CONTROL SYSTEMS:

A control system is a set of mechanical or

electronic devices that regulate other devices or
systems’ behaviour. Control systems are used to
ensure that a system behaves as desired by
regulating its inputs, processes, and outputs. They
can be simple electronic or electrical devices, or
more sophisticated computer-controlled systems.
Control systems are made up of several
components, including:
• Input: The starting point of the system, where
all commands, actions, and adjustments are
received
• Sensors: Detect changes in the system and
convert them into electrical signals
• Controller: Processes the signals from the
sensors and generates an output signal to
control the actuator
• Actuator: Translates the output signal from
the controller into a physical action
• Error detector: A component of a closed-loop
control system
• Output element: A component of a closed-
loop control system
Types of Control systems:
open-loop control system
A control system that operates based on a set of
instructions without adjusting to external factors
or the actual result. In an open-loop control
system, the output of the system does not
influence the control actions.
Features:
No feedback: Open-loop control systems do not
have a feedback mechanism to modify the output
based on the actual result.
Predefined instructions: Open-loop control
systems operate based on a predefined set of
instructions.
Advantages of an Open Loop Control System?
• Simplicity: It is simple in construction and
design.
• Low-cost: It is inexpensive compared to closed
loop control systems.
• Easy Maintenance: It costs less time and
money to maintain.
• No measurement: Useful when the production
output is impossible or hard to measure
Disadvantages of an Open Loop Control
System?
• Can’t handle disruptions: It can hardly
handle any major disruptions.
• Poor Reliability: It is unreliable as it cannot
adapt to uncertainties.
• Poor Flexibility: It lacks the flexibility to self-
correct and recover from accidental stoppage.
• Poor Accuracy: With no feedback system, it is
very inaccurate when it needs to reflect the
actual manufacturing output.

Closed loop control system

A mechanical or electronic device that
automatically regulates a system to maintain a
desired state without human interaction. They are
also known as feedback systems.
Features:
Feedback: The system continuously monitors its
output and makes necessary adjustments to
achieve the desired output.
Adaptability: Closed loop systems can adapt to
changes in the operating environment or process
conditions due to their feedback loop.
Advantages:
• Closed loop control systems are more accurate
even in the presence of non-linearities
• The sensitivity of the system may be made
small to make the system more stable
• The closed loop systems are less affected by
noise.
Disadvantages:
• Closed loop control systems are costlier and
complex
• The feedback in the closed loop system may
lead to oscillatory response
• The feedback reduces the overall gain of the
system
• Stability is the major problem in the closed
loop system and more care is needed to design
a stable closed loop system.
Sensors:
In a control system, sensors are devices that detect
and measure physical properties and convert them
into a readable output. Sensors are a key part of
control systems and are used in many
applications, including process control,
automation, and the internet of things (IoT):

• Detect and measure: Sensors detect and

measure physical properties like temperature,
pressure, flow, level, or chemical composition.

• Provide information: Sensors provide

information to the control system in form of
feedback.
• Bridge the gap: Sensors act as the eyes and
ears for a computing infrastructure that
analyzes and acts upon the data collected, by
converting the collected data into computer
readable signals.
Sensors can be classified into different types based
on the physical parameter they measure and the
technology used to measure it.
Types of Sensors and Their Functions:
• Pressure sensors: Convert physical pressure
into an electronic signal that can be displayed
on a digital or analog readout.
• Temperature sensors: Send control signals to
a system to control the flow of water or
refrigerant in cooling coils, or to control the
speed of blowers
• Flow sensors: Measure the flow rate by
detecting changes in parameters like velocity,
pressure, or displacement as the fluid moves
• Level sensors: Measure the level of fluids in
containers.

Factors considered in the selection of sensors:

• Environment: The sensor should be suitable
for the environment it will be used in, which
may include temperature, humidity, vibration,
and chemicals.
• Accuracy and precision: These are important
considerations, especially in medical
industries. Accuracy is the difference between
the measured value and the true value and is
represented as a percentage.
• Repeatability: This is how consistent a sensor
is against itself, or its ability to provide the
same result under the same conditions.
• Measurement range: The sensor's
measurement range should match the real
measuring range to ensure the correct reading
and a long sensor lifespan.
• Cost: The total cost of a sensor depends on
factors such as mounting, wiring, and signal
conditioning.
• Sensor type: The type of sensor you choose
depends on the property you want to detect,
such as whether it's a metal, solid, liquid, or
gas.
• Intended application: Consider what the
sensor will be used for.
• Durability: How durable the sensor is.
• Output types: The types of outputs the sensor
provides.
• Response time: How quickly the sensor
responds.
Controller
In a control system, a controller is a device or
mathematical function that manipulates a variable
to keep a process functioning at a set point value.
The controller's job is to generate an output signal
based on the difference between the set point value
and the current value of the process variable, also
known as the error.

Types of Controllers:
• Proportional (P) Controller,
• Integral (I) Controller,
• Derivative (D) Controller,
• PID Controller,
• On/Off Controller.
Proportional controller
A feedback control system that minimizes error by
adjusting the output of a system in proportion to
the difference between the desired setpoint and the
measured process variable.
Here's how a proportional controller works:
1. Compare
The controller compares the setpoint (SP) to the
actual process variable (PV).
2. Generate error signal
The controller generates an error signal based on
the difference between the SP and PV.
3. Calculate output
The controller multiplies the error signal by a gain
factor to generate an output that's proportional to
the error.
4. Adjust inputs
The controller adjusts the inputs to bring the
output closer to the desired value.
Proportional controllers are used in many
engineering and process control applications, such
as heating processes. For example, in a heating
process, if the temperature falls below the
setpoint, the controller will increase the heating
proportional to the current temperature error.
Integral controller
A control strategy that minimizes or eliminates
error by measuring and summing the deviation of
an output from its desired value over time. It's
used to keep a controlled variable at a set point,
even when the process load changes.
Here's how an integral controller works:
• Calculates accumulated error: The integral
algorithm constantly calculates the
accumulated error.
• Corrects for past error: The controller
corrects for past over- or under compensation
with an integral time setting.
• Maintains constant control action: Even if
the error becomes zero, the control action
remains constant.
Derivative controller
This responds to changing error signals by
generating a corrective action proportional to the
rate of change of the error signal. This action is
designed to limit how quickly an error can change
and to help the system recover from an upset.
Here are some key points about derivative
controllers:
How it works
A derivative controller looks at how fast a process
variable is changing and takes action to counteract
that change. This action is designed to eliminate
errors as quickly as possible.
When it's used
Derivative controllers are often combined with
proportional control (P) to create a PD controller.
This is because derivative controllers don't
respond to constant error signals.
How it benefits a system
Derivative control can make a loop more stable,
which allows for a higher controller gain and faster
integral. This can reduce the maximum deviation
of a process variable from its set point.
When to use it
Derivative control can be beneficial, but it should
be used in the right situations and in the right
amounts. Too much derivative action can
destabilize a loop.
Proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller
A device that uses three mechanisms to control
variables and adjust them to the set point.

On/off controller
Also known as a signaler or "bang-bang"
controller, is a device that controls a system by
turning its output on or off, with no middle state.
It's a simple and inexpensive way to control
temperature, pressure, and flow rate in industrial
settings.
Here's how an on/off controller works:
• Setpoint: The controller is set to a desired
temperature, pressure, or flow rate.
• Output: When the system is below the
setpoint, the controller turns the output on.
When the system is above the setpoint, the
controller turns the output off.
• Cycle: The controller repeats this cycle of
turning on and off continuously to maintain
the desired setpoint.
On/off controllers are used in situations where
precise control isn't necessary, or where the
system can't handle frequent on and off cycles. For
example, home thermostats use on/off control to
turn the heating on when it's too cold and off when
it's too hot.
Actuators
Are devices that convert a control signal into
physical action or movement.
Common Types of Actuators:
• Mechanical Actuators: Electric Motors, Linear
Actuators.
• Pneumatic Actuators: Pneumatic Cylinders,
Pneumatic Motors.
• Hydraulic Actuators: Hydraulic Cylinders,
Hydraulic Motors.
• Electro-Mechanical Actuators: Servomotors.