << "i > 2\n"; y = sin( x );
// . . .
if ( i > 10 ) can be represented by the block diagram above.
std::cout << "i > 10\n";
• The inputs go in the parentheses: ()
else
std::cout << "something else\n"; • The output of the function can be assigned, as above.
8.3 Using return Value from 54
8.1 Defining Functions 53 Functions

Functions — 3

• To write and use functions in your program, there are two things to consider: // Program to call a function

• When you define the function, you write the statements that the function will perform #include <iostream>
when it is called. // function definition:
void calc( void )
• When you want to use the function, we say we call the function. {
std::cout << "Now in Calc\n";
}
8.1 Defining Functions
Function definition int main( void )
{
• A function definition consists of a header and a body. std::cout << "Hello World\n";
calc();
• header contains the function name, its return type, and parameter types. std::cout << "Now in Main\n";
}
• The body of a function is a block, which usually contains variable declarations and
statements.

hreturn typei hfunction_namei( hparameter listi ) 8.3 Using return Value from Functions
{
hvariable definitionsi; Functions as expressions
.
.
. • A function call is an expression whose value is the function’s return value.
hstatementsi;
} • Program calc-2.cpp

#include <iostream>
• Example:
float calc( void )
void calc( void ) {
{ return 8.0 * 5.35;
int num; }
num = 5;
} int main( void )
{
float res1 = calc();
8.2 Calling Functions float res2 = 7 + 5 * calc();
if ( calc() > 5 )
Function definition and call Program nowincal.cpp std::cout << "Larger\n";
std::cout << "res1 = " << res1
<< ", res2 = " << res2 << ’\n’;
}
8.3 Using return Value from 55 8.3 Using return Value from 56
Functions Functions

return statement and function return value Program retbad-1.cpp

• The return statement consists of the keyword return, an expression, and a semicolon.
#include <iostream>
• Syntax: return hexpressioni; short getnum( void )
{
• The hexpressioni is called the return expression. long num = 2147483647L;
std::cout << "Number is " << num << ’\n’;
• return statement will: return num;
}
– end the processing of a function
– make execution continue from where the function was called, and int main( void )
– specify the function’s return value. {
long res = getnum(); // return value inconsistency
std::cout << "result is " << res << ’\n’;
Function return value: example Program calc-3.cpp }

• Output for program retbad-1.cpp:

#include <iostream>
// Example of a function that takes Number is 2147483647
// parameters
result is -1
float calc( int num, float calc rate )
{
return calc rate * num; Program retbad-2.c
}

int main( void ) #include <stdio.h>

{
float rate = 2.0; calc( void ) /* return type missing */
float res = calc( 5, rate ); { /* gives return type inconsistency */
std::cout << "res = " << res << ’\n’; /* legal in C */
} /* Illegal in C++, won’t compile */
float cost = 8.0 * 5.35;
return cost;
}

Return inconsistencies int main( void )

{
• Return value inconsistencies: occur when the return expression has a type different float res1;
from the function’s return type. res1 = calc();
printf ( "%f\n", res1 );
• The return expression is what comes between the keyword return and the semicolon. }
• The return type is what is written before the name of the function in a function defini-
• Output from program retbad-2.c:
tion.
42.000000
8.4 Function Parameters 57 9. Arrays 58

8.4 Function Parameters – the second parameter is called b.

Function parameters • In the function call,
• Functions may have zero or more parameters.
float y = mult( x, 4.5 ); // function call
• Parameters are usually the inputs to the function.
– the value of x is copied to a, the value 4.5 is copied into b.
• Parameters appear in the parentheses after the name of the function, both in the func-
tion definition and in the function call. – The type of the parameter in the function call matches the type of the parameter
in the same position in the function definition.
• The type and number of parameters must match in:
– This is like pins on an IC plugging into the holes in the IC socket.
– function definition, and
– function call. 9 Arrays
Function parameters — 2 Arrays

• In this example the parameters match • An array is a collection of objects, all of the same data type.

• Program funcmult.cpp • Any one data type can be used in an array.

#include <iostream> – an array of integers

– an arrary of characters
float mult( int a, float b )
{ – an array of structures
return a * b; – an array of pointers
}
• The declaration of an array reserves memory, which is then managed by pointers (to
int main( void ) be discussed in next section).
{
int x = 3; • Array objects themselves are actually referenced through pointer indirection.
float y = mult( x, 4.5 ); // function call
std::cout << "y = " << y << ’\n’;
}
9.1 Defining Arrays
Array declaration
Function parameters — 3
• An array declaration consists of 4 parts
• In the function definition of mult():
– the data type
float mult( int a, float b ) – array name,
{ – square brackets around the. . .
return a * b;
} – . . . number of objects in the array

– the first parameter is called a.

9.1 Defining Arrays 59 9.2 Arrays and Loops 60

Arrays — 2 Array references and array notation

• The declaration below declares an array of 5 integers. The array name is mynums • Once an array has been declared, its objects can be referenced and used in expressions.

int mynums[ 5 ]; • The array name, together with the position of an object in the array is used to reference
an object.
• Many different kinds of arrays may be declared, each having its own data type and • The objects in an array are arranged in sequence, starting from zero. The number of an
number objects. object’s place in that sequence is referred to as either the object’s index or subscript.
int total[10]; an array of ten integers (i.e. total[0], total[1], . . . • In the example above, we can see
total[9])
char name[40]; an array of forty characters (i.e. name[0], mynums[ 0 ] = 3; // first object
name[1], . . . name[39]) mynums[ 1 ] = 4; // second object
mynums[ 2 ] = 5; // third object
mynums[ 3 ] = 6; // fourth object
Array initialisation mynums[ 4 ] = 7; // fifth object

• When a variable is defined it can be initialised with a value. In the declaration:

9.2 Arrays and Loops
char mychar = ’E’;
Array management and loops
• the variable mychar is initialised with the character ’E’. • Operations cannot be performed on an array as a whole.
• The elements of an array can also be initialised in an array declaration. The initalisa- • To assign a set of values to an array, you need to assign a value to each element
tion values are listed within curly braces and separated by commas: individually.
int mynums[ 5 ] = { 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, }; • An array is only a collection of objects. It is not an object itself. We use loops to
process all these objects.
Array Length
• Program arrayprt.cpp
• When using standard C, the initialization part of the array declaration can be used be #include <iostream>
left out of the array declarations. The number is, instead, determined by the number int main( void )
of values in the initialisation block. {
int nums[ ] = { 23, 8, 11, 31 };
• Program array-1.cpp for ( int i = 0; i < 4; ++i ) {
std::cout << nums[ i ] << ’ ’;
#include <iostream>
}
int main( void )
std::cout << ’\n’;
{
}
char letters[ ] = { ’A’, ’B’, ’C’, };
int totals[ ] = { 23, 8, 11, 31, };
std::cout << letters[ 1 ] << ’ ’; Array Management and Loops — 2
std::cout << totals[ 3 ] << ’\n’;
} • A common rule of thumb is that the test for the end of an array is the less than operator,
<, tested against the number of objects declared in the array.
9.3 Exercise 61 9.4 Strings 62

• Example: this for loop prints each number in the array: • Note that the string definitions str and letters are equivalent.
int nums[ 4 ] = { 42, 1000, 7, 103 }; • Note that a string is automatically ended with a special character called the null char-
for ( int i = 0; i < 4; ++i ) acter, ’\0’
std::cout << "this num is " << nums[ i ] << ’\n’;
Arrays of characters: strings — 2
Using constants for array size
• Because the string has the extra ’\0’ character at the end, the array of characters
• In the listing below, the same symbolic constant, max, is used in both the array decla-
must be long enough to hold it.
ration and the test for the last array object in the for statement.
#include <iostream> • Example:
const int max = 4;
int main( void ) char string2[ ] = "string";
{
int mynums[ max ] = { 23, 8, 11, 31 }; • . . . has seven characters, so this would be wrong:
for ( int i = 0; i < max; ++i )
std::cout << mynums[ i ] << ’ ’; char string3[ 6 ] = "string"; // too short!
std::cout << ’\n’;
}
• but these are okay:

9.3 Exercise char string4[ 7 ] = "string";

char string5[ 100 ] = "string";
Write a program that:
1. Reads up to 20 numbers into an array; Careful: strings cf. characters
2. After reading those numbers, the program calculates and prints the sum of the numbers • A common mistake is to confuse a string with a character.
in the array.
• Example:
3. Note that your program should stop attempting to read numbers when there are no
more numbers to read, i.e., because you have reached end of file, or a character is in char c;
the input that cannot be part of a number. // Wrong! A character has single quotes: ’A’
c = "A";
9.4 Strings
• The string "A" is actually two characters: ’A’ then ’\0’.
Arrays of characters: strings
• One final note: do not assign strings!
• A string is an array of characters.
char str [ 100 ];
• Here are examples of definitions of strings: str = "this is a string"; /* Oh no, a mistake!
char name[ 20 ]; Use strcpy () library
char string[ ] = "This is a string"; function instead. */
char str [ 10 ] = "string"; strcpy ( str, "this is a string" ); // OK
char letters[ 10 ] = {
’s’, ’t’, ’r’, ’i’, ’n’, ’g’, ’\0’
};
10. Pointers 63 10.1 Pointers as Function Parameters 64

Working with strings • There are 3 elements involved in this referencing process:

• The standard C++ strings library is the best choice for simplicity, but the Borland – a pointer variable
3.1 compiler does not seem to support it – an address
• The standard library that comes with (nearly) every C compiler provides lots of func- – and another variable
tions for working with strings.
Pointer holds address
• To use them, put:
• A pointer variable holds the address of another variable of a particular type
#include <string.h>
• Program pointer-1.cpp
• at the top of your program.
• Here are some: #include <iostream>
int main( void )
• strlen() — give the length of a string {
int num = 12;
• strcpy () — copy one string to another string int *nptr ;
• strcmp() — compare two strings nptr = &num;
std::cout << "num holds " << num
• strcat() — join one string onto the end of another << " and nptr points to " << *nptr << ’\n’;
std::cout << "The address held in nptr is " << nptr
<< ’\n’;
Working with strings 2 }
• Example using strlen():
• Output of program pointer-1.cpp:
int len;
len = strlen( "a string" ); // len = 8 num holds 12 and nptr points to 12
The address held in nptr is 0xbfafade8
• Example using strcpy ():
10.1 Pointers as Function Parameters
char str1[ 100 ], str2[ ] = "a string";
strcpy ( str1, str2 ); Pointers as Function Parameters

• If you try to write a function to swap its parameters like this:

10 Pointers
void swap( int x, int y )
Pointers {
int temp = x;
• Any object defined in a program can be referenced through its address. A pointer is a x = y;
y = temp;
variable that has as its value the address of an object.
}
• A pointer is used as a referencing mechanism.
and call it like this: swap( a, b );, the values of a and b are copied by value, so the
• A pointer provides a way to reference an object using that object’s address. final values are not changed.
11.1 Strong relationship between 66
11. Arrays and Pointers 65 arrays and pointers

• The right way is to pass the address of a and b like this: swap( &a, &b ); and define C Arrays and pointers
the function like this:
• The name of an array is the same as the location of the first element, so these two
void swap( int *x, int *y ) statements are equivalent:
{
int temp = *x; pa = &a[ 0 ];
*x = *y ; pa = a;
*y = temp;
} • These statements are also true:
a[ i ] == *( a + i );
• This is how to change the value of a parameter. &a[ i ] == a + i;

• An expression made of an array and index has an equivalent expression made with a
11 Arrays and Pointers pointer and offset.
11.1 Strong relationship between arrays and pointers • Important: we can do
C Arrays are very low level ++pa; // okay; now pa points to a[ 1 ]

• Pointers and arrays have a strong relationship

• . . . but not:
• Any operation using array subscripting can be done using pointers
++a; // compiler error
• If we define an array of integers and a pointer to an integer like this:
• . . . because an array name is a constant, but an ordinary pointer is not.
int a[ 10 ];
int *pa;
Passing arrays to functions
and if we make pa point to the start of the array a[ ] like this:
• If a parameter is an array name, inside the function it is a pointer to the first element
pa = &a[ 0 ]; of the array
then the value of *pa is the same as is stored in a[ 0 ]. • If you find the size of an array with sizeof, you are given the number of elements ×
the size of one element
• The pointer pa + 1 points to the value of a[ 1 ], so this statement is true:
*( pa + 1 ) == a[ 1 ] • Inside a function, the size of an array parameter is the size of a pointer.
• If we add ‘1’ to a pointer, we point to the address just after the value stored at that • See program array-parameter.cpp.
pointer.
• Note that the sizeof operator gives the number of characters in either a type or an
– If sizeof( int ) is 4, and if addresses each hold one character, then the address expression:
pa + 1 is 4 address locations higher than the address pa.
• sizeof( T ) gives the number of characters in the type T
– The type of the pointer determines what address you get when you increment a
pointer. • sizeof expression gives the number of characters in the expression expression.
• similarly *( pa + i ) == a[ i ] is true.
11.1 Strong relationship between 67 12. Multidimensional Arrays and arrays 68
arrays and pointers of pointers

Program array-parameter.cpp • If the length of the array passed to mean() is 100, then that number must be passed as
#include <iostream> a separate parameter.

int ar [ 10 ] = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 };
void check array parameter ( int a[ ] ) 12 Multidimensional Arrays and arrays of pointers
{
std::cout << "sizeof( a ) = " << sizeof( a ) << ’\n’; 12.1 Arrays of pointers
std::cout << "sizeof( ar ) = " << sizeof( ar ) << ’\n’;
} Arrays of pointers

int main( void ) • Arrays of pointers are very commonly used in C, because this gives much greater
{ flexibility than alternatives (see slide §71)
check array parameter ( ar );
int nelements = sizeof( ar ) / sizeof ar [ 0 ]; • Can easily sort an array of pointers; copy only the address, not the data
std::cout << "sizeof( ar ) = " << sizeof( ar ) << ’\n’
• Can define an array of pointers to lines like this:
<< "number of elements in ar[ ] is " << nelements
<< ’\n’; const int maxlines 10000;
} char *line[ maxlines ];

• Output of array-parameter.cpp
• We must make sure that we allocate memory using the new operator for this as we
sizeof( a ) = 4 read lines.
sizeof( ar ) = 40
sizeof( ar ) = 40 12.2 Memory Allocation
number of elements in ar[] is 10
Allocating memory with new
Passing arrays to functions — 3
• If we don’t know how much data we will read, we need to allocate memory as we
• To work properly, you need to pass the length of an array as a separate parameter need it
together with the array.
– The new operator allocates memory as it is needed
• Example: – deallocate (free) memory with the delete operator
double mean( int nums[ ], int len ) • If allocating a scalar value, use syntax like this:
{
int sum = 0;
for ( int i = 0; i < len; ++i ) {
hpointeri = new htypei;
sum += nums[ i ];
} and free the memory like this:
if ( len == 0 ) return 0;
return ( double ) sum / len; delete hpointeri;
}
• if allocating an array or string, use syntax like this:
• Note that it makes no difference to write the parameter as int nums[ 100 ], since that
length information will not be passed to the function as part of the int nums[ 100 ] hpointeri = new htypei[ hlengthi ];
parameter
12.2 Memory Allocation 69 12.2 Memory Allocation 70

and free the memory like this:

#include <iostream>
delete [] hpointeri;
#include <string.h>

• the result from new is a null pointer if the memory cannot be allocated. // Read all of input into memory. Normally we would process one line
// at a time, as we read it.
– Always check the return value of new
// Read each line into a string
Example use of new: Program new-1.cpp // allocate memory for the string and copy the string into that memory
// add the newly allocated string to an array of pointers
• Program new-1.cpp does the following:
int read lines( char *lines[ ], int maxnlines )
– dynamically allocate an array of ten integers {
– terminate if allocation doesn’t succeed const int maxlinelen = 8000;
char line[ maxlinelen ];
– put a value into each element of the array int nlines = 0;
– print each value while ( std::cin.getline( line, maxlinelen ) ) {
int len = std::cin.gcount(); // includes space for ’\0’
– free up the memory
char *p;
if ( nlines >= maxnlines
#include <iostream>
| | ( p = new char[ len ] ) == NULL ) {
#include <stdlib.h>
return −1;
} else {
int main( void )
strcpy ( p, line );
{
lines[ nlines++ ] = p;
const int maxn = 10;
}
int *a = new int[ maxn ];
}
if ( a == NULL ) {
return nlines;
std::cerr << "Out of memory!\n";
}
exit( 1 );
}
for ( int i = 0; i < maxn; ++i )
a[ i ] = i + 1;
for ( int i = 0; i < maxn; ++i ) Program new.cpp— 2
std::cout << "a[ " << i << " ] = "
<< a[ i ] << ’\n’;
delete [ ] a;
}

Program new.cpp— 1
12.4 Command Line Arguments: argc, 72
12.3 Multidimensional Arrays 71 argv

• Note that this is wrong, and just uses the comma operator:
void write lines( char *lines[ ], int nlines ) int entry = matrix[ 1, 2 ]; // WRONG!!!
{ %
while ( nlines−− > 0 )
std::cout << *lines++ << ’\n’;
} 12.4 Command Line Arguments: argc, argv
void free lines( char *lines[ ], int nlines ) argc and argv
{
while ( nlines−− > 0 ) • The main() function takes two optional parameters that are always called argc and
delete [ ] *lines++; argv :
}
int main( int argc, char *argv [ ] )
int main( void )
{ • parameter argc is the number of arguments on the command line including the pro-
const int maxlines = 10000; gram name
char *line[ maxlines ];
• parameter argv is a pointer to an array of command line arguments
int nlines = read lines( line, maxlines );
if ( nlines >= 0 ) { • if the program echo is called like this:
write lines( line, nlines );
free lines( line, nlines ); echo this is a test
} else {
std::cerr << "Input is too big to read\n"; • then argc is 5, argv [ 0 ] is "echo", argv [ 1 ] is "this", argv [ 2 ] is "is",
} argv [ 3 ] is "a", argv [ 4 ] is "test" and finally argv [ 5 ] is the null pointer.
}

Program echo.cpp

• The program echo.cpp:

12.3 Multidimensional Arrays
#include <iostream>
Multidimensional Arrays
• Not used as much as arrays of pointers int main( int argc, char *argv [ ] )
{
• Usually we allocate memory with new for each string for ( int i = 1; i < argc; ++i )
std::cout << argv [ i ] << ’ ’;
int matrix[ 2 ][ 4 ] = { std::cout << ’\n’;
{ 1, 2, 3, 4 }, }
{ 10, 20, 30, 40 }
};
• prints its parameters, like the echo command in the Windows CMD.EXE shell, or like
defines a rectangular matrix. the echo command built into the bash shell that is popular with Linux.

• We can access the entry with the value 30 with

int entry = matrix[ 1 ][ 2 ];
13. Structures 73 13.1 Passing Structures to Functions 74

13 Structures • We could initialise our struct employee like this:

Structures — 1 struct employee person = { 8, 80000 };

• A structure consists of a set of data objects that can be referenced as one object. • After this, person will contain the same values as in the next slide.

struct htag namei

Structures: Program struct.cpp
{
hlist of declarationsi
}; #include <iostream>
int main( void )
• A tag can be used to label a structure type declaration. In the structure type declaration, {
the keyword struct may be followed with a tag placed before the opening brace of the struct employee {
declaration list, int id;
float salary ;
• Example: };
struct employee person;
struct employee { person.id = 8;
int id; person.salary = 80000;
float salary ; std::cout << "ID = " << person.id << ’\n’;
}; std::cout << "Salary = $" << person.salary << ’\n’;
}
Defining struct variables

• We can define a variable person of the type struct employee like this:
13.1 Passing Structures to Functions
struct employee {
int id; Accessing a structure through a pointer
float salary ;
}; • Given a pointer to a struct declared as:
// somewhere else:
struct employee person; struct employee {
int id;
float salary ;
• We can now refer to the two values in the variable person as person.id and person.salary };
struct employee person;
Initialising struct variables struct employee *p = &person;

• We can initialise a structure when it is defined by putting a list of values in braces, as • we could access the members with the arrow operator ‘−>’ like this:
we do for arrays
p−>id = 8;
• The first item in that list initialises the first element of the structure,
p−>salary = 80000;
• the second item initialises the second element of the structure, std::cout << "ID = " << p−>id << ’\n’;
std::cout << "Salary = $" << p−>salary << ’\n’;
• ...
13.1 Passing Structures to Functions 75 13.2 typedef 76

• There is nothing magic about the “−>” operator; it is just a shorthand used, because
we often access members of structures through pointers
#include <iostream>
• Note that “p−>id” is equivalent to “(*p).id ”, and “p−>salary ” is equivalent to struct complex {
“(*p).salary ”. int re;
int im;
};
Passing Structures to Functions
complex cadd( complex z1, complex z2 )
• Unlike arrays, structures are passed to functions by value {
complex zt;
• That means that your function only gets a copy of the structure.
zt.re = z1.re + z2.re;
• If you want to modify the original structure, you need to either: zt.im = z1.im + z2.im;
return zt;
– return the modified structure, or }
– pass a pointer to the structure. int main( void )
{
Passing Structures: example complex za;
Here we use the struct employee defined previously. Passing structure by value za.re = 1;
za.im = 2;
struct employee raise salary ( struct employee p, float raise ) complex zb = za;
{ complex zc = cadd( za, zb );
p.salary += raise; std::cout << "zc.re = " << zc.re
return p; << ", zc.im = " << zc.im << ’\n’;
} }
// in another function:
struct employee manager = { 50, 100000 }; Output of program complex.cpp:
manager = raise salary ( manager, 20000 );
zc.re = 2, zc.im = 4
Passing a pointer to structure:
13.2 typedef
void raise salary ( struct employee *p, float raise )
{ typedef
p−>salary += raise;
} • A typedef is used to allow the programmer to give another name to a type.
// in another function:
struct employee manager = { 50, 100000 }; • typedef htypei hNAMEi;
raise salary ( &manager, 20000 ); defines hNAMEi as a new name for the existing type htypei
• Example:

Structures: Program complex.cpp typedef float FF ; // FF is now a type

FF abc; // equivalent to float abc;

• Often typedef is used with struct variables to avoid needing to type the word “struct”
14. Reading and Writing Files 77 14.3 Binary files 78

– I do not encourage you to do this.

– See http://www.kroah.com/linux/talks/ols_2002_kernel_codingst #include <iostream>
and search for “typedef is evil” at section 3.5. #include <fstream>
// . . .
std::ifstream fin( "data.in" );
14 Reading and Writing Files if ( ! fin ) {
std::cerr << "error: unable to open file "
14.1 fstream: file input and output << "’data.in’ for reading\n";
exit( 1 );
Text Files — ifstreamand ofstream }
std::ofstream fout( "data.out" );
• We work with text files much the same way as with standard input and standard output if ( ! fout ) {
std::cerr << "error: unable to open file "
• Open a file for input — ifstream << "’data.out’ for writing\n";
exit( 1 );
• Open a file for output — ofstream
}
• when the fstream object goes out of scope, the file is automatically closed

14.2 Error Handling Appending to files

If cannot open a file, what next?
• To append to a file, use the extra parameter std::ios::app when defining the ofstream
• If you fail to create an ifstream object (perhaps the file does not exist), the object object:
evaluates as false
#include <iostream>
• It is always essential to test the result of things that can go wrong, and provide an error #include <fstream>
message or return an error code // . . .
std::ofstream fout( "data.out", std::ios::app );
• If things have gone wrong, it may be better to stop the program using the exit() com- if ( ! fout ) {
mand. std::cerr << "error: unable to open file "
<< "’data.out’ for appending\n";
• Note: #include <stdlib.h> when you use exit(). exit( 1 );
}
Text Files — 7
• There are a number of other parameters available.
• OR them together with the bitwise OR operator “|”

14.3 Binary files

Binary files — 1

• To open a file for binary input or output, use the extra parameter std::ios::binary
when defining the ofstream or ifstream object:
14.5 Reading a Line at a time: 80
14.4 Character I/O 79 getline()

• Program copy-file-to-output.cpp:
#include <iostream>
#include <fstream> #include <iostream>
// . . . #include <fstream>
std::ofstream fout( "data.out", std::ios::app | std::ios::binary ); #include <stdlib.h>
if ( ! fout ) { int main( void )
std::cerr << "error: unable to open binary file " {
<< "’data.out’ for appending\n"; char ch;
exit( 1 ); std::ifstream fin( "abc.txt" );
} if ( ! fin ) {
std::cerr << "Cannot open file abc.txt\n";
• Here we open a binary file for input: exit( 1 );
}
#include <iostream> // skips whitespace.
#include <fstream> // while ( fin >> ch )
// . . . // std::cout << ch;
std::ifstream fin( "data.in", std::ios::in | std::ios::binary ); while ( fin.get( ch ) )
if ( ! fin ) { std::cout.put( ch );
std::cerr << "error: unable to open binary file " }
<< "’data.in’ for reading\n";
exit( 1 ); Character I/O with Text Files — 2
}
• Program copyfile.cpp
Binary files — 2 #include <iostream>
#include <fstream>
• Here we open a binary file for output: #include <stdlib.h>
int main( void )
{
#include <iostream> char ch;
#include <fstream> std::ifstream fin( "abc.txt" );
// . . . std::ofstream fout( "mmm.txt" );
std::ofstream fout( "data.out", std::ios::out | std::ios::binary ); if ( ! fin | | ! fout ) {
if ( ! fout ) { std::cerr << "Problem opening files\n";
std::cerr << "error: unable to open binary file " exit( 1 );
<< "’data.out’ for writing\n"; }
exit( 1 ); // The following skips white space:
} // while ( fin >> ch )
// fout << ch;
while ( fin.get( ch ) )
14.4 Character I/O fout.put( ch );
}
Character Input and Output

• We can treat a file as a stream of characters. The istream member function get() 14.5 Reading a Line at a time: getline()
and the ostream member function put() read and write one character at a time.
Working with Lines in Text Files
14.6 I/O of other data to/from Text 81
Files 15. Guidelines 82

• We often want to work with one line of a text file at a time Reading other data from Text Files — 2
• the istream member function getline() reads from a file and places it in a string or • We can read formatted text from text files just as we can from standard input with
character array, without the ending newline. std::cin
std::cin.getline( hstring or character arrayi, hmaximum lengthi ); • Program filein.cpp:
• getline() returns false if there is any error. #include <iostream>
#include <fstream>
Program copy-lines-from-file.cpp
: #include <stdlib.h>
int main( void )
#include <iostream> {
#include <fstream> int num;
#include <stdlib.h> std::ifstream fin( "abc.txt" );
if ( ! fin ) {
int main( void ) std::cerr << "Cannot open abc.txt\n";
{ exit( 1 );
const int maxline = 100; }
char line[ maxline ]; fin >> num;
std::ifstream fin( "abc.txt" ); std::cout << "we got ’" << num
if ( ! fin ) { << "’ from abc.txt\n";
std::cerr << "Cannot open file abc.txt\n"; }
exit( 1 );
}
while ( fin.getline( line, maxline ) ) 15 Guidelines
std::cout << line << ’\n’;
} 15.1 Style Guidelines
Program layout: rules of thumb

• Use spaces after commas, around operators,

14.6 I/O of other data to/from Text Files
Reading other data from Text Files — 1 • Example:

• We can write formatted text to text files just as we can to standard output with std::cout printf ( "%d", i );

• Program fileout.cpp not

#include <iostream>
#include <fstream> printf ("%d",i);
int main( void )
{ and
int num = 127;
std::ofstream fout( "abc.txt" ); x = x + 3;
fout << num;
std::cout << "Wrote ’" << num not
<< "’ to abc.txt\n";
} x=x+3;
15.2 Program Design 83 15.3 Modules 84

• I suggest you put your main() function last. Program design: top-down
– avoids the need to put “function prototypes” that need unnecessary extra main- • Top-down design looks at the big picture first, forgetting the details.
tainance
• Write pseudocode including only these important, big steps, leaving out small steps at
• Use modern books about C, not very old ones. first. This is like your main() function.
• Indent your program to make it easy to follow. • Write more pseudocode for each of these big steps, giving more detail, but not the
smallest details. These are written rather like function definitions.
• Indent the body of loops and if statements.
• For each step, write out more pseudocode like more function definitions, until you
15.2 Program Design have enough detail to begin writing your source code.

Program design • Check your design carefully before you move on.

• “Real” programs need to be designed; they may be too complicated to hold in your
15.3 Modules
head all at one time.
Making an application from many modules
• Sitting at the keyboard and typing a program as you think it up may work for small
programs, but bigger programs written this way will become very messy and expensive • Most useful C or C++ programs are written in separate modules
to maintain.
• Each module corresponds to:
– The result is rather like a rough sketch to try out ideas.
– one .c, .C, .cc, .cpp, or .cxx file (lets call this the source file), and
– You may want to start again after the experience you get from this “sketch”
– one .h, .H, .hh, or .hpp file (we call this the header file).
• The greatest cost for a program is usually in maintaining it.
• Each header file lists the publicly exported names: type definitions, global variables,
• Flowcharts: and function prototypes
– are okay for simple programs – Avoid defining variables or functions in header files
– are good for representing complicated, unstructured looping and branching
• It makes this set of names as small as possible to reduce the interaction between mod-
– But: a flowchart can easily become more complicated than the program itself! ules

Pseudocode: a basic design tool • All non-public functions defined in the source files are defined with the keyword
static so that they cannot be linked to from other modules.
• Pseudocode is a more practical way to show how your program will work.
Modules — silly example
• Pseudocode is a mixture of: English and structured C programming statements, such
as if, while, do. main.cpp:

• Pseudocode should be simpler and easier to understand than the final program source
code
• Pseudocode should be written before you type in your new program!
15.3 Modules 85 16. Some Things to Read 86

static variables
#include <iostream>
• A variable defined with the keyword static is visible only within its file, and does not
#include "calc.h"
conflict with a variable with the same name defined in another file
#include "main.h"
• the static keyword can (and should) be used with functions that are to be used only
int glob;
within one file
int main( void ) • The static keyword can be used inside functions and blocks
{
glob = 10; – It is initialised once, and its value remains even between function calls. See
int sum = calc( 15 ); Program static.cpp:
std::cout << "sum = " << sum << ’\n’;
}

#include <iostream>
main.h: void show times called( void )
{
#ifndef MAIN H static int called = 0;
#define MAIN H std::cout << "called " << ++called << " times\n";
}
extern int glob; int main( void )
{
#endif for ( int i = 0; i < 5; ++i )
show times called();
}
Modules — silly example (continued)
• output of static.cpp:
calc.cpp:
#include "main.h"
called 1 times
#include "calc.h"
called 2 times
int calc( int n ) called 3 times
{ called 4 times
return glob + n; called 5 times
}

16 Some Things to Read

calc.h:
#ifndef CALC H
#define CALC H References
extern int calc( int n ); [K&R] Brian W. Kernighan and Dennis M. Ritchie. The C Programming Language. Pren-
tice Hall 1988.
#endif
[1] Stanley B. Lippman and Josée Lajoie and Barbara E. Moo. C++ Primer, Fourth Edition.
Addison-Wesley 2005.
References 87

[2] Bjarne Stroustrup. The C++ Programming Language (Special 3rd Edition). Addison-
Wesley, 2004, ISBN 0201889544.
[3] Tom Adamson and James L. Antonakos and Kenneth C. Mansfield Jr. Structured C for
Engineering and Technology, Third Edition. Prentice Hall, 1998.

[4] Steve Oualline. Practical C Programming. O’Reilly 1993.

[5] Paul Davies. The Indispensable Guide to C With Engineering Applications. Addison-
Wesley 1995.
[6] H. M. Deitel and P. J. Deitel.C How to Program, Second Edition. Prentice Hall 1994.
[7] Vincent Kassab.Technical C Programming. Prentice Hall 1989.
[8] Marshall Cline. C++ FAQ LITE. http://www.parashift.com/c++-faq-lite/
[9] Bjarne Stroustrup. A Tour of the Standard Library. Chapter 3 of The C++ Programming
Language. http://public.research.att.com/~bs/3rd_tour2.pdf

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