Wireless Communication and Mobile Computing

Chapter 4
Wireless Local Area Network (WLANs)

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Chapter 4
Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs)

 WLAN
 IEEE802.11 (WLAN) Standards
 HiperLAN
 WPAN
 IEEE 802.15 (WPAN) Standards
 Wireless Sensor Networks and Zigbees

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4.1. WLAN Overview
❑ A WLAN is a type of LAN that uses high-frequency radio waves to
communicate and transfer data between devices within a limited area (such
as homes, offices, or campuses) without physical cables.
Key Concepts in WLAN
1. Wireless Access Points (APs):
 Devices that act as a bridge b\n wireless clients and the wired network (LAN).
 Serve as central hubs where wireless devices connect to the network.
 APs manage data traffic and serve as controllers for wireless devices on the
network.
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2. Wireless Clients:
 Devices like laptops, smartphones, tablets, IoT devices, or any other device
equipped with a wireless network adapter.
 These devices communicate with access points to gain access to network
resources (internet, printers, etc.).
3. SSID (Service Set Identifier):
 A unique identifier for a WLAN, which allows devices to distinguish b\n
multiple wireless networks.
 Usually displayed as the network name when a device searches for available
Wi-Fi connections.

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4. BSS (Basic Service Set):
 Refers to a single access point (AP) and its set of associated clients.
 Each BSS has a unique identifier known as the BSSID (usually, the
MAC address of the AP).
5. ESS (Extended Service Set):
 It consists of multiple BSSs, each with its access point, connected by a
common distribution system (usually a wired LAN).
 ESS allows devices to roam b\n d\t access points without losing network
connectivity.

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WLAN Architecture and Modes
1. Infrastructure Mode:
 The most common WLAN configuration.
 Wireless clients communicate with each other and the internet through
an AP, which connects to a wired network.
 It is a centralized management, scalability, & security features such as
encryption and access control can be managed through the AP.
2. Ad-hoc (Peer-to-Peer) Mode.
 Devices communicate directly with each other without the use of an AP.
 Typically, used for temporary networks or when a direct connection b\n
devices is required (e.g., file sharing among two laptops).
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 It is less secure, lacks central management, and does not scale well for large
networks.
3. Mesh Networks:
 A network structure where multiple APs or nodes connect, forming a self-
healing and dynamic network.
 Data can travel through different paths, and if one path fails, data is rerouted
through other nodes.
 Commonly used for large, outdoor, or industrial environments where
coverage needs to be extensive and resilient.

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WLAN Standards and Frequency Bands
1. Frequency Bands:
 WLANs typically operate in the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz ISM (Industrial, Scientific,
and Medical) frequency bands.
 The 2.4 GHz band offers better range but is prone to interference from other
devices like microwaves, Bluetooth, and other Wi-Fi networks.
 The 5 GHz band provides faster data transfer rates with less interference but
has a shorter range due to higher attenuation through walls and obstacles.
 Some modern WLANs, such as those using Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax), also utilize the
6 GHz band for even faster speeds and reduced interference.
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2. Channel Use:

 Frequency bands are divided into channels, each representing a

specific frequency range.

 For example, the 2.4 GHz band has 11 channels in the U.S., but only

three non-overlapping channels (1, 6, 11) to prevent interference.

 The 5 GHz band has more available channels and less overlap,

reducing interference and congestion.

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Advantages of WLAN
1. Mobility:
è Users can connect to the network from different locations within the coverage
area of an AP.
è Devices can roam b\n APs without dropping connections, enabling users to
stay connected while moving within the network range (e.g., moving around a
campus or building).
2. Ease of Installation
è WLANs don’t require cabling, reducing installation time & costs.
è Useful in places where physical cabling is not feasible (e.g., historical
buildings, outdoor settings).
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3. Scalability:

è Wireless networks are easier to expand than wired ones;

 Adding new clients often requires no more than configuring the devices to
connect to an existing AP.

è Additional APs can be added to extend coverage as the number of users or

areas increases.

4. Cost-Effectiveness:

è Lower installation costs since fewer physical cables are needed.

è Flexibility to relocate APs and devices reduces long-term infrastructure costs.

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Challenges and Limitations of WLAN
1. Security:
 WLANs are inherently more vulnerable to attacks because data is transmitted
over the air, making it easier for attackers to intercept or access the network.
 Encryption Standards:
 Early WLANs used WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy), which had significant
security flaws and is no longer recommended.
 WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) and WPA2 are more secure, with WPA2
using strong Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) encryption.
 WPA3 is the latest, offering even more robust security features like
individualized data encryption. 12
2. Interference:
 The 2.4 GHz band is congested with devices like Bluetooth gadgets, cordless
phones, and microwave ovens.
 The 5 GHz band suffers less from interference but has a reduced range
compared to 2.4 GHz.
 Interference can degrade the performance of the network, leading to slower
speeds and packet loss.
3. Range and Coverage:
 The range of a WLAN is limited (typically 100-200 meters indoors, and 300-500
meters outdoors, depending on obstacles).
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 Physical objects like walls, metal, or furniture can weaken signals, reducing the
network's effective range.
 Solutions include deploying multiple APs and utilizing mesh networks for
larger areas.
4. Bandwidth and Latency:
 WLAN bandwidth is typically shared among all devices connected to a single
AP.
 As more devices join, the available bandwidth per device decreases.
 Latency is usually higher than in wired networks, which can impact real-time
applications like gaming, and video conferencing.
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Common WLAN Applications
1. Corporate and Enterprise Networks:
Many businesses use WLANs for ease of employee mobility and productivity.
Employees can access the network from anywhere within the building using
mobile devices and laptops.
2. Public Wi-Fi Hotspots:
WLANs provide internet access in public places such as airports, coffee shops,
and hotels.
These hotspots allow users to connect to the internet wirelessly while on the
move.
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3. Home Networking:

In residential settings, WLANs are used to connect devices like computers,
tablets, smart TVs, and IoT devices (e.g., smart thermostats and home security
systems) to a single home network.

4. Education and Campus Networks:

Schools and universities deploy extensive WLAN coverage to enable students

and faculty to connect from different locations, promoting mobile learning and
access to resources.

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4.2. IEEE 802.11 (WLAN) Standards

Introduction to I3E 802.11

 The IEEE 802.11 family of standards defines protocols for implementing
wireless local area networks (WLANs).

 Developed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE),

these standards specify how wireless communication occurs between
devices in a local network and include guidelines for aspects such as
data rates, frequency bands, security, and channel use.

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Key Features of IEEE 802.11
1. Wireless Communication: Facilitates wireless communication b\n devices
(e.g., laptops, smartphones) within a local area, replacing the need for wired
connections.
2. Frequency Bands: Primarily operates in the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands, with
some standards using the 6 GHz band.
3. Data Transfer Rates: Defines the maximum data rates that can be
achieved by different standards, starting from 2 Mbps in the original 802.11
standard to over 9.6 Gbps in 802.11ax.
4. Security Protocols: Establishes encryption and authentication protocols
to protect data transmitted over the airwaves from unauthorized access.
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The Evolution of IEEE 802.11 Standards (Reading Assignment)
 Over time, the IEEE 802.11 standards have evolved to offer faster speeds,
greater reliability, improved security, and the ability to handle more devices
simultaneously. Below are the most important 802.11 standards.
1. IEEE 802.11 (1997)
 The original WLAN standard was released in 1997.
 Frequency: Operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM band.
 Data Rate: Offers maximum data rates of 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps.
 Modulation: Uses FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) and DSSS
(Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) techniques for signal transmission.
 Limitations: Due to its low data rate and lack of scalability, this original version
was quickly surpassed by newer standards. 19
2. IEEE 802.11a (1999)
 Introduced in 1999 alongside 802.11b, but less widely adopted due to cost and
complexity at the time.
 Frequency: Operates in the 5 GHz band (which has more channels and less
interference than the 2.4 GHz band).
 Data Rate: Supports up to 54 Mbps.
 Modulation: Uses OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing), which
divides a signal into multiple narrowband channels for improved throughput and
resilience to interference.
 Limitations: The higher frequency reduces range compared to 2.4 GHz, & the 5
GHz band was not as widely supported by hardware at the time of its release.
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3. IEEE 802.11b (1999)
Became more popular than 802.11a due to its lower cost and better range.
 Frequency: Operates in the 2.4 GHz band.
 Data Rate: Supports speeds up to 11 Mbps (far better than the original
802.11).
 Modulation: Uses DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) for signal
transmission.
 Limitations: The 2.4 GHz band is crowded with other devices like Bluetooth,
microwaves, and cordless phones, which can cause interference.

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4. IEEE 802.11g (2003)
 Provide higher speeds while maintaining compatibility with 802.11b.
Frequency: Operates in the 2.4 GHz band.
Data Rate: Supports speeds up to 54 Mbps, similar to 802.11a.
Modulation: Uses the same OFDM modulation as 802.11a but in the 2.4
GHz band.
Backward Compatibility: Fully backward-compatible with 802.11b
devices.
 Limitations: Since it shares the 2.4 GHz band, it still suffers from interference,
though it improved upon 802.11b's data rates.
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5. IEEE 802.11n (2009)
 It brought significant improvements in speed, range, & reliability.
 Frequency: Operates in both the 2.4 GHz & 5 GHz bands (dual-band
support).
 Data Rate: Supports speeds up to 600 Mbps, depending on the number
of antennas and channels used.

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Key Technologies
 MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output): Uses multiple antennas (up to four) at
both the transmitter and receiver to send and receive more data simultaneously.
 Channel Bonding: Combines two 20 MHz channels to form a 40 MHz channel,
effectively doubling the available bandwidth.
 Spatial Multiplexing: Sends independent data streams over different antennas
to increase throughput.
 Backward Compatibility: Compatible with 802.11a, b, and g.
 Benefits: Improved range & throughput, making it ideal for streaming high-
definition.
 video and supporting more devices simultaneously.
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6. IEEE 802.11ac (Released in 2013)
 It further enhanced speed and performance, especially for 5 GHz devices.
 Frequency: Operates only in the 5 GHz band.
 Data Rate: Supports speeds up to 1.3 Gbps for Wave 1 and up to 3.47 Gbps for
Wave 2 (later enhancement).
Key Technologies:
❑ Wider Channels: Supports channel widths of 80 MHz and 160 MHz, allowing
more data to be transferred at once.
❑ MU-MIMO (Multi-User MIMO): Allows multiple devices to communicate with the
AP simultaneously, improving overall network efficiency.
❑ Beamforming: Focuses the signal in the direction of connected devices to
enhance signal strength and range.
 Backward Compatibility: Compatible with 802.11a, n devices in the 5 GHz
band.
 Limitations: Does not support the 2.4 GHz band, which is useful in longer
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distances or obstacles that attenuate the 5 GHz signal.

7. IEEE 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6) (2019)
 Released in 2019, known as Wi-Fi 6, it brought revolutionary changes to how
wireless networks handle congestion and efficiency.
 Frequency: Operates in both the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands, and later in the 6
GHz band (in Wi-Fi 6E, a 2020 update).
 Data Rate: Supports speeds up to 9.6 Gbps (theoretical max across all
channels and bands).
Key Technologies:
 OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access): Divides channels
into smaller sub-channels, allowing multiple devices to communicate
simultaneously on the same frequency, improving efficiency in dense
environments. 26
 MU-MIMO: Expanded to support more simultaneous devices.
 TWT (Target Wake Time): Reduces power consumption by scheduling
communication with devices, particularly useful for IoT devices that don’t need
continuous communication.
 1024-QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation): Increases the amount of data
transmitted in each signal by packing more bits per hertz, improving throughput.
 Beamforming Enhancements: Improved directional signal delivery for better
range and performance.
 Backward into Compatibility: Compatible with all previous 802.11 standards.
 Benefits: Handles crowded environments (e.g., stadiums, airports) much better
than previous standards, making it ideal for high-density areas and next-
generation devices.

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8. IEEE 802.11be (Wi-Fi 7) (Upcoming)
 Status: In development, expected to be finalized by 2024.
 Frequency: Expected to operate across the 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and 6 GHz
bands.
 Data Rate: Target speeds up to 30 Gbps, focusing on ultra-high bandwidth
applications.
Key Technologies:
 320 MHz Channel Bandwidth: Doubling the maximum channel size compared
to Wi-Fi 6.
 16x16 MU-MIMO: Increasing the number of simultaneous connections.
 Multi-Link Operation (MLO): Allows devices to transmit and receive data over
multiple frequency bands simultaneously, improving speed, reliability, and
reducing latency.
 Adaptive Interference Puncturing: Reduces interference in crowded
environments. 28
WLAN Security in IEEE 802.11
1. WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy):
 The original security protocol for IEEE 802.11 networks.
 Uses RC4 (Rivest Cipher 4) stream cipher for encryption.
 Weaknesses: Vulnerable to various attacks and easily cracked.
2. WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access): Introduced as an improvement over WEP.
 Uses TKIP (Temporal Key Integrity Protocol) for encryption.
 Improved but still vulnerable to certain attacks.
3. WPA2: Based on the AES (Advanced Encryption Standard)
 Providing strong encryption and security.
 Considered much more secure than WEP or WPA and is widely used today.
4. WPA3: The latest security protocol, enhancing encryption and offering features like
forward secrecy.
 Stronger protection against brute-force attacks and better protection for public Wi-Fi networks.
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Conclusion
 The IEEE 802.11 standards are the backbone of WLAN technology, defining
how devices communicate wirelessly.
 As wireless technology has advanced, each new iteration of the IEEE 802.11
standard has introduced improvements in speed, range, efficiency, and
security, allowing WLANs to meet the growing demands of modern wireless
applications.
 Understanding the evolution and key features of these standards is
essential for managing and deploying effective wireless networks.

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4.3 HiperLAN (High-Performance Radio Local Area Network)

 HiperLAN is a set of wireless communication standards defined by the

European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) in the mid-1990s.

 It was developed to provide high-speed WLAN in a similar way to IEEE

802.11 but aimed to meet specific European regulatory requirements.

 The goal was to offer high data rates and support multimedia applications

with better quality of service (QoS) compared to early Wi-Fi standards.

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Key Objectives of HiperLAN
1. High Data Rates: Designed to provide higher data rates than early IEEE 802.11
standards (Wi-Fi), especially in multimedia and real-time communication.
2. Quality of Service (QoS): Providing a guaranteed level of service to
applications requiring consistent bandwidth & low latency (like voice & video).
3. European Focus: Developed to comply with European regulatory requirements,
distinguishing it from IEEE 802.11, which was more globally focused.
4. Alternative to Wi-Fi: At the time of its development, HiperLAN was seen as a
competitor to early Wi-Fi standards, although it never achieved widespread
adoption outside of Europe.
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HiperLAN Standards and Evolution
 HiperLAN standards evolved in multiple phases, each addressing different
aspects of WLAN, from basic communication to high data rates for multimedia
applications.
1. HiperLAN/1 (1996)
 It was the first version of the HiperLAN standard, published by ETSI in 1996.
 Frequency: Operates in the 5 GHz frequency band, similar to IEEE 802.11a.
 Data Rate: Supports data rates up to 23.5 Mbps, significantly higher than
IEEE 802.11b (11 Mbps), which was common at the time.
 Range: Offers a range of up to 50 meters indoors and up to 200 meters
outdoors, depending on the environment and obstacles.
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 Modulation: Uses Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK), a digital modulation
scheme that helps achieve high data rates and efficiency in signal transmission.
Key Features:
 Dynamic Frequency Selection (DFS): HiperLAN/1 can select the least congested
frequency channel to avoid interference from other devices.
 Priority Levels: Allows applications to assign priority levels to data, ensuring that
critical applications (e.g., voice or video) are transmitted with higher priority.
 Self-Organizing Network: Supports a distributed, ad-hoc architecture, where devices
can communicate directly without the need for an access point.
 Error Correction: Implements robust error correction mechanisms to enhance
communication reliability.
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Advantages of HiperLAN/1:
 Higher data rates compared to early Wi-Fi standards.
 Prioritization of traffic, making it suitable for multimedia & real-time
applications.
 European regulatory compliance.
Limitations of HiperLAN/1:
 Complexity in implementation.
 Lack of widespread hardware support.
 Competition with the globally accepted IEEE 802.11 standards, which
became dominant over time.
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2. HiperLAN/2 (2000)
 HiperLAN/2 was introduced in 2000, aiming to further increase data rates and
improve the QoS for multimedia and real-time applications.
 It was designed as a more direct competitor to IEEE 802.11a and was focused
on both home and business environments.
 Frequency: Operates in the 5 GHz band, like HiperLAN/1 and 802.11a.
 Data Rate: Supports data rates up to 54 Mbps, comparable to 802.11a,
providing faster speeds than HiperLAN/1 and early Wi-Fi standards.
 Modulation: Uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM), which
divides the data into multiple narrowband signals for transmission.
 OFDM is more resilient (resistant) to interference and signal fading.
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 Quality of Service (QoS):
 HiperLAN/2 introduced strong QoS features, allowing different types of traffic
(e.g., voice, video, and textual data) to be prioritized.
 Ensured real-time applications like voice and video streaming received
consistent bandwidth with low latency.
 Network Architecture:
 Centralized Control: Unlike HiperLAN/1, which supported an ad-hoc structure,
 HiperLAN/2 typically operated in a centralized manner using access points.
 Connection-Oriented Communication: Uses a connection-oriented protocol
for better control of communication sessions, which helped ensure reliability
and QoS for multimedia traffic.
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 Security:
 Introduced strong encryption and authentication mechanisms to protect the
network from unauthorized access and eavesdropping, making it suitable for
enterprise environments.
 Included support for IP, ATM, and Ethernet services, making it versatile in
integrating with different network technologies.

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Advantages of HiperLAN/2:
 High data rates (up to 54 Mbps) made it competitive with 802.11a.
 Strong support for QoS, making it ideal for multimedia and voice-over-IP (VoIP)
applications.
 High security through encryption and authentication.
 Interoperability with different types of networks (ATM, IP, Ethernet).
Limitations of HiperLAN/2:
 While it offered comparable speeds and features to Wi-Fi, it didn’t gain widespread
adoption due to:
 Lack of widespread hardware support.
 Market dominance of IEEE 802.11 standards, particularly in the U.S. and global
markets.
 The centralized control model was more complex to implement compared to the
simpler Wi-Fi architectures. 39
HiperLAN vs IEEE 802.11 Standards
1. Performance:
 HiperLAN/1 offered higher data rates than 802.11b (11 Mbps), but lower than
newer standards like 802.11g or 802.11n.
 HiperLAN/2 provided similar data rates to 802.11a (up to 54 Mbps) and focused
heavily on quality of service (QoS), making it more suitable for multimedia
applications.
2. Frequency Band:
 Both HiperLAN and 802.11a operate in the 5 GHz band, which offers less
interference than the 2.4 GHz band but has shorter range due to higher
frequency attenuation.
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3. QoS:
 HiperLAN/2 provided better QoS support than early Wi-Fi standards, allowing
for the prioritization of time-sensitive traffic like video and voice calls.
 Later Wi-Fi standards (e.g., 802.11e, 802.11n, and 802.11ac) introduced similar
QoS features, narrowing the gap.
4. Adoption:
 The IEEE 802.11 family, particularly 802.11b, g, and n, became the global
standard for WLANs.
 HiperLAN, despite its advanced features, did not achieve the same level of
adoption, mainly due to market momentum behind Wi-Fi, lack of support from
hardware manufacturers, and regulatory d\ces b\n regions.
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Applications of HiperLAN
1. Multimedia Streaming:
 With its focus on QoS, HiperLAN/2 was ideal for streaming high-definition video
and audio content, ensuring smooth, uninterrupted playback.
2. Voice-over-IP (VoIP):
 HiperLAN’s ability to prioritize traffic ensured low-latency voice communication,
making it suitable for VoIP applications in both homes and businesses.
3. Enterprise Networks:
 Due to its strong security and QoS features, HiperLAN was particularly useful in
corporate environments requiring high performance and secure communications.
4. Wireless Broadband:
 HiperLAN/2 was considered a potential solution for wireless broadband connectivity,
especially in European markets, where regulatory environments favored it over IEEE
802.11.
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Challenges and Decline of HiperLAN

1. Market Competition: HiperLAN faced significant competition from the more

widely adopted IEEE 802.11 standards, which gained a global foothold due to
strong industry support and hardware availability.
2. Complexity: The more complex nature of HiperLAN/2’s architecture and QoS
management made it harder and more expensive to implement compared to simpler
Wi-Fi standards.
3. Regulatory Constraints: HiperLAN was primarily designed for the European
market, limiting its global appeal. The IEEE 802.11 family, on the other hand, had
broader international regulatory support.
4. Hardware & Ecosystem: The lack of mass-market hardware (e.g., routers, access
points, and client devices) supporting HiperLAN hindered its adoption, while Wi-
Fi benefited from a growing ecosystem of products.
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4.4 WPAN (Wireless Personal Area Networks)
 A WPAN is a type of wireless network designed to connect devices within a
small, personal space.
 WPANs cover a range of up to 10 meters and focus on enabling communication
b\n personal devices like smartphones, laptops, tablets, & peripherals such as
wireless keyboards, headphones, and smartwatches.
Key Focus:
 WPANs are primarily concerned with short-range communication, low-power
consumption, & seamless connectivity b\n devices in a user’s immediate
vicinity.
 These networks are ideal for personal devices that need to communicate without
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Key Characteristics of WPANs
1. Short-Range Communication:
 WPANs typically cover distances ranging from a few centimeters to 10 meters.
 The short-range nature allows WPANs to operate with low power consumption,
making them suitable for battery-operated devices.
2. Low Power Consumption:
 Devices in a WPAN typically consume very little power, which extends the
battery life of portable devices.
 Power-saving mechanisms, such as sleep modes, are commonly implemented
to optimize energy efficiency.

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3. Personal Space Communication:
 WPANs connect devices in a limited geographic area, such as around a person’s
body or within a room.
 Devices may include smartphones, laptops, headsets, fitness trackers, & smart
home gadgets like lights and thermostats.
4. Peer-to-Peer Connectivity:
 WPAN devices often communicate directly with each other without needing a
central network infrastructure, allowing for ad-hoc and peer-to-peer networking.
 Examples include Bluetooth file transfers b\n smartphones or wireless mouse
and keyboard connections.

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5. Low Data Rates:
 WPANs are designed for short-range communication, so the data rates are
usually lower compared to WLANs (Wireless Local Area Networks).
 Data transmission in WPANs may range from a few kilobits per second (e.g.,
for sensor data) to a few megabits per second (e.g., for multimedia transfer).
6. Interference Management:
 Since WPANs operate in unlicensed spectrum bands (such as 2.4 GHz), they
can be subject to interference from other devices like Wi-Fi routers and
microwaves.
 Protocols like frequency hopping or spread spectrum techniques are used to
minimize interference.
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WPAN Technologies
 Several wireless communication standards and technologies are used to implement
WPANs.
 Each technology is designed with different goals, such as power efficiency, data rate, or
ease of connectivity.
 The most commonly used WPAN technologies include:
A. Bluetooth
 Bluetooth is one of the most widely used WPAN technologies, originally developed in
the late 1990s by Ericsson.
 It is primarily designed for short-range communication b\n personal devices.
 Frequency Band: Operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM band (industrial, scientific, and
medical).
 Data Rates: Bluetooth comes in different versions, with data rates ranging from 1 Mbps
(Bluetooth 1.0) to 50 Mbps (Bluetooth 5.0). 48
Range: have a range of 10 meters, but certain versions (Bluetooth 5.0) can extend the
range to 100 meters under optimal conditions.
Applications:
 Wireless headsets, speakers, and keyboards.
 File transfers between devices (smartphones, tablets, laptops).
 IoT applications in smart homes, wearables, & health devices.
Versions:
 Bluetooth Classic: Focuses on higher data rates and device pairing for audio, file
sharing, and peripheral connections.
 Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE): Introduced in Bluetooth 4.0, BLE focuses on low
power consumption, making it ideal for IoT devices, fitness trackers, and other
small gadgets.

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B. ZigBee
 It is a WPAN technology designed for low-power, low-data-rate applications,
especially for IoT and industrial automation.
 Frequency Band: Operates in the 2.4 GHz (worldwide) and 868/915 MHz
(Europe and the U.S.) bands.
 Data Rates: Supports data rates of up to 250 kbps, making it suitable for low-
data-rate applications such as sensor networks.
 Range: Zigbee devices typically have a range of 10-100 meters, depending on
the environment and obstacles.

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 Applications:
 Smart home devices (e.g., smart lights, thermostats).
 Industrial automation and control systems.
 Environmental monitoring, health monitoring, and agricultural applications.
 Advantages:
 Mesh Networking: Zigbee supports mesh networking, allowing devices to
act as relays for each other, extending the network’s range.
 Low Power Consumption: Designed to operate for long periods on small
batteries, making it ideal for devices like sensors and smart home gadgets.

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4.5 IEEE 802.15 (WPAN) Standards
 The IEEE 802.15 Working Group develops standards for Wireless Personal
Area Networks (WPANs), focusing on short-range wireless communications.
 WPANs are designed to connect personal devices within close proximity, such
as mobile phones, & wearables over short distances (< 10 meters).
 The goal of these standards is to ensure low power consumption, ease of use,
and robust communication b\n devices.
 The IEEE 802.15 family covers various standards, each designed for specific
use cases and requirements, such as low-power communication, high data
rates, and specific operating frequencies.
 These standards include widely used technologies like Bluetooth, and Zigbee.
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 IEEE 802.15 includes several subgroups and standards, each addressing
different WPAN communication technologies and their associated use cases.
 The most prominent standards include:
 IEEE 802.15.1: Bluetooth (Basic Rate/Enhanced Data Rate).
 IEEE 802.15.4: Low-Rate WPAN (Zigbee).
 IEEE 802.15.3: High-Rate WPAN (Multimedia Applications).
 IEEE 802.15.6: Body Area Networks (BANs).
 IEEE 802.15.7: Visible Light Communication (VLC)

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Conclusion
❑ The IEEE 802.15 WPAN standards provide a wide range of solutions for short-
range, low-power wireless communication, each tailored to specific applications
and use cases.
 Technologies like Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15.1), Zigbee (IEEE 802.15.4), and
emerging technologies like Body Area Networks (IEEE 802.15.6) and Visible
Light Communication (IEEE 802.15.7) are integral to the rapidly growing
Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystem.
❑ Understanding the unique characteristics and applications of these standards is
essential for the design and deployment of modern wireless communication
systems.
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4.6 Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) and Zigbee
 Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are networks of spatially distributed
autonomous sensors that monitor physical or environmental conditions, such
as temperature, sound, pressure, etc., and cooperatively transmit their data
through the network to a central location.

Key Components:
 Sensor Nodes: Small, low-power devices capable of sensing environmental
conditions, processing data, and transmitting it wirelessly.
 Sink Node/Gateway: Collects data from the sensor nodes and routes it to an
external network or storage system for analysis.
 Communication Medium: Wireless communication technologies like Wi-Fi,
Zigbee, Bluetooth, or others.
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Characteristics of WSNs:
 Scalability: Supports a large number of nodes.
 Energy-Efficient: Nodes are typically battery-powered, so energy
conservation is critical.
 Autonomy: Nodes can operate unattended for long periods.
 Self-Healing: Can adapt to node failures or environmental changes (e.g.,
routing around dead nodes).
 Low Data Rates: Suitable for applications with periodic or event-driven
data transmissions.

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Applications of WSNs:
 Environmental Monitoring: Sensing conditions like temperature, humidity, and
air quality in forests, oceans, or cities.
 Healthcare: Patient monitoring through wearable sensors.
 Industrial Automation: Monitoring machinery, structural health, or energy
consumption.
 Smart Cities: Traffic management, street lighting control, waste management...
 Agriculture: Precision farming with soil moisture sensors, crop monitoring, etc.

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Architecture of Wireless Sensor Networks
1. Sensing Unit: Composed of a sensor and an analog-to-digital converter (ADC)
for capturing and digitizing physical phenomena.
2. Processing Unit: Includes a microcontroller or microprocessor for local data
processing.
3. Transceiver: For wireless communication between nodes and the base station.
4. Power Unit: Battery or energy harvesting system to power the sensor node.
5. Optional Components:
 Location Finding System: For localization of the sensor nodes.
 Mobility System: Enables nodes to move if necessary.
 Power Generator: Energy harvesting techniques such as solar power.
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Zigbee Protocol in WSN
 Zigbee is a low-power, low-data-rate wireless communication protocol
based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard.

 It is widely used in WSNs for applications that require low power

consumption and long battery life

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Key Features of Zigbee:
 Low Power Consumption: Ideal for battery-powered sensor nodes.
 Low Data Rate: Typically supports data rates of 20 to 250 kbps, suitable for
sensor data transmission.
 Short Range: Operates typically within a range of 10 to 100 meters.
 Mesh Networking: Supports mesh, star, and tree topologies, allowing for
multi-hop communication and increased network robustness.
 Security: Provides 128-bit AES encryption for secure communication.
 Scalability: Can support up to 65,000 nodes in a network.

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Zigbee Architecture:
1. Physical Layer (PHY): Based on IEEE 802.15.4, handles modulation,
demodulation, and wireless transmission over ISM bands (2.4 GHz, 868 MHz,
915 MHz).
2. MAC Layer: Manages access to the shared communication medium, frame
control, and addressing.
3. Network Layer: Responsible for network formation, routing, and maintaining
connections between devices.
4. Application Layer: Defines application-specific commands and handles device
management.

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Types of Zigbee Devices:
1. Coordinator: The central node that initializes and manages the network,
typically connected to external networks (e.g., the internet).
2. Router: Intermediate node that relays data between devices and extends
network coverage.
3. End Device: Low-power device that collects data and communicates with
a router or coordinator.

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Zigbee Vs. Other Wireless Protocols

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Conclusion
 Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are essential for many applications, from
environmental monitoring to industrial automation, and Zigbee is a key
protocol used in these networks.
 Its low power consumption, flexibility in topologies, and scalability make it
ideal for large-scale, low-data-rate communication systems.
 However, understanding the challenges, such as energy efficiency and range
limitations, is crucial for designing and deploying effective WSNs.

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