Mukesh Patel School of Technology Management & Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC SCIENCES & HUMANITIES

Laboratory Journal
PHYSICS I

Diploma In Engineering (All branches)

Semester I

Academic Year: 2024 - 2025

Name of the Student: __________________________________________

Roll No: ____________________________

Branch: ________________________________
SAFETY AND CONDUCT RULES FOR PHYSICS LABORATORY

1. No students will be permitted in the laboratory without an instructor.

2. Students may not start an experiment, touch any equipment or supplies

until given permission by the instructor.

3. Students may not block the aisle in the laboratory with their bags, jackets,
notebooks and other articles. Laboratory aisles must be kept uncluttered.

4. No student may invite individuals who are not enrolled in the Physics
laboratory course to visit the laboratory class.

5. Absolutely no eating or drinking in the laboratory at any time. Also no

chewing gum, sucking lozenges/Candy is allowed in laboratory.

6. Use of cell phones is strictly forbidden.

7. Keep quiet and disciplined, and observe cleanliness in the lab. Coming late
for practical class is not allowed.

8. Do not modify or damage the laboratory equipment in any way unless the
modification is directed by the instructor. This does not include the
changing of a lab setup as prescribed by the procedures in the carrying out
of measurements.

9. Don’t touch any equipment or electrical supplies without specific

authorization.

10. Examine all apparatus for defects before performing any experiment. Don’t
use damaged, cracked defective glassware.
SVKM’S NMIMS
Mukesh Patel School of Technology Management & Engineering

Course: Physics I

Course Outcomes
After successful completion of the course, a student will be able to-

1. Explain basic laws and related formulae for understanding the relationship between nature
and matter on scientific basis, (level I, II).
2. Classify and utilize international system of units (SI Units), symbols, nomenclature of
Physical quantities and formulations, conventions, (Level III and IV)
3. interpret and apply concepts of physics in daily life with reasoning while decision-making
and solving engineering problems, (Level II and III)
4. Analyse the concepts of Physics related to various natural phenomena and demonstrate
them by handing tools and instruments in the lab. (level II and V)

Mapping of Experiments to Course Outcomes

Experiment. No. CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4

1 √
2 √
3 √
4 √
5 √
6 √
7 √
8 √
9 √
10 √ √
Sr. Title of Experiment Date of Date of
No. Performance Submission

1 Measurement of volume of a solid cylinder and inner

volume of hollow cylinder using a Vernier calliper.

2 Measurement of the diameter and thickness of given

object using a micrometre screw gauge.

3 Measurement of radius of curvature of a given

spherical surface using a Spherometer.

4 To study time of flight, maximum height and

range in a Projectile motion

5 To measure the coefficient of restitution for

different materials.

6 To measure the coefficient of static friction.

7 To study friction and its relationship with the

angle of inclination θ by plotting a graph
between applied force and sin θ.

8 To study the variation in volume with pressure

for a sample of air at constant temperature by
plotting graph between P and 1/V.

9 To measure the Thermal Conductivity of metal

rod by Searle’s Method.

10 To find the force constant of a helical spring by

plotting a graph between load and extension.

11 To verify triangle and parallelogram law of forces

12 To verify law of conservation of mechanical

energy (PE to KE).
This is to certify that Mr./Ms.______________________________________ Roll No: __ has
carried out the above mentioned term work for the subject Physics I in the department of basic
science and Humanities

Signature of the faculty with date

EXPERIMENT 1

Vernier Callipers

Aim: To find volume of solid cylinder and inner volume of a hollow cylinder using a
Vernier calliper.

Apparatus: Vernier calliper, Solid cylinder, Hollow cylinder.

Theory:
A Vernier calliper is a device used to measure the distance between two opposing
sides of an object. The Vernier Calliper consists of a main scale fitted with a jaw at
one end. Another jaw, containing the Vernier scale, moves over the main scale. When
the two jaws are in contact, the zero of the main scale and the zero of the Vernier scale
should coincide. If both the zeros do not coincide, there will be a positive or negative
zero error.

Parts of a Vernier Caliper:

1. Main Scale: The main scale consists of a steel metallic strip graduated
in centimetres at one edge and in inches at the other edge. It carries the
inner and outer measuring jaws.
2. Vernier Scale: A Vernier scale slides on the strip. It can be fixed in any
position by the retainer. On the Vernier scale, 0.9 cm is divided into
ten equal parts.
3. Outer Measuring Jaws: The outer measuring jaws helps to take the
outer dimension of an object.
4. Inner Measuring Jaws: The inner measuring jaws helps to take the
inner dimension of an object.
5. Retainer: The retainer helps to retain the object within the jaws of the
Vernier calipers.
6. Depth Measuring Prong: The depth measuring prong helps to measure
the depth of an object.
Least Count:

The least count is the smallest reading which you can calculate with the instrument.

First calculate the least count and only then place the object between the two jaws.

Record the position of zero of the Vernier scale on the main scale.
Calculate the reading when a body is between the jaws of the Vernier Calliper

If the zero of the Vernier scale lies ahead of the nth division of the main scale, then the main
scale reading (MSR) is;
MSR = N
If the nth division of the Vernier Scale coincides with any division on the main scale reading,
then the vernier scale reading:

Total reading:

Procedure:

1. First determine the least count (L.C) of the Vernier calliper.

2. Now, bring the movable jaw in close contact with the fixed jaw and find
the zero error. Do this three times and record the values. If there is no
zero error, then record 'zero error nil'
3. Open the jaws of the Vernier Calliper and place the cylinder between
the two jaws and adjust the movable jaw, such that it gently grips the
body without any undue pressure on it. Tighten the screw attached to
the Vernier scale.
4. Note the position of the zero mark of the Vernier scale on the main scale.
Record the main scale reading just before the zero mark of the Vernier
scale. This reading (N) is called main scale reading (MSR).
5. Note the number (n) of the Vernier scale division which coincides with
the division of the main scale.
6. Repeat steps 4 to 6 for three different positions and record the
observations.
7. Now find total reading using the equation, TR = MSR+VSR = N+ (n x
L.C) and apply the zero correction if any.
8. Take the mean of the different values of the diameter and show that in
the result with the proper unit.
Note:

 To measure the internal diameter of hollow cylinder, place the

cylinder over the internal jaws of the Vernier callipers. Then
repeat the steps 4 to 8.
 To measure the height of cylinders, place the cylinder
horizontally between the internal jaws of the Vernier calipers.
Then repeat the steps 4 to 8.

Observations and Calculations:

Least count of the Vernier Caliper (L.C.) = __________cm.

Observation Table:

Main
Scale Vernier Mean
Dimension to be Sr. Scale VSR x L.C Total Reading (mm)
Reading MSR + (V S R x L.C)
measured No. Reading (mm)
MSR (mm)
VSR
(mm)

1
Diameter of solid
cylinder 2
3

Height of the 2
solid cylinder
3

Inner diameter of 1
the hollow 2
cylinder
3

Length of hollow
2
cylinder
3
Calculations

1. Volume of solid cylinder = 𝑽 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉

Mean corrected diameter of solid cylinder ____ cm.

Radius of the solid cylinder

_______cm.
Mean corrected height of solid cylinder _______cm.

Volume of Solid Cylinder

_______cm3

2. Inner volume of hollow cylinder = 𝑽 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉

Mean corrected inner diameter of hollow cylinder ____ cm.

Inner Radius of the hollow cylinder ____ cm.

Mean corrected height of the hollow cylinder ____ cm.

Mean corrected height of the hollow cylinder ___ cm3.

Results

1. Volume of solid cylinder = 𝑽 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉 = _____________cm3

2. Inner volume of hollow cylinder = 𝑽 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉 = _____________cm3

Viva Questions

1. What is vernier calipers?

2. What is the use of Vernier Scale?
3. How the L.C. of a vernier is determined?
4. Will the accuracy of a vernier will increase or decrease if 20 divisions are made in
the same length?
5. What precautions should be taken while using a Vernier Calliper?
EXPERIMENT 2

MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE

Aim: To measure the diameter and thickness of given object using a micrometer screw
gauge.

Apparatus: A screw gauge, a piece of wire, a washer.

Theory:
A screw pitch gauge also known as a micrometre is a precision instrument. It is used
for measuring diameter of circular objects mostly wires, with an accuracy of 0.001cm.
It consists of a hollow cylinder mounted on a U frame. The hollow cylinder leads to
a ratchet which is meant for fine adjustment. The U frame consists of a flat end known
as stud and a screw on the other side. This screw can be moved inside the nut by fitted
in the U frame by rotating the hollow cylinder called the thimble. This is called the
main scale. The hollow cylinder or the thimble is graduated into 50 or 100 equal parts.
This is called the circular scale.

The screw has a known pitch such as 0.5 mm. Pitch of the screw is the distance moved
by the spindle per revolution. Hence in this case, for one revolution of the screw the
spindle moves forward or backward 0.5 mm. This movement of the spindle is shown
on an engraved linear millimetre scale on the sleeve. On the thimble there is a circular
scale which is divided into 50 or 100 equal parts. When the anvil and spindle end are
brought in contact, the edge of the circular scale should be at the zero of the sleeve
(linear scale) and the zero of the circular scale should be opposite to the datum line of
the sleeve. If the zero is not coinciding with the datum line, there will be a positive or
negative zero error as shown in figure below.
While taking a reading, the thimble is turned until the wire is held firmly between the
anvil and the spindle.
The least count of the micrometer screw can be calculated using the formula

given below:

Least Count

Types of error in micrometre screw gauge reading

Every micrometre prior to its use should be thoroughly checked for backlash error or

zero error.

• Backlash error: Sometimes due to wear and tear of the screw threads,
it is observed that reversing the direction of rotation of the thimble, the
tip of the screw does not start moving in the opposite direction
immediately, but remains stationary for a part of rotation. This is called
back lash error.
• Zero error: If on bringing the flat end of the screw in contact with the
stud, the zero mark of the circular scale coincides with the zero mark
on base line of the main scale, the instrument is said to be free from
zero error. Otherwise an error is said to be there. This can be both
positive and negative zero error.

Calculating micrometre screw gauge reading:

Total observed reading = main scale reading

+
(Circular scale division coinciding the base line of main
scale) x least count

T.R. = M.S.R + (C.S.R x L.C.)

True reading = Total reading – zero error.

Procedure:

1. Take the screw gauge and make sure that the rachet R on the head of
the screw functions properly.
2. Rotate the screw through, say, ten complete rotations and observe the
distance through which it has receded. This distance is the reading on
the linear scale marked by the edge of the circular scale. Then, find the
pitch of the screw, i.e., the distance moved by the screw in one complete
rotation. If there are n divisions on the circular scale, then distance
moved by the screw when it is rotated through one division on the
circular scale is called the least count of the screw gauge, that is,

Least count = pitch/ n

3. Insert the given object between the screw and the stud of the screw
gauge. Move the screw forward by rotating the rachet till the wire is
gently gripped between the screw and the stud Stop rotating the rachet
the moment you hear a click sound.
4. Take the readings on the linear scale and the circular scale.
5. From these two readings, obtain the true reading
6. Repeat the steps (3) to (5) for three more positions.
7. Take the mean of the different values so obtained.
8. Subtract zero error, if any, with proper sign to get the corrected value.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATION:

Least count of screw gauge = __________ mm

Zero error of screw gauge = __________ mm

Table I: Measurement of thickness of a Washer.

Sr. Main Scale Circular Scale Total Reading =

No. Reading (M.S.R.) mm Reading (C.S.R.) M.S.R. + (C.S.R. x L.C.) Mean Value of
the thickness of
washer (mm)
1
2
3
4
Table II: Measurement of diameter of a Wire.

Sr. Main Scale Circular Scale Total Reading = Mean Value of

No. Reading (M.S.R.) Reading (C.S.R.) M.S.R. + (C.S.R. x L.C.) the Diameter
(mm) (mm) of wire
(mm)
1
2
3
4

Results:

1. The thickness of the given washer = ________mm

2. The diameter of the given wire = ________mm

Precautions:

1. Ratchet arrangement in screw gauge must be utilised to avoid undue pressure

on the wire as this may change the diameter.
2. Move the screw in one direction else the screw may develop “play”.
3. Screw should move freely without friction.
4. View all the reading keeping the eye perpendicular to the scale to avoid error
due to parallax.

Viva Questions

1. Define Least Count of any measuring device.

2. What is meant by pitch of a screw? How is it found?
3. How to calculate the least count of micrometer screw gauge.
4. What precautions should be taken while using a micrometer screw gauge.
5. What is meant by zero error of a screw-gauge?
6. When the zero-error is positive?
Experiment 3

SPHEROMETER

AIM: - To determine radius of curvature of a given spherical surface by a spherometer.

APPARATUS: - Spherometer, spherical surface (convex/concave lens), a big size plane

Glass plate

FORMULA:
Radius of curvature of the spherical surface

DIAGRAM:

THEORY

The spherometer consists of a platform with three feet, whose extremities form an equilateral
triangle, and in the middle of the triangle is a fourth foot, which can be raised or lowered by
means of a micrometre screw passing perpendicularly through the centre of the platform. The
readings of the spherometer give the perpendicular distance between the extremity of this
fourth foot and the plane of the other three.

It is used to measure the radius of curvature of a spherical surface, or to test if a given surface
is truly spherical.

PROCEDURE

To find the distance between the legs of the Spherometer

1. Raise the central screw of the spherometer and press the spectrometer gently on a sheet
of paper so as to get the pin pricks of the three legs. Mark these pricks as A, B and C.
2. Measure the distance between the pricks by joining the points as to form a triangle.
3. Note these distances (AB, BC, and AC) on the paper and take their mean as l.
To find the least count of the Spherometer

1. Note one pitch scale division on the pitch scale or vertical scale.
2. Take 5 full rotations on the central screw.
3. Measure the distance moved by the screw.
4. Hence, Pitch = Distance moved /number of full rotations.

To find the radius curvature of the spherical surface

1. Raise the screw sufficiently upwards.

2. Place the spherometer on the concave surface so that its three legs rest on it.
3. Gently turn the screw downwards till the screw tip just touches the concave surface.
4. Note the reading of the circular disc scale which is in line with the vertical (pitch) scale.
Note this reading as 'a', which will act as reference.
5. Remove the spherometer from over the concave surface and place it over a large size
glass slab.
6. Turn the screw down wards and count the number of complete rotations made by the
disc (one rotation becomes complete when the reference reading crosses past the pitch
scale.)
7. Continue till the tip of the screw just touches the plane surface of the glass slab.
8. Note the reading of the circular scale which is finally in line with the vertical (pitch)
scale. Note this reading as 'b'.
9. Find the number of circular (disc) scale division in the last incomplete rotation.
10. Now find total reading.
11. Repeat steps 3 to 9, three times. Record the observation in tabular form.
12. Calculate the radius of curvature of the given concave surface using the formula.
OBSERVATIONS

Table calculating Sagitta (h)

Sr. No Circular (disc) Reading No.of No. of disc Total Reading

On Convex On plane complete scale div in
Surface glass Sheet rotations incomplete h= n1 x p +X x L.C.
Initial Final on plane rotation (mm)
(a) (b) glass X = (a-b)
sheet
(n1)
1
2
3
CALCULATIONS

Mean value of h = -----------------------mm.

Radius of curvature of the spherical surface = --------------- mm

Result
The radius of curvature of the given spherical surface = -----------------mm

Viva Questions

1. What is a Spherometer? What is it used for?

2. What is the pitch of Spherometer?
3. How to find the least count of a Spherometer.
4. What is meant by the radius of curvature of a spherical surface?
5. What precautions should be taken while using a spherometer?
EXPERIMENT 4
TO STUDY TIME OF FLIGHT, MAXIMUM HEIGHT AND RANGE IN A
PROJECTILE MOTION.
Aim: To study time of flight, maximum height and range in a projectile motion.

Apparatus: Projectile motion setup,

Theory:
Procedure:

Attach projectile motion set up firmly to the table. Keep angle of release of the body 250. Adjust
distance between the two sensors to 5 cm. Measure time required to travel this distance between
the two sensors. Initial velocity (u) will be calculated using this data. For different angles, initial
velocity will be calculated using this method. Measurements of angles and initial velocity can
be used for estimation of time of flight (T), vertical height (H) and range (Rmax).

Observation table

No Angle u sin θ
θ
degrees (m/s) (s) (m) (m)
1 25
2 30
3 35
4 40
5 45
6 50
7 55
8 60
9 65

Result:
EXPERIMENT 5
COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION

Aim: To determine the coefficient of restitution for different materials

Apparatus: Sponge ball, tennis ball, rubber ball, paper ball, meter scale, a stand.

Theory:
The coefficient of restitution can be seen as the measure of energy transferred
during a collision. It is typically a number between zero and one. The closer
the coefficient is to one, the bouncier the object is. An object with a coefficient
close to zero would have very little bounce. If an object has a COR of exactly
zero, this means that all the energy was lost during the collision. For example,
if a piece of clay were dropped onto the ground, the piece of clay loses all its
kinetic energy into its surrounding through sound and heat and becomes
deformed due to this loss of energy. If an object has a COR of exactly one,
this means that a perfectly elastic collision will occur in which all energy is
transferred from one object to another. An example of this might occur in a
game of billiards. If a cue ball were to squarely hit another ball of the exact
same mass, all of the kinetic energy could be transferred to the second ball and
cause the cue ball to stop when it collides with the second ball while the second
ball moves forward.

Formula:
The equation to calculate the coefficient of restitution for an object dropped to the ground is:

Coefficient of restitution, e = (H2/H1)

Where, e = coefficient of restitution between two given surfaces.

H1 = Height through which the ball is dropped
H2 = Height to which the ball bounce
Procedure:

1. Support the meter scale vertically using the retort stand so

that the scale touches the table. Zero of
2. Hold the ball at a known height H1 from the floor, near h1 Scale fixed
the vertically.
3. Release the ball and measure the height H2 to which it h2
And
bounces.
4. Repeat the procedure for different values of H1 for both Material.
tennis sponge ball.
5. Calculate the coefficient of restitution, e, for tennis and
sponge

Observation Table:
Sponge ball Rubber ball Tennis ball Paper ball
Sr. H1 H2 e H1 H2 e H1 H2 e H1 H2 e
No
1
2
3

Average Coefficient of restitution for,

Sponge ball =
Rubber ball =
Tennis ball =
Paper ball =

Calculation:
Average value of e for,
Sponge ball = __________
Tennis ball = __________
Rubber ball =
Paper ball =
Result & Conclusion:
value of e for Sponge ball = __________
Tennis ball = __________
Rubber ball = __________
Paper ball = __________

Therefore, the nature of collision is………………….

Viva Questions

1. What is coefficient of restitution?

2. What is the significance of coefficient of restitution?
3. What are different types of collisions?
4. State the law of conservation of momentum.
EXPERIMENT 6
COEFFICIENT OF STATIC FRICTION

Aim: 1. To study the relationship between force of limiting friction and normal
Reaction.
2. To find the co-efficient of friction between a block and a horizontal surface.

Apparatus: Wooden block, slotted weights, Horizontal plane (table top) fitted with a
Frictionless pulley at one end, Weight box, Spring balance, Thread.

Theory:
When one body makes an attempt to slide over another body, an opposing force
called the force of friction arises as a reaction to the applied force, and acts in the opposite
direction.

Static friction is the type of friction that exists when

two objects touch each other at rest. It has a limiting value
called limiting friction, which is equal to the least force
required to move the body from rest. When the external
force F is increased, a stage comes when the body is just at
the verge of moving. At this stage, the force of friction is at
the maximum, and is called limiting friction.

It is found experimentally that limiting frictional force,

Where is called the coefficient of static friction.

It is a dimensionless constant, but depends on the nature of surfaces in contact.

When the applied force, F, is increased further (beyond the limiting frictional force), the body
begins to move, then the force opposing the motion is called the kinetic or sliding friction. The
kinetic friction is less than the limiting friction.
The force of kinetic friction is

Where is called the coefficient of kinetic friction.

The Laws of Static Friction are:

i. The magnitude of limiting friction depends upon the nature and state of polish of the two
surfaces in contact.
ii. The magnitude of limiting friction is independent of area and shape of surfaces in contact
as long as the normal reaction remains the same.
iii. The magnitude of limiting friction 'F' is directly proportional to normal reaction 'R' between
the two surfaces in contact.

where is called the coefficient of friction which is a measure of friction based on the type
of material that are in contact.

The coefficient of friction,

A graph can be drawn with normal reaction, R along X axis and limiting friction, F along Y
axis and it is a straight line.

Procedure:

 Find the mass of the wooden block by using a spring balance and place it on the table
fitted with a frictionless pulley at one end.
 Tie one end of a thread with the hook of the wooden block and pass it over the pulley.
 Tie the other free end of the thread to the weight hanger and let it hang vertically.
 Increase the mass, till the block just starts sliding when tapping the table.
 Note the total mass added to the weight hanger and multiply it with acceleration due to
gravity, g to get the total weights added and record them in the observation table. This
gives the force of limiting friction, F.
 The normal reaction, R is given by the mass, M of the wooden block multiplied by
acceleration due to gravity, g.
 Repeat the experiment with different masses on the block and in each case is calculated
and it is found to be a constant for the given pair of surfaces.
 Plot a graph taking normal reaction, R along X-axis and limiting friction, F along Y-axis.
The graph will be a straight line sloping upwards.
 The coefficient of friction is also calculated by measuring the slope of the graph.
Observations

Weight of the wooden block, W =...................g

Table for finding coefficient of friction

Sr. Weight Normal Total Coefficient

No on Reaction weights on of Friction
Wooden R = W + w weight
Block hanger =
W (g) Limiting
Friction F

From graph, coefficient of friction can be calculated as, =--------

Result

1. Since F/R is a constant, the value of limiting friction is directly proportional to normal
reaction.

2. By calculation, Coefficient of fiction between given surfaces, µ =-------.

3. From graph, Coefficient of fiction between given surfaces, µ =-------.

Viva Questions

1. Define Friction and frictional force.

2. What is Coefficient of static friction?
3. On what factors does the coefficient of friction depend
4. State the laws of static friction
EXPERIMENT 7
INCLINED PLANE

Aim:

To study its relationship with the angle of inclination θ by plotting a graph between applied
force and sin θ.

Apparatus: An inclined plane with a pulley, A roller, A pan, A weight box, Strong thread,
Half-meter scale.

Theory: If a body of mass (say m) is placed over an inclined plane, that is inclined at an
angle ϴ with the horizontal, its weight mg acts vertically downward. The component mg cos
ϴ of the weight acts normally downward on the plane balances the upward normal reaction
(say R) of the inclined plane. The component mg sin ϴ of the weight acting parallel to the
inclined plane downwards, produces motion in the body.

If total weight W1=m1g moves the body up and total weight W2 = m2g makes the body move
down,
Then the downward force acting on the body along the inclined plane,

which must be equal to

ie; --------------(1)
For a constant mass, m
Thus, a graph between sin θ along X-axis and W along Y-axis must be a straight line.
Procedure:

1. Place the apparatus on a table. Make sure that the base of the inclined plane is at
horizontal surface.
2. Bring the inclined plane to a horizontal position so that the angle of inclination is now
zero.
3. Find the weight of the roller, m using the spring balance. Then, place it on the inclined
plane in the middle.
4. Tie one end of a thread to the roller placed on the inclined plane and pass it over the
pulley.
5. Find the mass of the pan using a beam balance and tie it to the free end of the thread.
6. Now, raise the inclined plane and fix it at an angle of 30°. When this is done, the roller
starts rolling down with acceleration.
7. Add weights and increase them till the roller just starts moving upward with uniform
velocity only on tapping. Note the mass added in the pan and calculate the total mass
m1 as sum of mass added in pan and mass of the pan.
8. Remove some weights from the pan till the roller just starts moving downward with
uniform velocity. Note down the mass added in the pan and find the total mass m2 as
the sum of mass added in pan and mass of the pan.
9. The mean value of m1 and m2 multiplied with acceleration due to gravity, g gives the
downward force, W acting on the roller of mass m.
10. It is proved that, in each case, the downward force acting on the body, W is found to be
equal to mg sin θ.
11. A graph is drawn with sin θ along X-axis and W along Y-axis and it is a straight line.
12. Increase the angle of inclination in steps of 5° each, making it 35°,40°, 45°, 50°,55° and
60° and repeat steps 6 to 8.
13. Record the observations

Observation Table:
Observed weight of the roller (wo) = 0.1525 x 9.8 = …………..kg wt.
Observed weight of the pan (po)= 0.0255 x 9.8 = …………..kg wt.
Table for angle of inclination and weights in pan:

Force
acting on
roller = W0Sin θ
Angle of
No. of W = W1 + P0
inclination degrees Upward
observations = W1 + 0.2499
degrees
W1=mg
(kg.wt)

0.98x0.207=0.20
1 12 0.207 0.021x9.8
29
0.98x0.406=0.39
2 24 0.406 0.041x9.8
79
3
4
5

Results:

Viva Questions:
1. Define angle of friction.
2. Define rolling friction.
3. Mention the reason of rolling friction being the least among the three types.
4. The graph between W and Sin is a straight line. If yes justify the statement.
Experiment 8

BOYLE’S LAW

Aim: To verify Boyle’s law.

Apparatus: Boyle’s law apparatus, meter scale

Theory:
The relation existing between the pressure exerted by a confined gas and its volume
is given by Boyle’s law, namely: The temperature remaining constant, the volume V
occupied by a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to the pressure P to which
it is subjected. In symbols

V ∝ 1/P
or
V = k × 1/P

where PV = k (1)

where k is (numerically) a constant under given conditions.

Diagram:

Procedure:

1. Setup the Boyle’s law apparatus.

2. Adjust the height of mercury in open and closed tube at the same level.
3. Note down the height of air column (ha) and mercury column (hm) in closed
tube.
4. Find the volume of air column in closed tube using ha and Pressure exerted
by mercury using hm.
5. Change the mercury level by 5 cm in the open tube and again note down
height of air column and mercury column in closed tube.
6. Repeat the same for five readings.
7. Calculate PxV for each reading.

Observations and Calculations

Observation Table:

Sr. Height of air Height of Volume of air Pressure exerted PxV

No. column in mercury column in by mercury column
closed tube column in closed tube P = hmρg
(ha) m closed tube V = πr2ha (m-3) (N/m2)
(hm) m
1
2
3
4
5

Calculations:

Plot a graph of P (x-axis) Vs. V (y-axis)

Result:

The mean value of PxV = _______

Conclusion:
Experiment 9
Thermal Conductivity of Metal
Aim: To determine the thermal conductivity of good conductor.

Apparatus: Sealers conductivity apparatus, Thermometer, measuring cylinder, stop

clock, vernier calliper

Theory:
The process in which heat is transferred from a part of a body at higher
temperature to a part of body in lower temperature without bodily movement
of particles from one place to other is called as CONDUCTION.
The amount of heat flowing from one plane of rod to other plane of rod at
steady state is directly proportional, to cross sectional area A of the rod, Q
α A, temperature difference between two planes , Q α (T1 – T2 ), time, t for
which heat flows, Q α t and it is inversely proportional to the distance
between the two planes, Q α 1/d
Combining all the factors,
𝐴 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )𝑡
𝑄𝛼
𝑑
𝐴 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )𝑡
𝑄 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑
𝐴 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )𝑡
𝑄=𝐾
𝑑
where, K is the constant for proportionality and is called as Coefficient of Thermal
conductivity. K depends on the material of the bar.

COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY, K:

The amount of heat conducted in one second, in steady state of temperature
through unit cross-sectional area of an element of material of unit thickness
with unit temperature difference between its opposite faces.
𝑄𝑑
𝐾 =
𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )𝑡

The heat Q warms up a mass m (in kilograms) of water from

temperatureT4 toT3 according to the formula:

where c is the specific heat capacity of water (c = 4190 J kg-1 K-1).

Using: A = πd2/4 (A in metres square) we obtain:

(in W m-1 K-1).

𝑀𝑊( 𝑇3 −𝑇4 )𝑑
or, K=
𝜋𝑟 2 (𝑇1 −𝑇2 )𝑡
where
K :The coefficient of thermal conductivity
𝑴𝑾 :The mass of water collected
t :Time in second, the water collected
𝑻𝟏 , 𝑻𝟐 , 𝑻𝟑 , 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝟒 :Temperature as shown by thermometers
d :Distance between hot and cold end
r :Radius of specimen
Diagram:

Procedure:

1. Measure, d the distance between two thermometer (𝑇1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇2 ) on the rod ‘r’ the
radius of rod.
2. Pass steam continuously.
3. Start flow of water when the thermometer 𝑇1 at the hot end shows temperature
about70℃.
4. Wait for steady state i.e. till both the thermometer 𝑇1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇2 show constant
temperature.
5. At steady state note all four temperature and collect water for 30 second (flow of
water should be
Steady and fine and not drop by drop).
6. Change flow of water and repeat (4) and (5).

Observation table:

Least count of vernier = ……….cm

Diameter of rod = ……….cm
Radius, r = ……….cm
𝑇1 = ……….℃
𝑇2 = ……….℃
𝑇3 = ……….℃
𝑇4 = ………. ℃
Volume of water collected, (𝑀𝑤) = ……….cc
=………..g
Time of flow of water (t) = ……….s
Distance between thermometer (d) = ……….cm

Calculation:
𝑀𝑊( 𝑇3 −𝑇4 )𝑑
K=
𝜋𝑟 2 (𝑇1 −𝑇2 )𝑡
= ……………..cal/cm/℃/𝑠𝑒𝑐
1 Calorie = 4.2 Joule
1 cm = 10−2 𝑚
𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
= Watt
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
4.2
Cal/cm/℃/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = Joule/m/℃/second
10−2
= 420 watt/m℃
K = ----------× 420 watt/m℃.

Result: The thermal conductivity, K = ----------Cal/cm/℃/𝑠𝑒𝑐

=------------ W/m℃.
EXPERIMENT 10

HELICAL SPRING

Aim: To find the force constant of a helical spring by plotting a graph between load and
extension.

Apparatus: Spring, rigid support, Weight in hanger, slotted weights, scale and a fine pointer.

Theory:
When a load ‘F’ is attached to the free end of a spring, then the spring elongates through a
distance ‘l’.
Here ‘l’ is known as the extension produced. According to Hooke’s Law, extension is directly
proportional to the load. This can be represented as:
𝐹∝𝑙
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑙
where ‘k’ is constant of proportionality. It is called the force constant or the spring constant of
the spring.
A graph is drawn with load M in kg wt. along X axis and extension, l in metre along the Y axis.
The graph is a straight line whose slope will give the value of spring constant, k.

From graph,
1
𝑘= ×𝑔
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
Procedure:

1. The helical spring is suspended vertically from a rigid support. A pointer is attached
horizontally at the free end of the spring.
2. A metre scale is kept vertically in such a way that the tip of the pointer is over the
divisions of the scale, but does not touch the scale.
3. A dead weight, w0 gwt is suspended by the weight hanger to keep the spring vertical.
The reading of the pointer on the metre scale is noted.
4. Now, gently add a suitable load of 50 g slotted weights to the hanger and the reading
of the pointer is noted.
5. The weights are added one by one till the maximum load is reached. In each case, the
reading of the pointer is noted.
6. The weights are then removed one by one and the reading of the pointer is noted in each
case of unloading.
7. The average of the readings for each load during loading and unloading is calculated in
each case. Let z0, z1, z2, z3…etc.., be the average readings of the pointer for the loads
w0, (w0+50), (w0+100), (w0+150) etc.
8. From this, extension, l (in m) for the loads (w0+50), (w0+100), (w0+150) etc, are
calculated as (z1-z0), (z2-z0), (z3-z0) respectively.
9. In each case, k =mg/l is calculated. The average value of k gives the spring constant in
N/m.
10. A graph is drawn with load M in kg wt along X axis and extension, l in metre along the
Y axis. The graph is a straight line. The reciprocal of the slope of the graph is
determined. It gives spring constant in kg wt/m. The spring constant in N/m is obtained
by multiplying this with g=9.8 m/s2.

Observations:

Observation table for load and extension to find Spring constant (k)

F = Mg Spring
Load on hanger Reading of position of pointer tip Constant
No. Extension
= Applied weight
of (l) 𝑀𝑔
(F) 𝑧= 2
𝑥+𝑦 𝑘= (N/m)
obs. −3
Loading Unloading 10−2 m 𝑙
10 (kg wt) (x cm) (y cm) cm
1 100
2 300
3 500
4 700
Average Spring Constant (k) =
Result:
1. By calculation, the force constant of the given spring = ............. N/m.
2. From load-extension graph, the force constant of the given spring = ………. N/m

Viva Questions
1. State Hooke’s law.
2. Is spring constant a universal constant? Give reason for your answer.
3. What do you infer from the graph between m and l?
4. Mention the potential energy and work done for the spring.
5. Hooke’s law is applicable till what limit?
EXPERIMENT 11
LAWS OF VECTORS
Aim: Our objective is to find the weight of a given body using the Parallelogram Law of
Vectors.

Apparatus: Parallelogram Law of Forces apparatus (Gravesand's apparatus), Two hangers with
slotted weights, A body whose weight is to be determined, Thin strong thread, White drawing
paper sheet, Drawing pins, Half meter scale, Protractor.

Theory: If two vectors acting simultaneously on a particle are represented in magnitude and
direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn from a point, then their resultant
is completely represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of that parallelogram
drawn from that point.

Procedure

 Set up the Gravesand's apparatus and ensure its board is vertical. This can be tested
using the plumb line. Test if the pulleys (let us name them - P1 and Q1) are frictionless.
If you feel any friction, oil them.

 Fix the white drawing paper sheet to the board using the drawing pins.
 Take three pieces of strong threads and tie one end of all three together to make a knot.
(Let us name this knotted end - O). This knot becomes the junction of the three threads.
 From the other ends of the two threads, tie a weight hanger with the same slotted
weights in each; we will name these weights as P and Q.
 From the end of third thread tie the given body, which is the wooden block, which we
will name as S.
 Pass the threads with weights P and Q over the pulleys and let the third thread with the
block S, stay vertical in the middle of the board.
 The weights P, Q and the wooden block S acts as the three forces along the three
threads. At the junction O, the forces are in equilibrium.
 Now adjust the weights P and Q (forces) such that the junction O stays in equilibrium
slightly below the middle of the paper.
 See that all the weights hang freely and that none of them touch the board or the table.
 Mark the position of junction O on the paper using a sharp pencil.
 Slightly disturb the weights P and Q and then leave them.
 Once settled, note the position of junction O. Make sure that this point is very close to
the earlier position.
 Take the mirror strip and keeping it lengthwise under each thread, mark the position
of the ends of the image of the thread in the mirror, covering the image by the thread.
These new positions are P1, P2 for the thread with the weight P, and Q1 and Q2 for the
thread with the weight Q and S1, S2 for the thread with the weight S.
 Remove the paper from the board and with the help of the half metre scale draw lines
through the points P1 and P2 to represent P, through points Q1 and Q2 to represent Q
and through points S1 and S2 to represent S. These lines must meet at point O.
 Assuming a scale of 1cm = 50 g, mark OA = 3 cm and OB =3 cm to represent P=150g
and Q= 150g.
 Complete parallelogram OACB using the set squares and join OC. This represents the
resultant vector R which corresponds to the weight S.
 Measure OC and multiply it by the scale (50 g) to get the value of the unknown weight
(S).
 For different sets of observation, change P and Q suitably.
 We can find the weight of the wooden block (R) using the equation (1).
 To find the percentage error in the experiment, measure the actual weight of the body
using a spring balance.
 Calculate the percentage error using equation (3).
Observations:

To find the weight of the unknown mass using parallelogram law of vectors
Scale. Let 20 g = 1 cm

Unknown
Forces Values of Side Resultant weight S (g
No. of
force R (g wt)
obs. P (g Q (g OA OB OD
ϴ cos ϴ wt) OD x 20
wt) wt) (cm) (cm) (cm) gms
1 60 60 96 -0.104 3 3 4.3 82.62 86
2 70 70 106 3.6 3.6 4.3
3 80 80
4 90 90
5 100 100

Calculation
Mean value of unknown weight S = ---------- gwt.
Mean value of unknown weight, R =---------gwt
Unknown weight = (S+R)/2 = ------------gwt= ---------------kgwt

Result
The unknown weight of given body = ------------------ kgwt .
EXPERIMENT 12

To verify law of conservation of mechanical energy (PE to KE).