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EIGRP Characteristics
Objectives
After completing this course, students will be able to
 Explain the features and characteristics of EIGRP.
• Describe the basic features of EIGRP.
• Describe the types of packets used to establish and maintain an EIGRP neighbor
adjacency.
• Describe the encapsulation of an EIGRP messages.
 Implement EIGRP for IPv4 in a small to medium-sized business network.
• Configure EIGRP for IPv4 in a small routed network.
• Verify EIGRP for IPv4 operation in a small routed network.
 Explain how EIGRP operates in a small to medium-sized business network.
• Explain how EIGRP forms neighbor relationships.
• Explain the metrics used by EIGRP.
• Explain how DUAL operates and uses the topology table.
• Describe events that trigger EIGRP updates.
Introduction
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) is an advanced
distance vector routing protocol developed by Cisco Systems. As the name
suggests, EIGRP is an enhancement of another Cisco routing protocol IGRP
(Interior Gateway Routing Protocol). IGRP is an older classful, distance
vector routing protocol, now obsolete since IOS 12.3.

EIGRP includes features found in link-state routing protocols. EIGRP is suited

for many different topologies and media. In a well-designed network, EIGRP
can scale to include multiple topologies and can provide extremely quick
convergence times with minimal network traffic.

This chapter introduces EIGRP and provides basic configuration commands

to enable it on a Cisco IOS router. It also explores the operation of the routing
protocol and provides more detail on how EIGRP determines best path.

Features of EIGRP

EIGRP was initially released in 1992 as a proprietary protocol available only on Cisco
devices. However, in 2013, Cisco released a basic functionality of EIGRP as an open standard
to the IETF, as an informational RFC. This means that other networking vendors can now
implement EIGRP on their equipment to interoperate with both Cisco and non-Cisco routers
running EIGRP. However, advanced features of EIGRP, such as EIGRP stub, needed for the
Dynamic Multipoint Virtual Private Network (DMVPN) deployment, will not be released to
the IETF. As an informational RFC, Cisco will continue to maintain control of EIGRP.

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EIGRP includes features of both link-state and distance vector routing protocols. However,
EIGRP is still based on the key distance vector routing protocol principle, in which
information about the rest of the network is learned from directly connected neighbors.
EIGRP is an advanced distance vector routing protocol that includes features not found in
other distance vector routing protocols like RIP and IGRP.
In Cisco IOS Release 15.0(1)M, Cisco introduced a new EIGRP configuration option
called named EIGRP. Named EIGRP enables the configuration of EIGRP for both IPv4 and
IPv6 under a single configuration mode. This helps eliminate configuration complexity that
occurs when configuring EIGRP for both IPv4 and IPv6. Named EIGRP is beyond the scope of
this course.
Features of EIGRP include:
 Diffusing Update Algorithm - As the computational engine that drives EIGRP, the
Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) resides at the center of the routing protocol. DUAL
guarantees loop-free and backup paths throughout the routing domain. Using DUAL,
EIGRP stores all available backup routes for destinations so that it can quickly adapt to
alternate routes when necessary.
 Establishing Neighbor Adjacencies - EIGRP establishes relationships with directly
connected routers that are also enabled for EIGRP. Neighbor adjacencies are used to
track the status of these neighbors.
 Reliable Transport Protocol - The Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP) is unique to
EIGRP and provides delivery of EIGRP packets to neighbors. RTP and the tracking of
neighbor adjacencies set the stage for DUAL.
 Partial and Bounded Updates - EIGRP uses the terms partial and bounded when
referring to its updates. Unlike RIP, EIGRP does not send periodic updates and route
entries do not age out. The term partial means that the update only includes information
about the route changes, such as a new link or a link becoming unavailable. The term
bounded refers to the propagation of partial updates that are sent only to those routers
that the changes affect. This minimizes the bandwidth that is required to send EIGRP
updates.
 Equal and Unequal Cost Load Balancing - EIGRP supports equal cost load balancing
and unequal cost load balancing, which allows administrators to better distribute traffic
flow in their networks.
Note: The term “hybrid routing” protocol may be used in some older documentation to
define EIGRP. However, this term is misleading because EIGRP is not a hybrid between
distance vector and link-state routing protocols. EIGRP is solely a distance vector routing
protocol; therefore, Cisco no longer uses this term to refer to it.
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Figure 7.1 Types Routing Protocols

Protocol Dependent Modules
EIGRP has the capability for routing different protocols, including IPv4 and IPv6. EIGRP does
so by using protocol-dependent modules (PDMs). PDMs were also used to support the now
obsolete Novell IPX and Apple Computer’s AppleTalk network layer protocols.
PDMs are responsible for network layer protocol-specific tasks. An example is the EIGRP
module that is responsible for sending and receiving EIGRP packets that are encapsulated in
IPv4. This module is also responsible for parsing EIGRP packets and informing DUAL of the
new information that is received. EIGRP asks DUAL to make routing decisions, but the results
are stored in the IPv4 routing table.
PDMs are responsible for the specific routing tasks for each network layer protocol,
including:
 Maintaining the neighbor and topology tables of EIGRP routers that belong to that
protocol suite
 Building and translating protocol-specific packets for DUAL
 Interfacing DUAL to the protocol-specific routing table
 Computing the metric and passing this information to DUAL
 Implementing filtering and access lists
 Performing redistribution functions to and from other routing protocols
 Redistributing routes that are learned by other routing protocols
When a router discovers a new neighbor, it records the neighbor’s address and interface as
an entry in the neighbor table. One neighbor table exists for each protocol-dependent
module, such as IPv4. EIGRP also maintains a topology table. The topology table contains all
destinations that are advertised by neighboring routers. There is also a separate topology
table for each PDM.

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Figure 7.2 EIGRP Protocol-Dependent Modules(PDMs)

Reliable Transport Protocol
EIGRP was designed as a network layer independent routing protocol. Because of this design,
EIGRP cannot use the services of UDP or TCP. Instead, EIGRP uses the Reliable Transport
Protocol (RTP) for the delivery and reception of EIGRP packets. This allows EIGRP to be
flexible and can be used for protocols other than those from the TCP/IP protocol suite, such
as the now obsolete IPX and AppleTalk protocols.
The figure conceptually shows how RTP operates.

Figure 7.3 EIGRP Replaces TCP with RTP

Although “reliable” is part of its name, RTP includes both reliable delivery and unreliable
delivery of EIGRP packets, similar to TCP and UDP, respectively. Reliable RTP requires an
acknowledgment to be returned by the receiver to the sender. An unreliable RTP packet does
not require an acknowledgment. For example, an EIGRP update packet is sent reliably over
RTP and requires an acknowledgment. An EIGRP Hello packet is also sent over RTP, but
unreliably. This means that EIGRP Hello packets do not require an acknowledgment.
RTP can send EIGRP packets as unicast or multicast.
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 Multicast EIGRP packets for IPv4 use the reserved IPv4 multicast address 224.0.0.10.
 Multicast EIGRP packets for IPv6 are sent to the reserved IPv6 multicast address
FF02::A.

Authentication

Figure 7.3 Authentication

Like other routing protocols, EIGRP can be configured for authentication. RIPv2, EIGRP,
OSPF, IS-IS, and BGP can each be configured to authenticate their routing information.

It is a good practice to authenticate transmitted routing information. Doing so ensures that

routers only accept routing information from other routers that have been configured with
the same password or authentication information.

Note: Authentication does not encrypt the EIGRP routing updates.

EIGRP Packet Types

EIGRP uses five different packet types, some in pairs. EIGRP packets are sent using either
RTP reliable or unreliable delivery and can be sent as a unicast, multicast, or sometimes both.
EIGRP packet types are also called EIGRP packet formats or EIGRP messages.
As shown in Figure 7.4, the five EIGRP packet types include:

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Figure 7.4 EIGRP Packet Types

Hello packets - Used for neighbor discovery and to maintain neighbor adjacencies.
 Sent with unreliable delivery
 Multicast (on most network types)
Update packets - Propagates routing information to EIGRP neighbors.
 Sent with reliable delivery
 Unicast or multicast
Acknowledgment packets - Used to acknowledge the receipt of an EIGRP message that was
sent using reliable delivery.
 Sent with unreliable delivery
 Unicast
Query packets - Used to query routes from neighbors.
 Sent with reliable delivery
 Unicast or multicast
Reply packets - Sent in response to an EIGRP query.
 Sent with reliable delivery
 Unicast
Figure 7.5 shows that EIGRP messages are typically encapsulated in IPv4 or IPv6 packets.
EIGRP for IPv4 messages use IPv4 as the network layer protocol. The IPv4 protocol field uses
88 to indicate the data portion of the packet is an EIGRP for IPv4 message. EIGRP for IPv6
messages are encapsulated in IPv6 packets using the next header field of 88. Similar to the
protocol field for IPv4, the IPv6 next header field indicates the type of data carried in the
IPv6 packet.
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Figure 7.5 EIGRP Messages are Sent Over IP

EIGRP Hello Packets

EIGRP uses small Hello packets to discover other EIGRP-enabled routers on directly
connected links. Hello packets are used by routers to form EIGRP neighbor adjacencies, also
known as neighbor relationships.

Figure 7.5 Default Hello Intervals and Hold Times for EIGRP

EIGRP Hello packets are sent as IPv4 or IPv6 multicasts, and use RTP unreliable delivery.
This means that the receiver does not reply with an acknowledgment packet.

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 The reserved EIGRP multicast address for IPv4 is 224.0.0.10.

 The reserved EIGRP multicast address for IPv6 is FF02::A.
EIGRP routers discover neighbors and establish adjacencies with neighbor routers using the
Hello packet. On most modern networks, EIGRP Hello packets are sent as multicast packets
every five seconds. However, on multipoint, non-broadcast multiple access (NBMA)
networks with access links of T1 (1.544 Mb/s) or slower, Hello packets are sent as unicast
packets every 60 seconds.

Note: NBMA networks using slower interfaces include legacy X.25, Frame Relay, and
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM).

EIGRP also uses Hello packets to maintain established adjacencies. An EIGRP router assumes
that as long as it receives Hello packets from a neighbor, the neighbor and its routes remain
viable.

EIGRP uses a Hold timer to determine the maximum time the router should wait to receive
the next Hello before declaring that neighbor as unreachable. By default, the hold time is
three times the Hello interval, or 15 seconds on most networks and 180 seconds on low-
speed NBMA networks. If the hold time expires, EIGRP declares the route as down and DUAL
searches for a new path by sending out queries.

EIGRP Update and Acknowledgment Packets

EIGRP Update Packets
EIGRP sends Update packets to propagate routing information. Update packets are sent only
when necessary. EIGRP updates contain only the routing information needed and are sent
only to those routers that require it.
Unlike the older distance vector routing protocol RIP, EIGRP does not send periodic updates
and route entries do not age out. Instead, EIGRP sends incremental updates only when the
state of a destination changes. This may include when a new network becomes available, an
existing network becomes unavailable, or a change occurs in the routing metric for an
existing network.
EIGRP uses the terms partial update and bounded update when referring to its updates. A
partial update means that the update only includes information about route changes. A
bounded update refers to the sending of partial updates only to the routers that are affected
by the changes. Bounded updates help EIGRP minimize the bandwidth that is required to
send EIGRP updates.
EIGRP Update packets use reliable delivery, which means the sending router requires an
acknowledgment. Update packets are sent as a multicast when required by multiple routers,
or as a unicast when required by only a single router. In the figure, the updates are sent as
unicasts because the links are point-to-point.
EIGRP Acknowledgment Packets
EIGRP sends Acknowledgment (ACK) packets when reliable delivery is used. An EIGRP
acknowledgment is an EIGRP Hello packet without any data. RTP uses reliable delivery for
Update, Query, and Reply packets. EIGRP Acknowledgment packets are always sent as an
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unreliable unicast. Unreliable delivery makes sense; otherwise, there would be an endless
loop of acknowledgments.

Figure 7.6 EIGRP Update and Acknowledgement Mesages

In the figure, R2 has lost connectivity to the LAN attached to its Gigabit Ethernet interface.
R2 immediately sends an update to R1 and R3 noting the downed route. R1 and R3 respond
with an acknowledgment to let R2 know that they have received the update.
Note: Some documentation refers to the Hello and acknowledgment as a single type of EIGRP
packet.
EIGRP Query and Reply Packets
EIGRP Query Packets

DUAL uses Query and Reply packets when searching for networks and other tasks. Queries
and replies use reliable delivery. Queries can use multicast or unicast, whereas replies are
always sent as unicast.

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Figure 7.7 EIGRP Query and Reply Messages

In the figure, R2 has lost connectivity to the LAN and it sends out queries to all EIGRP
neighbors searching for any possible routes to the LAN. Because queries use reliable
delivery, the receiving router must return an EIGRP acknowledgment. The acknowledgment
informs the sender of the query that it has received the query message. To keep this example
simple, acknowledgments were omitted in the graphic.

EIGRP Reply Packets

All neighbors must send a reply, regardless of whether or not they have a route to the
downed network. Because replies also use reliable delivery, routers, such as R2, must send
an acknowledgment.

It may not be obvious why R2 would send out a query for a network it knows is down.
Actually, only R2’s interface that is attached to the network is down. Another router could be
attached to the same LAN and have an alternate path to this same network. Therefore, R2
queries for such a router before completely removing the network from its topology table.

Encapsulating EIGRP Messages

The data portion of an EIGRP message is encapsulated in a packet. This data field is called
type, length, value (TLV). The types of TLVs relevant to this course are EIGRP parameters, IP
internal routes, and IP external routes.

The EIGRP packet header is included with every EIGRP packet, regardless of its type. The
EIGRP packet header and TLV are then encapsulated in an IPv4 packet. In the IPv4 packet
header, the protocol field is set to 88 to indicate EIGRP, and the IPv4 destination address is
set to the multicast 224.0.0.10. If the EIGRP packet is encapsulated in an Ethernet frame, the
destination MAC address is also a multicast address, 01-00-5E-00-00-0A.

Figures 7.8 to 7.11 show the Data Link Ethernet Frame. EIGRP for IPv4 is encapsulated in an
IPv4 packet. EIGRP for IPv6 would use a similar type of encapsulation. EIGRP for IPv6 is
encapsulated using an IPv6 header. The IPv6 destination address would be the multicast
address FF02::A and the next header field would be set to 88.
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Figure 7.8 Data Link Ethernet Frame Header

Figure 7.9 Data Link Ethernet Frame Header

Figure 7.10 EIGRP Packet Header

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Figure 7.11 TVL Types

EIGRP Packet Header and TLV

Every EIGRP message includes the header, as shown in Figure 7.12. Important fields
include the Opcode field and the Autonomous System Number field. Opcode specifies the
EIGRP packet type as follows:

Figure 7.12 EIGRP Packet Header

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 Update
 Query
 Reply
 Hello
The autonomous system number specifies the EIGRP routing process. Unlike RIP, multiple
instances of EIGRP can run on a network. The autonomous system number is used to track
each running EIGRP process.
Figure 7.13 shows the EIGRP parameters TLV. The EIGRP parameters message includes the
weights that EIGRP uses for its composite metric. By default, only bandwidth and delay are
weighted. Both are weighted equally; therefore, the K1 field for bandwidth and the K3 field
for delay are both set to one (1). The other K values are set to zero (0).
The Hold Time is the amount of time the EIGRP neighbor receiving this message should
wait before considering the advertising router to be down.

Figure 7.13 EIGRP TLV: EIGRP Parameters

Figure 7.14 shows the IP Internal Routes TLV. The IP internal message is used to advertise
EIGRP routes within an autonomous system. Important fields include the metric fields
(delay and bandwidth), the subnet mask field (prefix length), and the destination field.

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Figure 7.14 EIGRP TLV: Internal Routes

Delay is calculated as the sum of delays from source to destination in units of 10

microseconds. Bandwidth is the lowest configured bandwidth of any interface along the
route.
The subnet mask is specified as the prefix length or the number of network bits in the subnet
mask. For example, the prefix length for the subnet mask 255.255.255.0 is 24, because 24 is
the number of network bits.
The Destination field stores the address of the destination network. Although only 24 bits
are shown in this figure, this field varies based on the value of the network portion of the 32-
bit network address. For example, the network portion of 10.1.0.0/16 is 10.1; therefore, the
Destination field stores the first 16 bits. Because the minimum length of this field is 24 bits,
the remainder of the field is padded with zeros. If a network address is longer than 24 bits
(192.168.1.32/27, for example), then the Destination field is extended for another 32 bits
(for a total of 56 bits) and the unused bits are padded with zeros.
Figure 7.15 shows the IP External Routes TLV. The IP external message is used when external
routes are imported into the EIGRP routing process. In this chapter, we will import or
redistribute a default static route into EIGRP. Notice that the bottom half of the IP External
Routes TLV includes all the fields used by the IP Internal TLV.
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Figure 7.14 EIGRP TLV: External Routes

Note: The maximum transmission unit (MTU) is not a metric used by EIGRP. The MTU is
included in the routing updates, but it is not used to determine the routing metric.
Implement EIGRP for IPv4
EIGRP Network Topology
Figure 7.14 displays the topology that is used in this chapter to configure EIGRP for IPv4.

Figure 7.14 EIGRP for IPv4 Topology

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The routers in the topology have a starting configuration that includes addresses on the
interfaces. There is currently no static routing or dynamic routing configured on any of the
routers.
Figures 7.15 to 7. 17 display the interface configurations for the three EIGRP routers in the
topology. Only routers R1, R2, and R3 are part of the EIGRP routing domain. The ISP router
is used as the routing domain’s gateway to the Internet.

Figure 7.15 Interface Configuration for R1

Figure 7.16 Interface Configuration for R2

Figure 7.17 Interface Configuration for R3

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Autonomous System Numbers

EIGRP uses the router eigrp autonomous-system command to enable the EIGRP process.
The autonomous system number referred to in the EIGRP configuration is not associated
with the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) globally assigned autonomous system
numbers used by external routing protocols.
So what is the difference between the IANA globally assigned autonomous system number
and the EIGRP autonomous system number?
An IANA globally assigned autonomous system is a collection of networks under the
administrative control of a single entity that presents a common routing policy to the
Internet. In the figure, companies A, B, C, and D are all under the administrative control of
ISP1. ISP1 presents a common routing policy for all of these companies when advertising
routes to ISP2.
The guidelines for the creation, selection, and registration of an autonomous system are
described in RFC 1930. Global autonomous system numbers are assigned by IANA, the same
authority that assigns IP address space. The local regional Internet registry (RIR) is
responsible for assigning an autonomous system number to an entity from its block of
assigned autonomous system numbers. Prior to 2007, assigned autonomous system
numbers were 16-bit numbers ranging from 0 to 65,535. Today, 32-bit autonomous system
numbers are assigned thereby increasing the number of available autonomous system
numbers to over 4 billion.
Usually, only Internet Service Providers (ISPs), Internet backbone providers, and large
institutions connecting to other entities require an autonomous system number. These ISPs
and large institutions use the exterior gateway routing protocol, Border Gateway Protocol
(BGP), to propagate routing information. BGP is the only routing protocol that uses an actual
autonomous system number in its configuration.
The vast majority of companies and institutions with IP networks do not need an
autonomous system number, because they are controlled by a larger entity, such as an ISP.
These companies use interior gateway protocols, such as RIP, EIGRP, OSPF, and IS-IS to route
packets within their own networks. They are one of many independent and separate
networks within the autonomous system of the ISP. The ISP is responsible for the routing of
packets within its autonomous system and between other autonomous systems.
The autonomous system number used for EIGRP configuration is only significant to the
EIGRP routing domain. It functions as a process ID to help routers keep track of multiple
running instances of EIGRP. This is required because it is possible to have more than one
instance of EIGRP running on a network. Each instance of EIGRP can be configured to support
and exchange routing updates for different networks.

The router eigrp Command

The Cisco IOS includes the processes to enable and configure several different types of
dynamic routing protocols. The router global configuration mode command is used to begin
the configuration of any dynamic routing protocol. The topology shown in Figure 7.18 is
used to demonstrate this command.

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Figure 7.18 EIGRP for IPv4 Topology

As shown in Figure 7.19, when followed by a question mark (?), the router global
configuration mode command lists of all the available routing protocols supported by this
specific IOS release running on the router.
The following global configuration mode command is used to enter the router configuration
mode for EIGRP and begin the configuration of the EIGRP process:
Router(config)# router eigrp autonomous-system
The autonomous-system argument can be assigned to any 16-bit value between the number
1 and 65,535. All routers within the EIGRP routing domain must use the same autonomous
system number.

Figure 7.19 Router Configuration Command

Figure 7.20 shows the configuration of the EIGRP process on routers R1, R2, and R3. Notice
that the prompt changes from a global configuration mode prompt to router configuration
mode.
In this example, 1 identifies this particular EIGRP process running on this router. To
establish neighbor adjacencies, EIGRP requires all routers in the same routing domain to be
configured with the same autonomous system number. In Figure 3, that same EIGRP is
enabled on all three routers using the same autonomous system number of 1.
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Figure 7.20 Router Configuration Command on R1, R2 and R3

Note: EIGRP and OSPF can support multiple instances of the routing protocol. However, this
multiple routing protocol implementation is not usually needed or recommended.
The router eigrp autonomous-system command does not start the EIGRP process itself. The
router does not start sending updates. Rather, this command only provides access to
configure the EIGRP settings.
To completely remove the EIGRP routing process from a device, use the no router
eigrp autonomous-system global configuration mode command, which stops the EIGRP
process and removes all existing EIGRP router configurations.

EIGRP Router ID
The EIGRP router ID is used to uniquely identify each router in the EIGRP routing domain.
The router ID is used in both EIGRP and OSPF routing protocols. However, the role of the
router ID is more significant in OSPF. In EIGRP IPv4 implementations, the use of the router
ID is not that apparent. EIGRP for IPv4 uses the 32-bit router ID to identify the originating
router for redistribution of external routes. The need for a router ID becomes more evident
in the discussion of EIGRP for IPv6. While the router ID is necessary for redistribution, the
details of EIGRP redistribution are beyond the scope of this curriculum. For purposes of this
curriculum, it is only necessary to understand what the router ID is and how it is determined.
To determine its router ID, a Cisco IOS router will use the following three criteria in order:

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1. Use the address configured with the eigrp router-id ipv4-address router configuration
mode command.
2. If the router ID is not configured, choose the highest IPv4 address of any of its loopback
interfaces.
3. If no loopback interfaces are configured, choose the highest active IPv4 address of any of
its physical interfaces.
If the network administrator does not explicitly configure a router ID using the eigrp router-
id command, EIGRP generates its own router ID using either a loopback or physical IPv4
address. A loopback address is a virtual interface and is automatically in the up state when
configured. The interface does not need to be enabled for EIGRP, meaning that it does not
need to be included in one of the EIGRP network commands. However, the interface must
be in the up/up state.
Using the criteria described above, the figure 7.21 shows the default EIGRP router IDs that
are determined by the routers’ highest active IPv4 address.

Figure 7.21 Topology with Default EIGRP Router IDs

Note: The eigrp router-id command is used to configure the router ID for EIGRP. Some
versions of IOS will accept the command router-id, without first specifying eigrp. The
running-config, however, will display eigrp router-id regardless of which command is used.

Configuring the EIGRP Router ID

The eigrp router-id ipv4-address router configuration command is the preferred method
used to configure the EIGRP router ID. This method takes precedence over any configured
loopback or physical interface IPv4 addresses.
Note: The IPv4 address used to indicate the router ID is actually any 32-bit number displayed
in dotted-decimal notation.
The ipv4-address router ID can be configured with any IPv4 address except 0.0.0.0 and
255.255.255.255. The router ID should be a unique 32-bit number in the EIGRP routing
domain; otherwise, routing inconsistencies can occur.
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Figure 7.22 shows the configuration of the EIGRP router ID for routers R1 and R2.

Figure 7.22 Configuring the Router Id on R1 nd R2

If a router ID is not explicitly configured, then the router would use its highest IPv4 address
configured on a loopback interface. The advantage of using a loopback interface is that unlike
physical interfaces, loopbacks cannot fail. There are no actual cables or adjacent devices on
which the loopback interface depends for being in the up state. Therefore, using a loopback
address for the router ID can provide a more consistent router ID than using an interface
address.
If the eigrp router-id command is not used and loopback interfaces are configured, EIGRP
chooses the highest IPv4 address of any of its loopback interfaces. The following commands
are used to enable and configure a loopback interface:
Router(config)# interface loopback number
Router(config-if)# ip address ipv4-address subnet-mask
Verifying the EIGRP Process
Figure 7.23 shows the show ip protocols output for R1, including its router ID. The show ip
protocols command displays the parameters and current state of any active routing
protocol processes, including both EIGRP and OSPF. The show ip protocols command
displays different types of output specific to each routing protocol.

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Figure 7.23 Verifying Router ID on R1

The network Command

EIGRP router configuration mode allows for the configuration of the EIGRP routing protocol.
Figure 7.24 shows that R1, R2, and R3 all have networks that should be included within a
single EIGRP routing domain. To enable EIGRP routing on an interface, use
the network ipv4-network-address router configuration mode command. The ipv4-network-
address is the classful network address for each directly connected network.
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Figure 7.24 EIGRP for IPv4 Topology

The network command has the same function as in all IGP routing protocols.
The network command in EIGRP:

 Enables any interface on this router that matches the network address in
the network router configuration mode command to send and receive EIGRP updates.

 The network of the interfaces is included in EIGRP routing updates.

Figure 7.25 shows the network commands required to configure EIGRP on R1. In the figure,
a single classful network statement, network 172.16.0.0, is used on R1 to include both
interfaces in subnets 172.16.1.0/24 and 172.16.3.0/30. Notice that only the classful network
address is used.

Figure 7.25 EIGRP Network Commands for R1

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Figure 7.26 shows the network command used to enable EIGRP on R2’s interfaces for
subnets 172.16.1.0/24 and 172.16.2.0/24. When EIGRP is configured on R2’s S0/0/0
interface, DUAL sends a notification message to the console stating that a neighbor adjacency
with another EIGRP router on that interface has been established. This new adjacency
happens automatically because both R1 and R2 use the same autonomous system number
(i.e., 1), and both routers now send updates on their interfaces in the 172.16.0.0 network.

Figure 7.26 EIGRP Network Commands for R2

DUAL automatically generates the notification message because the eigrp log-neighbor-
changes router configuration mode command is enabled by default. Specifically, the
command helps verify neighbor adjacencies during configuration of EIGRP and displays any
changes in EIGRP neighbor adjacencies, such as when an EIGRP adjacency has been added
or removed.

The network Command and Wildcard Mask

By default, when using the network command and an IPv4 network address, such as
172.16.0.0, all interfaces on the router that belong to that classful network address are
enabled for EIGRP. However, there may be times when the network administrator does not
want to include all interfaces within a network when enabling EIGRP. For example, in Figure
7.27, assume that an administrator wants to enable EIGRP on R2, but only for the subnet
192.168.10.8 255.255.255.252, on the S0/0/1 interface.
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Figure 7.27 EIGRP Network Commands for R2

To configure EIGRP to advertise specific subnets only, use the wildcard-mask option with the
network command:
Router(config-router)# network network-address [wildcard-mask]
A wildcard mask is similar to the inverse of a subnet mask. In a subnet mask, binary 1s are
significant while binary 0s are not. In a wildcard mask, binary 0s are significant, while binary
1s are not. For example, the inverse of subnet mask 255.255.255.252 is 0.0.0.3.
Calculating a wildcard mask may seem daunting at first but it’s actually pretty easy to do. To
calculate the inverse of the subnet mask, subtract the subnet mask from 255.255.255.255 as
follows:
255.255.255.255
- 255.255.255.252
---------------
0. 0. 0. 3 Wildcard mask
Figure 2.28 continues the EIGRP network configuration of R2. The network 192.168.10.8
0.0.0.3 command specifically enables EIGRP on the S0/0/1 interface, a member of the
192.168.10.8 255.255.255.252 subnet.

Figure 7.28 The network Command and Wildcard Mask

Configuring a wildcard mask is the official command syntax of the
EIGRP network command. However, the Cisco IOS versions also accepts a subnet mask to be
used instead. For example, Figure 3 configures the same S0/0/1 interface on R2, but this

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time using a subnet mask in the network command. Notice in the output of the show
running-config command, the IOS converted the subnet mask command to its wildcard
mask.
Passive Interface
As soon as a new interface is enabled within the EIGRP network, EIGRP attempts to form a
neighbor adjacency with any neighboring routers to send and receive EIGRP updates.
At times it may be necessary, or advantageous, to include a directly connected network in
the EIGRP routing update, but not allow any neighbor adjacencies off of that interface to
form. The passive-interface command can be used to prevent the neighbor adjacencies.
There are two primary reasons for enabling the passive-interface command:

 To suppress unnecessary update traffic, such as when an interface is a LAN interface,

with no other routers connected
 To increase security controls, such as preventing unknown rogue routing devices from
receiving EIGRP updates
Figure 7.29 shows R1, R2, and R3 do not have neighbors on their GigabitEthernet 0/0
interfaces.

Figure 7.29 EIGRP for IPv4 Topology

The passive-interface router configuration mode command disables the transmission and
receipt of EIGRP Hello packets on these interfaces.
Router(config)# router eigrp as-number
Router(config-router)# passive-interface interface-type interface-number
Figure 2.30 shows the passive-interface command configured to suppress Hello packets on
the LANs for R1 and R3. R2 is configured using the Syntax Checker.
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Figure 7.30 Configuring Passive Interfaces with EIGRP for IPv4

Without a neighbor adjacency, EIGRP cannot exchange routes with a neighbor. Therefore,
the passive-interface command prevents the exchange of routes on the interface. Although
EIGRP does not send or receive routing updates on an interface configured with the passive-
interface command, it still includes the address of the interface in routing updates sent out
of other non-passive interfaces.
Note: To configure all interfaces as passive, use the passive-interface default command. To
disable an interface as passive, use the no passive-interface interface-type interface-
number command.
An example of using the passive interface to increase security controls is when a network
must connect to a third-party organization, for which the local administrator has no control,
such as when connecting to an ISP network. In this case, the local network administrator
would need to advertise the interface link through their own network, but would not want
the third-party organization to receive or send routing updates to the local routing device,
as this is a security risk.
Verifying the Passive Interface
To verify whether any interface on a router is configured as passive, use the show ip
protocols privileged EXEC mode command, as shown in Figure 7.31. Notice that although
R3’s GigabitEthernet 0/0 interface is a passive interface, EIGRP still includes the interface’s
network address of 192.168.1.0 in its routing updates.

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Figure 7.31 Configuring Passive Interfaces with EIGRP for IPv4

Verifying EIGRP: Examining Neighbors

Before EIGRP can send or receive any updates, routers must establish adjacencies with their neighbors.
EIGRP routers establish adjacencies with neighbor routers by exchanging EIGRP Hello packets.
Use the show ip eigrp neighbors command to view the neighbor table and verify that EIGRP has
established an adjacency with its neighbors. For each router, you should be able to see the IPv4 address of
the adjacent router and the interface that this router uses to reach that EIGRP neighbor. Using this topology,
each router has two neighbors listed in the neighbor table.
The column headers in the show ip eigrp neighbors command output identify the following:
 H - Lists the neighbors in the order that they were learned.
 Address - IPv4 address of the neighbor.
 Interface - Local interface on which this Hello packet was received.
 Hold - Current hold time. When a Hello packet is received, this value is reset to the maximum hold
time for that interface, and then counts down to zero. If zero is reached, the neighbor is considered
down.
 Uptime - Amount of time since this neighbor was added to the neighbor table.
 Smooth Round Trip Timer (SRTT) and Retransmission Timeout (RTO) - Used by RTP to manage
reliable EIGRP packets.
 Queue Count - Should always be zero. If more than zero, then EIGRP packets wait to be sent.
 Sequence Number - Used to track updates, queries, and reply packets.
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Figure 7.32 Show ip eigrp neighbors Command

The show ip eigrp neighbors command is very useful for verifying and troubleshooting EIGRP.
If a neighbor is not listed after adjacencies have been established with a router’s neighbors, check the local
interface to ensure it is activated with the show ip interface brief command. If the interface is active, try
to ping the IPv4 address of the neighbor. If the ping fails, it means that the neighbor interface is down and
must be activated. If the ping is successful and EIGRP still does not see the router as a neighbor, examine
the following configurations:
 Are both routers configured with the same EIGRP autonomous system number?
 Is the directly connected network included in the EIGRP network statements?

Verifying EIGRP: show ip protocols Command

The show ip protocols command is useful to identify the parameters and other information about the
current state of any active IPv4 routing protocol processes configured on the router. The show ip
protocols command displays different types of output specific to each routing protocol.
The output in Figure 7.33 indicates several EIGRP parameters, including:

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Figure 7.33 Show ip protocols command

1. EIGRP is an active dynamic routing protocol on R1 configured with the autonomous system number 1.
2. The EIGRP router ID of R1 is 1.1.1.1.
3. The EIGRP administrative distances on R1 are internal AD of 90 and external of 170 (default values).
4. By default, EIGRP does not automatically summarize networks. Subnets are included in the routing
updates.
5. The EIGRP neighbor adjacencies R1 has with other routers used to receive EIGRP routing updates.
Note: Prior to IOS 15, EIGRP automatic summarization was enabled by default.
The output from the show ip protocols command is useful in debugging routing operations. Information
in the Routing Information Sources field can help identify a router suspected of delivering bad routing
information. The field lists all the EIGRP routing sources the Cisco IOS software uses to build its IPv4
routing table. For each source, note the following:
 IPv4 address
 Administrative distance
 Time the last update was received from this source
As shown in Figure 7.34, EIGRP has a default AD of 90 for internal routes and 170 for routes imported from
an external source, such as default routes. When compared to other IGPs, EIGRP is the most preferred by
the Cisco IOS, because it has the lowest administrative distance. EIGRP has a third AD value of 5, for
summary routes.

Figure 7.34 Default Administrative Distances

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Verifying EIGRP: Examine the IPv4 routing table

Another way to verify that EIGRP and other functions of the router are configured properly
is to examine the IPv4 routing tables with the show ip route command. As with any dynamic
routing protocol, the network administrator must verify the information in the routing table
to ensure that it is populated as expected, based on configurations entered. For this reason,
it is important to have a good understanding of the routing protocol configuration
commands, as well as the routing protocol operations and the processes used by the routing
protocol to build the IP routing table.

Notice that the outputs used throughout this course are from Cisco IOS 15. Prior to IOS 15,
EIGRP automatic summarization was enabled by default. The state of automatic
summarization can make a difference in the information displayed in the IPv4 routing table.
If a previous version of the IOS is used, automatic summarization can be disabled using
the no auto-summary router configuration mode command:

Router(config-router)# no auto-summary

Figure 7.35 shows the topology for R1, R2, and R3.

Figure 7.35 EIGRP for IPv4 Topology

In Figure 7.36, the IPv4 routing table is examined using the show ip route command. EIGRP
routes are denoted in the routing table with a D. The letter D was used to represent EIGRP
because the protocol is based upon the DUAL algorithm.
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Figure 7.36 R1’s IPv4 Routing Table

The show ip route command verifies that routes received by EIGRP neighbors are installed
in the IPv4 routing table. The show ip route command displays the entire routing table,
including remote networks learned dynamically, directly connected and static routes. For
this reason, it is normally the first command used to check for convergence. After routing is
correctly configured on all routers, the show ip route command reflects that each router has
a full routing table, with a route to each network in the topology.

Notice that R1 has installed routes to three IPv4 remote networks in its IPv4 routing table:

 172.16.2.0/24 network, received from router R2 on the Serial0/0/0 interface

 192.168.1.0/24 network, received from router R2 on the Serial0/0/1 interface
 192.168.10.8/30 network, received from both R2 on the Serial0/0/0 interface, and from
R3 on the Serial0/0/1 interface

R1 has two paths to the 192.168.10.8/30 network, because its cost or metric to reach that
network is the same or equal using both routers. These are known as equal cost routes. R1
uses both paths to reach this network, which is known as load balancing. The EIGRP metric
is discussed later in this chapter.

Figure 7.37 displays the routing table for R2. Notice similar results are displayed including
an equal cost route for the 192.168.10.4/30 network.
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Figure 7.37 R2’s IPv4 Routing Table

Figure 7.38 displays the routing table for R3. Similar to the results for R1 and R2, remote
networks are learned using EIGRP, including an equal cost route for the 172.16.3.0/30
network.

Figure 7.38 R2’s IPv4 Routing Table

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EIGRP Operation
EIGRP Neighbor Adjacency
The goal of any dynamic routing protocol is to learn about remote networks from other
routers and to reach convergence in the routing domain. Before any EIGRP update packets
can be exchanged between routers, EIGRP must first discover its neighbors. EIGRP neighbors
are other routers running EIGRP on directly connected networks.

EIGRP uses Hello packets to establish and maintain neighbor adjacencies. For two EIGRP
routers to become neighbors, several parameters between the two routers must match. For
example, two EIGRP routers must use the same EIGRP metric parameters and both must be
configured using the same autonomous system number.

Each EIGRP router maintains a neighbor table, which contains a list of routers on shared
links that have an EIGRP adjacency with this router. The neighbor table is used to track the
status of these EIGRP neighbors.

The figure 7.39 shows two EIGRP routers exchanging initial EIGRP Hello packets. When an
EIGRP enabled router receives a Hello packet on an interface, it adds that router to its
neighbor table.

Figure 7.39 Discovering Neighbors

1. A new router (R1) comes up on the link and sends an EIGRP Hello packet through all of its
EIGRP-configured interfaces.

2. Router R2 receives the Hello packet on an EIGRP-enabled interface. R2 replies with an

EIGRP update packet that contains all the routes it has in its routing table, except those
learned through that interface (split horizon). However, the neighbor adjacency is not
established until R2 also sends an EIGRP Hello packet to R1.

3. After both routers have exchanged Hellos, the neighbor adjacency is established. R1 and
R2 update their EIGRP neighbor tables adding the adjacent router as a neighbor.
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EIGRP Topology Table

EIGRP updates contain networks that are reachable from the router sending the update. As
EIGRP updates are exchanged between neighbors, the receiving router adds these entries to
its EIGRP topology table.

Each EIGRP router maintains a topology table for each routed protocol configured, such as
IPv4 and IPv6. The topology table includes route entries for every destination that the router
learns from its directly connected EIGRP neighbors.

The figure 7.40 shows the continuation of the initial route discovery process from the
previous page. It now shows the update of the topology table.

Figure 7.40 Exchanging Routing Updates

When a router receives an EIGRP routing update, it adds the routing information to its EIGRP
topology table and replies with an EIGRP acknowledgment.

1. R1 receives the EIGRP update from neighbor R2 that includes information about the routes
that the neighbor is advertising, including the metric to each destination. R1 adds all update
entries to its topology table. The topology table includes all destinations advertised by
neighboring (adjacent) routers and the cost (metric) to reach each network.

2. EIGRP update packets use reliable delivery; therefore, R1 replies with an EIGRP
acknowledgment packet informing R2 that it has received the update.
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3. R1 sends an EIGRP update to R2 advertising the routes that it is aware of, except those
learned from R2 (split horizon).

4. R2 receives the EIGRP update from neighbor R1 and adds this information to its own
topology table.

5. R2 responds to R1’s EIGRP update packet with an EIGRP acknowledgment.

EIGRP Convergence

Figure 7.41 Exchanging Routing Updates

The figure 7.41 illustrates the final steps of the initial route discovery process.

1. After receiving the EIGRP update packets from R2, using the information in the topology
table, R1 updates its IP routing table with the best path to each destination, including the
metric and the next-hop router.
2. Similar to R1, R2 updates its IP routing table with the best path routes to each network.
At this point, EIGRP on both routers is considered to be in the converged state.

EIGRP Composite Metric

By default, EIGRP uses the following values in its composite metric to calculate the preferred
path to a network:
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 Bandwidth - The slowest bandwidth among all of the outgoing interfaces, along the
path from source to destination.
 Delay - The cumulative (sum) of all interface delay along the path (in tens of
microseconds).
The following values can be used, but are not recommended, because they typically result in
frequent recalculation of the topology table:
 Reliability - Represents the worst reliability between the source and destination, which
is based on keepalives.
 Load - Represents the worst load on a link between the source and destination, which
is computed based on the packet rate and the configured bandwidth of the interface.
Note: Although the MTU is included in the routing table updates, it is not a routing metric
used by EIGRP.

The Composite Metric

Figure 7.42 shows the composite metric formula used by EIGRP. The formula consists of
values K1 to K5, known as EIGRP metric weights. K1 and K3 represent bandwidth and delay,
respectively. K2 represents load, and K4 and K5 represent reliability. By default, K1 and K3
are set to 1, and K2, K4, and K5 are set to 0. The result is that only the bandwidth and delay
values are used in the computation of the default composite metric. EIGRP for IPv4 and
EIGRP for IPv6 use the same formula for the composite metric.

Figure 7.42 EIGRP Composite

The metric calculation method (k values) and the EIGRP autonomous system number must
match between EIGRP neighbors. If they do not match, the routers do not form an adjacency.
The default k values can be changed with the metric weights router configuration mode
command:
Router(config-router)# metric weights tos k1 k2 k3 k4 k5

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Note: Modifying the metric weights value is generally not recommended and beyond the
scope of this course. However, its relevance is important in establishing neighbor
adjacencies. If one router has modified the metric weights and another router has not, an
adjacency does not form.
Verifying the k Values
The show ip protocols command is used to verify the k values. The command output for R1
is shown in Figure 7.43. Notice that the k values on R1 are set to the default.

Figure 7.43 Verifying Metric K Values

Examining Interface Metric Values

The show interfaces command displays interface information, including the parameters
used to compute the EIGRP metric. The figure shows the show interfaces command for the
Serial 0/0/0 interface on R1.

 BW - Bandwidth of the interface (in kilobits per second).

 DLY - Delay of the interface (in microseconds).
 Reliability - Reliability of the interface as a fraction of 255 (255/255 is 100%
reliability), calculated as an exponential average over five minutes. By default, EIGRP
does not include its value in computing its metric.
 Txload, Rxload - Transmit and receive load on the interface as a fraction of 255
(255/255 is completely saturated), calculated as an exponential average over five
minutes. By default, EIGRP does not include its value in computing its metric.
Note: Throughout this course, bandwidth is referenced as kb/s. However, router output
displays bandwidth using the Kbit/sec abbreviation. Router output also displays delay as
usec. In this course, delay is referenced as microseconds.
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Figure 7.44 show interfaces command

Bandwidth Metric
The bandwidth metric is a static value used by some routing protocols, such as EIGRP and
OSPF, to calculate their routing metric. The bandwidth is displayed in kilobits per second
(kb/s).

On older routers, the serial link bandwidth metric defaults to 1544 kb/s. This is the
bandwidth of a T1 connection. On newer routers, such as the Cisco 4321, serial link
bandwidth defaults to the clock rate used on the link. The serial links in topology in Figure
7.45 have been configured with the bandwidths that will be used in this section.

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Figure 7.45 show interfaces command

Note: The bandwidths used in this topology were chosen to help explain the calculation of
the routing protocol metrics and the process of best path selection. These bandwidth values
do not reflect the more common types of connections found in today’s networks.

Always verify bandwidth with the show interfaces command. The default value of the
bandwidth may or may not reflect the actual physical bandwidth of the interface. If actual
bandwidth of the link differs from the default bandwidth value, the bandwidth value should
be modified.

Configuring the Bandwidth Parameter

Because both EIGRP and OSPF use bandwidth in default metric calculations, a correct value
for bandwidth is very important to the accuracy of routing information.

Use the following interface configuration mode command to modify the bandwidth metric:

Router(config-if)# bandwidth kilobits-bandwidth-value

Use the no bandwidth command to restore the default value.

In Figure 7.46, the link between R1 and R2 has a bandwidth of 64 kb/s, and the link between
R2 and R3 has a bandwidth of 1,024 kb/s. The figure shows the configurations used on all
three routers to modify the bandwidth on the appropriate serial interfaces. Modify the
bandwidth metric on both sides of the link to ensure proper routing in both directions.
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Figure 7.46 Configuring the Bandwidth Value on R1, R2 and R3

Verifying the Bandwidth Parameter

Use the show interfaces command to verify the new bandwidth parameters, as shown in
Figure 7.47.

Figure 7.47 Configuring the Bandwidth Value on R1, R2 and R3

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Modifying the bandwidth value does not change the actual bandwidth of the link.
The bandwidth command only modifies the bandwidth metric used by routing protocols,
such as EIGRP and OSPF.

Delay Metric

Delay is the measure of the time it takes for a packet to traverse a route. The delay (DLY)
metric is a static value based on the type of link to which the interface is connected and is
expressed in microseconds. Delay is not measured dynamically. In other words, the router
does not actually track how long packets take to reach the destination. The delay value, much
like the bandwidth value, is a default value that can be changed by the network
administrator.

When used to determine the EIGRP metric, delay is the cumulative (sum) of all interface
delays along the path (measured in tens of microseconds).

The table in Figure 7.48 shows the default delay values for various interfaces. Notice that the
default value is 20,000 microseconds for serial interfaces and 10 microseconds for
GigabitEthernet interfaces.

Figure 7.48 Interface Delay Values

Use the show interfaces command to verify the delay value on an interface, as shown in
Figure 7.49. Although an interface with various bandwidths can have the same delay value,
by default, Cisco recommends not modifying the delay parameter, unless the network
administrator has a specific reason to do so.

Figure 7.49 Verifying the Delay Value

How to Calculate the EIGRP Metric
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Although EIGRP automatically calculates the routing table metric used to choose the best
path, it is important that the network administrator understands how these metrics were
determined.
The figure 7.50 shows the composite metric used by EIGRP. Using the default values for K1
and K3, the calculation can be simplified to the slowest bandwidth (or minimum
bandwidth), plus the sum of all of the delays.

Figure 7.50 EIGRP Metric Calculation

In other words, by examining the bandwidth and delay values for all of the outgoing
interfaces of the route, we can determine the EIGRP metric as follows:
Step 1. Determine the link with the slowest bandwidth. Use that value to calculate
bandwidth (10,000,000/bandwidth).
Step 2. Determine the delay value for each outgoing interface on the way to the destination.
Add the delay values and divide by 10 (sum of delay/10).
Step 3. This composite metric produces a 24-bit value; however, EIGRP uses a 32-bit value.
Multiplying the 24-bit value with 256 extends the composite metric into 32 bits. Therefore,
add the computed values for bandwidth and delay, and multiply the sum by 256 to obtain
the EIGRP metric.
The routing table output for R2 shows that the route to 192.168.1.0/24 has an EIGRP
metric of 3,012,096.

Calculating the EIGRP Metric

Figure 7.51 displays the three router topology. This example illustrates how EIGRP
determines the metric displayed in R2’s routing table for the 192.168.1.0/24 network.

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Figure 7.51 EIGRP for IPv4 Topology

Bandwidth
EIGRP uses the slowest bandwidth in its metric calculation. The slowest bandwidth can be
determined by examining each interface between R2 and the destination network
192.168.1.0. The Serial 0/0/1 interface on R2 has a bandwidth of 1,024 kb/s. The
GigabitEthernet 0/0 interface on R3 has a bandwidth of 1,000,000 kb/s. Therefore, the
slowest bandwidth is 1,024 kb/s and is used in the calculation of the metric.
EIGRP divides a reference bandwidth value of 10,000,000 by the interface bandwidth value
in kb/s. This results in higher bandwidth values receiving a lower metric and lower
bandwidth values receiving a higher metric. 10,000,000 is divided by 1,024. If the result is
not a whole number, then the value is rounded down. In this case, 10,000,000 divided by
1,024 equals 9,765.625. The .625 is dropped to yield 9,765 for the bandwidth portion of the
composite metric, as shown in Figure 7.52.

Figure 7.52 EIGRP for IPv4 Topology

Delay

The same outgoing interfaces are used to determine the delay value, as shown in Figure 7.53.
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EIGRP uses the sum of all delays to the destination. The Serial 0/0/1 interface on R2 has a
delay of 20,000 microseconds. The Gigabit 0/0 interface on R3 has a delay of 10
microseconds. The sum of these delays is divided by 10. In the example, (20,000+10)/10
results in a value of 2,001 for the delay portion of the composite metric.

Figure 7.53 Examining the Delay Values

Calculate Metric
Use the calculated values for bandwidth and delay in the metric formula. This results in a
metric of 3,012,096, as shown in Figure 7.54. This value matches the value shown in the
routing table for R2.

Figure 7.54 Verifying the EIGRP Metric

DUAL Concepts
EIGRP uses the Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) to provide the best loop-free path and
loop-free backup paths.
DUAL uses several terms, which are discussed in more detail throughout this section:
 Successor

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 Feasible Distance (FD)

 Feasible Successor (FS)
 Reported Distance (RD) or Advertised Distance (AD)
 Feasible Condition or Feasibility Condition (FC)
These terms and concepts are at the center of the loop avoidance mechanism of DUAL.

Figure 7.55 DUAL Concepts

Introduction to DUAL
EIGRP uses the DUAL convergence algorithm. Convergence is critical to a network to avoid
routing loops.

Routing loops, even temporary ones, can be detrimental to network performance. Distance
vector routing protocols, such as RIP, prevent routing loops with hold-down timers and split
horizon. Although EIGRP uses both of these techniques, it uses them somewhat differently;
the primary way that EIGRP prevents routing loops is with the DUAL algorithm.

The DUAL algorithm is used to obtain loop-freedom at every instance throughout a route
computation. This allows all routers involved in a topology change to synchronize at the
same time. Routers that are not affected by the topology changes are not involved in the
recomputation. This method provides EIGRP with faster convergence times than other
distance vector routing protocols.

The decision process for all route computations is done by the DUAL Finite State Machine
(FSM). An FSM is a workflow model, similar to a flow chart, which is composed of the
following:

 A finite number of stages (states)

 Transitions between those stages
 Operations
The DUAL FSM tracks all routes and uses EIGRP metrics to select efficient, loop-free paths,
and to identify the routes with the least-cost path to be inserted into the routing table.

Recomputation of the DUAL algorithm can be processor-intensive. EIGRP avoids

recomputation whenever possible by maintaining a list of backup routes that DUAL has
already determined to be loop-free. If the primary route in the routing table fails, the best
backup route is immediately added to the routing table.
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Successor and Feasible Distance

Figure 7.56 shows the topology for this topic. A successor is a neighboring router that is used
for packet forwarding and is the least-cost route to the destination network. The IP address
of a successor is shown in a routing table entry right after the word via.

Figure 7.56 EIGRP for IPv4 Topology

FD is the lowest calculated metric to reach the destination network. FD is the metric listed in
the routing table entry as the second number inside the brackets. As with other routing
protocols, this is also known as the metric for the route.
Examining the routing table for R2 in Figure 7.57, notice that EIGRP’s best path for the
192.168.1.0/24 network is through router R3, and that the feasible distance is 3,012,096.
This is the metric that was calculated in the previous topic.

Figure 7.57 Feasible Distance and the Successor

Feasible Successors, Feasibility Condition, and Reported Distance
DUAL can converge quickly after a change in the topology because it can use backup paths to
other networks without recomputing DUAL. These backup paths are known as Feasible
Successors (FSs).

An FS is a neighbor that has a loop-free backup path to the same network as the successor,
and it satisfies the Feasibility Condition (FC). R2’s successor for the 192.168.1.0/24 network

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is R3, providing the best path or lowest metric to the destination network. Notice in Figure
7.58, that R1 provides an alternative path, but is it an FS? Before R1 can be an FS for R2, R1
must first meet the FC.

Figure 7.58 EIGRP for IPv4 Topology

The FC is met when a neighbor’s Reported Distance (RD) to a network is less than the local
router’s feasible distance to the same destination network. If the reported distance is less, it
represents a loop-free path. The reported distance is simply an EIGRP neighbor’s feasible
distance to the same destination network. The reported distance is the metric that a router
reports to a neighbor about its own cost to that network.

In Figure 7.59, R1’s feasible distance to 192.168.1.0/24 is 2,170,112.

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Figure 7.59 Sending the Reported Distance

 R1 reports to R2 that its FD to 192.168.1.0/24 is 2,170,112.

 From R2’s perspective, 2,170,112 is R1’s RD.
R2 uses this information to determine if R1 meets the FC and, therefore, can be an FS.
As shown in Figure 7.60, because the RD of R1 (2,170,112) is less than R2’s own FD
(3,012,096), R1 meets the FC.

Figure 7.60 Does It Meet the Feasibility Condition?

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R1 is now an FS for R2 to the 192.168.1.0/24 network.

If there is a failure in R2’s path to 192.168.1.0/24 via R3 (successor), then R2 immediately
installs the path via R1 (FS) in its routing table. R1 becomes the new successor for R2’s path
to this network, as shown in Figure 7.61.

Figure 7.61 Using the Feasible Successor

Topology Table: show ip eigrp topology Command

Figure 7.62 EIGRP for IPv4 Topology

igure 1 shows the topology.
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The EIGRP topology table contains all of the routes that are known to each EIGRP neighbor.
As an EIGRP router learns routes from its neighbors, those routes are installed in its EIGRP
topology table.

As shown in Figure 7.63, use the show ip eigrp topology command to view the topology
table. The topology table lists all successors and FSs that DUAL has calculated to destination
networks. Only the successor is installed into the IP routing table.

Figure 7.63 R2’s Topology Table

Topology Table: show ip eigrp topology Command (Cont.)

As shown in Figure 7.64, the first line in the topology table displays:

Figure 7.64 Examining an Entry in the Topology Table Part 1

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 P - Route in the passive state. When DUAL is not performing its diffusing computations
to determine a path for a network, the route is in a stable mode, known as the passive
state. If DUAL recalculates or searches for a new path, the route is in an active state and
displays an A. All routes in the topology table should be in the passive state for a stable
routing domain.
 192.168.1.0/24 - Destination network that is also found in the routing table.
 1 successors - Displays the number of successors for this network. If there are multiple
equal cost paths to this network, there are multiple successors.
 FD is 3012096 - FD, the EIGRP metric to reach the destination network. This is the
metric displayed in the IP routing table.

As shown in Figure 7.65, the first subentry in the output shows the successor:

Figure 7.65 Examining an Entry in the Topology Table Part 2

 via 192.168.10.10 - Next-hop address of the successor, R3. This address is shown in
the routing table.
 3012096 - FD to 192.168.1.0/24. It is the metric shown in the IP routing table.
 2816 - RD of the successor and is R3’s cost to reach this network.
 Serial 0/0/1 - Outbound interface used to reach this network, also shown in the routing
table.
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As shown in Figure 7.66, the second subentry shows the FS, R1 (if there is not a second entry,
then there are no FSs):
 via 172.16.3.1 - Next-hop address of the FS, R1.
 41024256 - R2’s new FD to 192.168.1.0/24, if R1 became the new successor and would
be the new metric displayed in the IP routing table.
 2170112 - RD of the FS, or R1’s metric to reach this network. RD must be less than the
current FD of 3,012,096 to meet the FC.
 Serial 0/0/0 - This is the outbound interface used to reach FS, if this router becomes
the successor.

Figure 7.65 Examining an Entry in the Topology Table Part 3

Topology Table: No Feasible Successor

To see how DUAL uses successors and FSs, examine the routing table of R1, assuming the
network is converged, as shown in Figure 7.66.

Figure 7.66 EIGRP for IPv4 Topology

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Figure 7.67 displays a partial output from the show ip route command on R1. The route to
192.168.1.0/24 shows that the successor is R3 via 192.168.10.6 with an FD of 2,170,112.

Figure 7.67 R1’s Routing Table Entry for 192.168.1.0/24

The IP routing table only includes the best path, the successor. To see if there are any FSs,
we must examine the EIGRP topology table. The topology table in Figure 7.68 only shows the
successor 192.168.10.6, which is R3. There are no FSs. By looking at the actual physical
topology or network diagram, it is obvious that there is a backup route to 192.168.1.0/24
through R2. R2 is not an FS because it does not meet the FC. Although, looking at the topology,
it is obvious that R2 is a backup route, EIGRP does not have a map of the network topology.
EIGRP is a distance vector routing protocol and only knows about remote network
information through its neighbors.

Figure 7.68 R1’s Topology Table Entry for 192.168.1.0/24

DUAL does not store the route through R2 in the topology table. All links can be displayed
using the show ip eigrp topology all-links command. This command displays links
whether they satisfy the FC or not.

As shown in Figure 7.69, the show ip eigrp topology all-links command shows all possible
paths to a network, including successors, FSs, and even those routes that are not FSs. R1’s FD
to 192.168.1.0/24 is 2,170,112 via the successor R3. For R2 to be considered a FS, it must
meet the FC. R2’s RD to R1 to reach 192.168.1.0/24 must be less the R1’s current FD. Per the
figure, R2’s RD is 3,012,096, which is higher than R1’s current FD of 2,170,112.
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Figure 7.69 R1’s All-links Topology Table Entry for 192.168.1.0/24

Even though R2 looks like a viable backup path to 192.168.1.0/24, R1 has no idea that the
path is not a potential loop back through itself. EIGRP is a distance vector routing protocol,
without the ability to see a complete, loop-free topological map of the network. DUAL’s
method of guaranteeing that a neighbor has a loop-free path is that the neighbor’s metric
must satisfy the FC. By ensuring that the RD of the neighbor is less than its own FD, the router
can assume that this neighboring router is not part of its own advertised route; thus, always
avoiding the potential for a loop.

R2 can be used as a successor if R3 fails; however, there is a longer delay before adding it to
the routing table. Before R2 can be used as a successor, DUAL must do further processing.

DUAL Finite State Machine (FSM)

Figure 7.70 DUAL Finite State Machine (FSM)

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The centerpiece of EIGRP is DUAL and its EIGRP route-calculation engine. The actual name
of this technology is DUAL Finite State Machine (FSM). This FSM contains all of the logic used
to calculate and compare routes in an EIGRP network. The figure shows a simplified version
of the DUAL FSM.
An FSM is an abstract machine, not a mechanical device with moving parts. FSMs define a set
of possible states that something can go through, what events cause those states, and what
events result from those states. Designers use FSMs to describe how a device, computer
program, or routing algorithm reacts to a set of input events.
FSMs are beyond the scope of this course. However, the concept is used to examine some of
the output from EIGRP’s FSM using the debug eigrp fsm command. Use this command to
examine what DUAL does when a route is removed from the routing table.

DUAL: Feasible Successor

R2 is currently using R3 as the successor to 192.168.1.0/24. In addition, R2 currently lists

R1 as an FS, as shown in Figure 7.71.

Figure 7.71 EIGRP for IPv4 Topology

The show ip eigrp topology output for R2 in Figure 7.72 verifies that R3 is the successor
and R1 is the FS for the 192.168.1.0/24 network. To understand how DUAL can use a FS
when the path using the successor is no longer available, a link failure is simulated between
R2 and R3.
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Figure 7.72 R2’s Topology Table Entry for 192.168.1.0/24

Before simulating the failure, DUAL debugging must be enabled using the debug eigrp
fsm command on R2, as shown in Figure 7.73. A link failure is simulated using
the shutdown command on the Serial 0/0/1 interface on R2.

The debug output displays the activity generated by DUAL when a link goes down. R2 must
inform all EIGRP neighbors of the lost link, as well as update its own routing and topology
tables. This example only shows selected debug output. In particular, notice that the DUAL
FSM searches for and finds an FS for the route in the EIGRP topology table.

Figure 7.73 Debug FSM

The FS R1 now becomes the successor and is installed in the routing table as the new best
path to 192.168.1.0/24, as shown in Figure 7.74. With an FS, this change in the routing table
happens almost immediately.

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Figure 7.74 R2’s Routing Table Entry for 192.168.1.0/24

As shown in Figure 7.75, the topology table for R2 now shows R1 as the successor and there
are no new FSs. If the link between R2 and R3 is made active again, then R3 returns as the
successor and R1 once again becomes the FS.

Figure 7.75 R2’s Topology Table Entry for 192.168.1.0/24

DUAL: No Feasible Successor

Occasionally, the path to the successor fails and there are no FSs. In this instance, DUAL does
not have a guaranteed loop-free backup path to the network, so the path is not in the
topology table as an FS. If there are no FSs in the topology table, DUAL puts the network into
the active state. DUAL actively queries its neighbors for a new successor.

R1 is currently using R3 as the successor to 192.168.1.0/24, as shown in Figure 7.76.

However, R1 does not have R2 listed as an FS, because R2 does not satisfy the FC. To
understand how DUAL searches for a new successor when there is no FS, a link failure is
simulated between R1 and R3.
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Figure 7.76 R1’s Topology Table Entry for 192.168.1.0/24

Before the link failure is simulated, DUAL debugging is enabled with the debug eigrp
fsm command on R1, as shown in Figure 7.77. A link failure is simulated using
the shutdown command on the Serial 0/0/1 interface on R1.

Figure 7.77 Debug FSM

When the successor is no longer available and there is no feasible successor, DUAL puts the
route into an active state. DUAL sends EIGRP queries asking other routers for a path to the
network. Other routers return EIGRP replies, letting the sender of the EIGRP query know
whether or not they have a path to the requested network. If none of the EIGRP replies have
a path to this network, the sender of the query does not have a route to this network.

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The selected debug output in Figure 7.77shows the 192.168.1.0/24 network put into the
active state and EIGRP queries sent to other neighbors. R2 replies with a path to this
network, which becomes the new successor and is installed into the routing table.

If the sender of the EIGRP queries receives EIGRP replies that include a path to the requested
network, the preferred path is added as the new successor and added to the routing table.
This process takes longer than if DUAL had an FS in its topology table and was able to quickly
add the new route to the routing table. In Figure 7.78, notice that R1 has a new route to the
192.168.1.0/24 network. The new EIGRP successor is router R2.

Figure 7.78 R1’s Routing Table Entry for 192.168.1.0/24

Figure 7.79 shows that the topology table for R1 now has R2 as the successor with no new
FSs. If the link between R1 and R3 is made active again, R3 returns as the successor. However,
R2 is still not the FS, because it does not meet the FC.

Figure 7.78 R1’s Topology Table Entry for 192.168.1.0/24

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Conclusion
 EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) is a classless, distance vector routing
protocol.
 EIGRP uses the source code of "D" for DUAL in the routing table. EIGRP has a default
administrative distance of 90 for internal routes and 170 for routes imported from an
external source, such as default routes. These features include: Diffusing Update Algorithm
(DUAL), establishing neighbor adjacencies, Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP), partial and
bounded updates, and equal and unequal cost load balancing.
 EIGRP uses PDMs (Protocol Dependent Modules) giving it the capability to support different
Layer 3 protocols including IPv4 and IPv6. EIGRP uses reliable delivery for EIGRP updates,
queries and replies; and uses unreliable delivery for EIGRP Hellos and acknowledgments.
Reliable RTP means an EIGRP acknowledgment must be returned.
 Before any EIGRP updates are sent, a router must first discover its neighbors using EIGRP
Hello packets. The Hello and hold-down values do not need to match for two routers to
become neighbors. The show ip eigrp neighbors command is used to view the neighbor
table and verify that EIGRP has established an adjacency with its neighbors.
 EIGRP sends partial or bounded updates, which include only route changes. Updates are sent
only to those routers that are affected by the change. EIGRP composite metric uses
bandwidth, delay, reliability, and load to determine the best path. By default only bandwidth
and delay are used.
 At the center of EIGRP is DUAL (Diffusing Update Algorithm). The DUAL Finite State Machine
is used to determine best path and potential backup paths to every destination network. The
successor is a neighboring router that is used to forward the packet using the least-cost route
to the destination network. Feasible distance (FD) is the lowest calculated metric to reach
the destination network through the successor. A feasible successor (FS) is a neighbor who
has a loop-free backup path to the same network as the successor, and also meets the
feasibility condition. The feasibility condition (FC) is met when a neighbor's reported
distance (RD) to a network is less than the local router's feasible distance to the same
destination network. The reported distance is simply an EIGRP neighbor's feasible distance
to the destination network.
 EIGRP is configured with the router eigrp autonomous-system command. The autonomous-
system value is actually a process-id and must be the same on all routers in the EIGRP routing
domain. The network command is similar to that used with RIP. The network is the classful
network address of the directly connected interfaces on the router. A wildcard mask is an
optional parameter that can be used to include only specific interfaces.

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New Terms and Commands

• named EIGRP • type, length, value (TLV) • composite metric

• Reliable Transport • Autonomous System • Internet Assigned
Protocol Number Numbers Authority
• partial update • composite metric (IANA)
• bounded update • Internet Assigned • regional Internet
• equal cost load Numbers Authority registry (RIR)
balancing (IANA) • wildcard mask /
• unequal cost load • regional Internet inverse mask
balancing registry (RIR) • automatic
• neighbor table • loopback interface summarization
• topology table • wildcard mask / • Successor
• Update packet inverse mask • Feasible Distance (FD)
• Acknowledgement • automatic
packets summarization • Feasible Successor (FS)
• Query and Reply • Successor
packets • Feasible Distance (FD) • Reported Distance (RD)
• non-broadcast multiple
access (NBMA) • Feasible Successor (FS) • Advertised Distance
• Hello interval (AD)
• Reported Distance (RD) • Feasible Condition (FC)

• Advertised Distance • Finite State Machine

(AD) (FSM)
• passive state / active
state
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References and Supplementary Materials

Books and Journals
1. Bob Vachon and Allan Johnson; 2018; Scaling Networks v6; 800 East 96th Street
Indianapolis, IN 46240 USA; Cisco Press.
2. Todd Lammle; 2016; CCNA Routing and Switching Complete Study Guide Second
Edition; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
3. Wendell Odom; 2016; CCENT/ CCNA ICND1 100-105 Official Cert Guide; Cisco Press
800 East 96th Street Indianapolis, IN 46240 USA

Online Supplementary Reading Materials

1. CCNA Routing and Switching: Scaling Networks; www.netacad.com; Oct 1, 2019

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