English for —

Science and
Technology
Wellyee)itexc¥sle)eceyzee
Louis Trimble

CAMBRIDGE LANGUAGE TEACHING LIBRARY |

Sheffield Hallam Univer
sity
Learning and IT Servic
es
Adsetts Centre City Cam
pus
Sheffield S11wB
English for
Science and
Technology
A discourse approach

Louis Trimble
Professor Emeritus
University of Washington, Seattle

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© Cambridge University Press 1985

First published 1985

Printed in Great Britain at The Bath Press, Avon

Library of Congress catalogue card number: 85-4210

British Library cataloguing in publication data

Trimble, Louis

English for science and technology: a discourse

approach. — (Cambridge language teaching library)
1. English language — Text-books for foreign
speakers
I. Title
428.2'4'0245 PE1128

ISBN 0 521 25511 2 hard covers

ISBN 0 521 27519 9 paperback

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Contents

oh Introduction 1
1.1 A bit of background 1
1.2 Some terminology >
1.3. Howto use this book 4

Orientation 5
2.1 What EST is 5
2.2 Approach 6
2.3. Organization 8

The rhetoric of EST discourse 10

3.1. Introduction 10
3.2 Basic premises 14
3.2.1 The EST paragraph 14
3.2.2 Rhetorical techniques 18
3.2.3 Rhetorical functions 19

The individualizing process 22

4.1 Introduction ya
4.2 Individualization: a definition 23
4.3. Determining class make-up 24
4.4 Parallelism 25
4.5 Types of texts 27
4.5.1 ‘Genuine’ materials px,
4.5.2 Adapted materials 33
4.5.3 Synthesized and created materials 38
4.6 Individualizing: examples 41

The paragraphinEST 44
5.1 Introduction 44
5.2 TheEST paragraph 45
5.3. Application 51

The rhetorical techniques 52

6.1 Introduction 52
6.2 Natural patterns 54
6.2.1 Time order 54
6.2.2 Space order 57
6.2.3 Causality and result 58
Contents

6.3 Logical patterns 59

6.4 Application 65

The rhetorical functions 69

7.1 Introduction 69
7.2 The rhetoric of description ve
7.2.1 Physical description 71
7.2.2 Function description 71
7.2.3 Process description 72:
7.3 The rhetoric of definition 75
7.3.1 Formal definition 75
7.3.2 Semi-formal definition Th
7.3.3 Non-formal definition 78
7.3.4 Complex definition 81
7.4 The rhetoric of classification 85
7.4.1 Complete classification 86
7.4.2 Partial classification 89
7.4.3 Implicit classification 90
7.4.4 Classification as a process 93
7.5 The rhetori¢ of instructions 95
7.5.1 Nature of the discourse of instructions 96
7.5.2 Teaching the rhetoric of instructions 98
7.6 The rhetoric of visual—verbal relationships 102
7.6.1 Examples of types of visual—verbal relationships 103

Rhetorical—-grammatical relationships 114

8.1 Introduction 114
8.2 Passsive—stative distinctions 145
8.3. Modal use in the rhetoric of instructions 119
8.4 Problems with the definite article 121
8.5 Non-temporal use of tense 123
8.5.1 Description of apparatus 124
8.5.2 Visual aids pes)
8.5.3 Reference to previous research 126
8.5.4 Application 127

Lexical problemsin EST discourse 128

9.1 Introduction 128
9.2 Sub-technical vocabulary 128
9.3 Noun compounds 130
9.4 Application 135

10 Teaching the rhetorical process 137

10.1 Introduction 137
10.2 Course pattern 138
10.3 The rhetorical approach: preliminary remarks 141
10.4 Teaching the paragraph 142.
10.5 Teaching the rhetorical techniques 144

vi
Contents

10.6 Teaching the rhetorical functions 146

10.6.1 Description 148
10.6.2 Definition 150
10.6.3 Classification 152
Partition 153
10.6.4 Instructions 156
10.6.5 Visual—verbal relationships 158
10.7 Teaching the rhetorical-grammatical relationships 161
10.8 Teaching the lexical elements 163
10.9 Controlling writing assignments 165
10.10 Conclusion 170

Notes 171

Furtherreading = 175

Index 179

vil
Acknowledgements

The author and publishers would like to thank the following for
permission to reproduce material:

Cascade Corporation: examples 6.23 and 7.17; John Fluke

Manufacturing Co. Inc.: examples 7.11 and 7.12; Harper & Row Inc.:
examples 4.4. and 7.19; Honeywell Marine Systems Division Inc.:
example 6.9.

Vill
1 Introduction

1.1. Abit ofbackground

This book has grown out of research into the characteristics of written
scientific and technical English (EST) and out of teaching the findings of
this research to non-native students. Although over the years the majority
of students have been at university level (primarily engineering and
science undergraduates and postgraduates), work has also been carried on
with a wider range of non-native learners — from those in vocational
training and those at secondary level to those taking pre-university
preparation. —
We began our study of written EST discourse in 1967 at the University
of Washington (Seattle). In this book I use ‘we’, ‘our’, ‘us’, etc. because
from the beginning there have been at least two of us working together.
Originally, Larry Selinker' and I began teaching specialized courses for
non-native undergraduate engineering students. We very quickly realized
that before we could adequately teach the English of science and tech-
nology we had to learn something about it. Our research began with an
effort to determine the essential nature of scientific and technical English
by finding its major characteristics and where it differed (if it did) from
other forms of written English. Initially we brought in two postgraduate
students studying for their doctorates: John Lackstrom* in linguistics and
Robert Vroman? in Germanics. Later we were joined by another doctoral
candidate in linguistics, Thomas Huckin.* The results of our work during
this period can be seen from the initial entries in the last section of
‘Further reading’, pp. 176—8 below.
In 1974 Mary Todd Trimble joined Larry Selinker and me, and after his
departure she and I carried on the research and teaching together. The
most important shift in emphasis at this time was our moving away from
wholly academic EST discourse and applying the rigorous investigative
techniques we had developed to occupational English; that is, to mater-
ials for a readership ranging from vocational trainees to skilled
technicians. From the very beginning of this shift, Mary Todd Trimble
was (and remains) the force behind the application of our principles to the
several levels at which EST discourse can be researched and taught. The
‘we’, ‘us’, ‘our’, etc. thus refer to those who helped establish our approach

1
Introduction

to the field and to the still functioning team of Mary Todd Trimble and
myself.
In developing the results of our research into teachable classroom
materials, we created terms and gave special meanings to already existing
ones. For example, insofar as we have been able to determine, Larry
Selinker originated the term EST to mean ‘the written discourse of
scientific and technical English’. Before this, we had tried various abbre-
viated forms, primarily STE, but all seemed to call for additional termi-
nology: ‘written STE’, ‘STE discourse’, and so on. However, since the
term EST became part of the currency of ESL/EFL/ELT, its meaning has
broadened until now for many it means ‘the field of English for science
and technology’; thus it includes oral as well as written discourse.
An example of giving special meanings to already existing terms is the
word ‘discourse’ (already used three times above). Here ‘discourse’ means
a collection of connected language units — such as sentences and para-
graphs — that together make up a coherent, cohesive text. We began our
work on the assumption that from the point of view of use, language must
be studied beyond the level of the isolated sentence. We think, then, in
terms of units of text, with the paragraph being the most easily and
usefully analyzable such unit.
Thus, when we say that we are presenting a discourse approach to EST,
we are taking a short-cut way of saying that we are discussing the teaching
of those special characteristics of scientific and technical texts written in
English — those characteristics that make scientific and technical English
writing different from other forms of written English discourse. A word
of caution: ‘different’ here means ‘different in degree’ not ‘different in
kind’.
To sum up, in this book we use the term ‘EST’ in its earlier sense, as a
cover term for the written discourse of English for science and tech-
nology. Also, we use ‘discourse’ with the somewhat restricted meaning
given it above.
As our research gave us greater insight into the nature of scientific and
technical discourse, our teaching changed to take the new information
into account. Originally we designed the curriculum for non-native
undergraduate engineering students who were advanced both in their use
of English and in their subject matter. Later, we broadened the cur-
riculum to include any interested non-native student working in a
scientific or technical field. In the last few years of our work at the univer-
sity, native students taking advanced degrees in teaching English as a
second/foreign language (TESL) used our courses as a laboratory. They
would sit in on the discussions and workshops and tutor those students
who felt the need for special assistance. Each of these changes required us
to broaden our research to take the new needs into consideration and to
shift our teaching emphasis by broadening this as well.

2
1.2 Some terminology

When we began, we limited our research to what we have called the

‘rhetorical techniques’ and the three ‘rhetorical functions’ of definition,
classification, and description. As our teaching and research developed,
we added the rhetorical functions of instructions and visual—verbal rela-
tionships, refined our list of rhetorical techniques, and developed the
notion of the ‘conceptual’ paragraph. Finally, we integrated into our
approach the rhetorical — grammatical relationships we found to be most
important — and most difficult — for the non-native learner, and we began
research on troublesome lexical elements.
There are, of course, several areas of written EST discourse that we
have not yet begun to work with. Among these are the rhetoric of intro-
ductions and conclusions, and of hypothesizing and argumentation.
These and others not mentioned here are clearly fruitful areas for
researchers and teachers to work on. Two areas in which research has
begun but in which more is needed are treated in chapter 8: “Tense shifts
in the rhetoric of visual—verbal relationships’, specifically in the text for a
given visual, and tense shifts in the rhetoric of background information.
Both of these are important areas of EST discourse, particularly for the
more advanced learner.
While these shifts in emphasis had a strong effect on our teaching
methodology, they did not alter our basic approach. Early in our work we
developed what we call the ‘rhetorical approach’ to both our research and
our teaching. As we refined our research techniques and our teaching
methodology, we found more and more support for this approach. Even
today we find that in presenting our work at conferences and seminars, in
preparing specialist teaching materials, and in furthering our research the
rhetorical approach is still a valid and viable instrument. Its continuing
use by others in the fields of teaching, materials preparation, and new
areas of EST research also indicates that this approach is relevant to
today’s developing EST needs.
Much of the work described in this book was carried out in the United
States, primarily at the University of Washington. The approach,
modified as necessary, has also been used in vocational and survival
English courses in the United States and has been tested in university,
secondary, and vocational classrooms in many countries around the
world.

1.2 Someterminology

In addition to ‘discourse’, | have used another word to which we apply a

special meaning: the word ‘rhetorical’. This, and its companion ‘rheto-
ric’, are defined in chapter 3, along with a detailed examination of the
concept ‘rhetorical approach’. Here, however, it might be profitable to
3
Introduction

note that the term ‘rhetoric’ refers both to organization and to content.
‘Rhetoric’ is not a substitute for the term ‘discourse’; rather it is one part
of the concept of discourse. While in our usage both rhetoric and
discourse refer to the presentation of information in written (not oral)
form, they are not synonymous terms.

1.3 Howtouse this book

For those who wish to apply this book quickly to their teaching without
having to go through the entire text here is a suggested procedure. To get
an orientation to the ‘rhetorical process’, skim through chapters 6 and 7
and then work more slowly through chapter 10. Both chapters 6 and 7 are
designed to be used for references and can thus be profitably referred back
to whenever necessary. This is especially true of chapter 7. It is somewhat
longer than the other chapters in the book because it develops in detail the
most essential elements of the rhetorical approach — the rhetorical func-
tions — and is thus the central feature of the book, and also because of the
many examples used to illustrate these functions. These examples, along
with all the others in the book, serve two purposes: to help clarify the
rhetorical points being made; and to provide material that can be used in
all types of EST classrooms. Referring back to chapters 6 and 7 will be
found an especially useful technique when working through chapter 10,
which presents a step-by-step procedure for teaching an EST course.
2 Orientation

2.1 WhatESTis

The ‘Spectrum’ (chart 2.1) shows the way in which we conceive EST
discourse: it covers that area of written English that extends from the
‘peer’ writing of scientists and technically oriented professionals to the
writing aimed at skilled technicians. In between are shown several of the
types of instructional discourse that can be thought of as intermediate
between the two extremes.
Peer writing is exemplified by books and articles written by experts in
one field for other experts in the same field or for experts in a related field.
Skilled technicians are those who differ from engineers in the same field
only in that they (sometimes) lack equivalent training in theory. ‘Learn-
ing texts’ and ‘Basic instruction’ refer primarily to teaching texts
although they can include supplementary reading on various levels of
difficulty, including journals such as Scientific American and do-it-your-
self publications for the layman.
A linear spectrum such as this suggests a clear-cut distinction between
English for Academic Purposes (EAP) on the one side and English for
Occupational Purposes (EOP) on the other. However, a good deal of
overlap exists between the two: an electronics engineer and a skilled
electronics technician, for example, have a good deal of the same
technical language in common and both may rely on the same service
manuals for much of their work in the laboratory. At the same time there
will be many discourse units they do not share — the engineer will make
use of theoretically oriented texts often heavily laced with quite abstruse
mathematics, while the technician will have no reason to consult these
types of texts. Further, the engineer will read journals that are of interest
to him but would not be to most technicians. Similarly, the technician
will often deal with manuals of little interest or use to the engineer.
Whatever the differences between those operating at either end of the
spectrum, neither end is ‘better’; each simply represents written EST
discourse with some (but hardly all!) different characteristics.
Such differences exist in most scientific and technical fields. One
possible perspective on these differences can be seen in chart 2.2, which
shows one possible breakdown of academic and occupational fields. The
5
‘Orientation

lists shown here are intended to be representative rather than all inclu-
sive. Although ‘General English’ is set off as quite separate from the other
‘kinds’ of English, it is, of course, the mainstay of all fields, whatever the
purpose for which the language is used.
In sum, EST covers the areas of English written for academic and
professional purposes and of English written for occupational (and voca-
tional) purposes, including the often informally written discourse found
in trade journals and in scientific and technical materials written for the
layman.

CHART 2.I SPECTRUM OF TYPES OF DISCOURSE

Peer ____—iLearningtexts Basic ~—Technician

writing Advanced Intermediate Elementary instruction — writing

CHART 2.2 ONE POSSIBLE BREAKDOWN OF ESP/EST FIELDS

English for Occupational
English for Academic Purposes Purposes

General English EST fields ESToccupations

Engineering Engineering technicians
Forestry Laboratory technicians
Computer sciences Mechanics
Electronics Electricians
Mining Plumbers
Medicine Computer operators
Dietetics Fic.
Nursing
Etc:

2.2 Approach
While the approach described in this book was originally developed for
particular groups of students in academic environments and our early
published research was directed at the EST teacher who is in a university
or an institute of technology, the principles presented are applicable to a
considerably wider spectrum of non-native learners and to other types of
teaching institutions.
Both our subsequent research and the successful application of our
approach by teachers faced with students less academically oriented than
ours suggested to us that the principles of the rhetorical approach are

6
2.2 Approach

applicable to a much wider range of users than we had originally envis-

aged. Later research and application, not only by us but by colleagues in
several parts of the world, have shown that by modifying the course
design to suit the circumstances (types of students, course purpose,
environment, etc.) the concepts presented in this book can be applied not
just in courses designed for academic and vocationally oriented EST
students but also in those designed for professionals in industry, for
journeyman technicians, for technical writers — in fact, for anyone con-
cerned with reading and writing scientific and technical English.
As noted in section 1.3 above, the examples have been chosen for use
with more than just the academic student. Only a few of the examples
have been taken from highly technical sources; the majority have been
chosen to illustrate the entire spectrum of EST discourse. Also, some are
not examples of EST per se but are about EST. As the later discussion of
‘parallelism’ (section 4.4) points out, since the purpose of most examples
used in the EST classroom is to demonstrate the rhetorical features of EST
discourse, those taken from general rather than specific EST discourse are
that much more functional in the learning process. The majority of the
examples in this book were chosen for just this reason. Further, I have not
made ‘age’ a criterion. The most recently written pieces of discourse are
not always those that best illustrate particular rhetorical features; there-
fore, | have included examples from the 1960s and 1970s and even one
from the late 1950s. A comparison of examples will show that the rheto-
rical features of EST discourse have not changed in the last twenty-odd
years.
The students taking a course similar to that outlined in this book are
assumed to be fairly advanced in English. Unfortunately, this does not
mean that all students are equal in all of the language skills. As teachers
we can be faced with students well advanced in, let us say, three of the
skills but woefully weak in the fourth: in our experience it is common for
students to be fluent in oral production, to have a high level of
comprehension in both listening and reading, and yet not be able to write
adequately, especially at the level that their scientific and technical
studies demand. A similar pattern often exists in respect to the students’
technical knowledge. When classes are formed only on the basis of lan-
guage ability, we can find ourselves with students ranging from rank
beginners to experts in their professional fields: we seldom find a truly
homogeneous group — either in language or in technical subject matter —
in any given class. As a rule we find ourselves working not only with
students representing broad ranges of language ability and of technical
subject matter but also representing equally broad ranges of personal and
subject-matter interests. (It is worth noting here that student interests, for
example, hobbies, music, sports, etc., are not always even related to their
fields of professional interest.)
Orientation

In schools that train students for vocational or occupational purposes,

a homogeneous class is much more probable: an entire group may, for
example, consist of electronic trainees or potential welders. This book,
however, assumes that any class the teacher faces will be more
heterogeneous than homogeneous in all three areas of language ability,
subject-matter knowledge, and personal and subject-matter interest; for
this reason, the examples and discussion are oriented toward a ‘general’
group of students of science and/or of technology rather than those repre-
senting any single, specific field of study. (For a detailed discussion of how
to work with heterogeneous classes, see especially chapter 4.)
While this book is oriented mainly toward reading skills, it also con-
siders both writing and oral practice. As we will see in the ‘Application’
sections of the chapters dealing with the basic elements of the rhetorical
process (and in more detail in chapter 10), writing can be taught by
having the students transfer the strategies developed in analyzing EST
discourse from ‘reception’ to ‘production’. We meet this analysis process
in chapters 5, 6 and 7, where it is discussed primarily in relation to
improving the non-native learner’s reading speed and comprehension. It
is also treated in chapter 4 when we consider the individualizing process.
Oral production is not discussed directly in this book. However, as a
basic step in the rhetorical process is the frequent interchange between
teacher and students during the discussion sessions, a good deal of oral
work takes place on a non-formal basis. Since the immediate concern of
the students during a given class is the material being analyzed and since
they are able to identify much of this material as relating to their fields of
study (thus giving it a feeling of ‘genuineness’), the oral element is, in this
environment, authentic. In our experience, the majority of students feel
that they are discussing matters similar to those discussed in their
technical classes. The result is, then, that we have a ‘real’ oral situation
rather than a contrived one.

2.3 Organization
The body of this book is organized to reflect the patterns of presentation
that we devised for our university-level courses. This pattern will be
found beginning with chapter 5, which treats the EST paragraph in detail.
Chapter 3 provides an overview of our discourse (rhetorical) approach
by introducing the basic rhetorical concepts and by defining and
exemplifying them in order to orient the reader toward the more detailed
presentations later. Chapter 3 also introduces the basic unit of rhetorical
analysis, the EST paragraph, and it outlines the rhetorical techniques and
the rhetorical functions that play the dominant roles in the analysis
process.

8
2.3 Organization

The rhetorical techniques are treated in chapter 6 and the rhetorical

functions in chapter 7. Since it is the rhetorical functions that play the
dominant roles in the analysis process and since each has sub-functions
important to the process, in chapter 7 these are treated in greater detail
and are exemplified more fully than are the other rhetorical units.
Chapter 8 covers the rhetorical-grammatical relationships that have
been found to cause the non-native learner the greatest problems, and
which are important to an adequate understanding of the rhetorical tech-
niques and functions. The grammatical features dealt with are the
following:
1. Passive-stative distinctions
2. Non-standard use of modals
3. Non-standard and inconsistent uses of the definite article
4. Non-temporal use of tense
5. Relative clauses (treated very briefly)
Chapter 9 looks in some detail at the troublesome lexical elements of
sub-technical vocabulary and noun compounds (noun strings).
Chapter 4 is, in a sense, a bridge between the generalizations of chapter
3 and the more detailed treatments of the steps in the rhetorical process
found in chapters 5, 6, 7, and 10. The main purpose of chapter 4, how-
ever, is to present in some depth the process of individualizing classroom
assignments for non-homogeneous groups of students. This presentation
includes discussion 1. of the concept of parallelism, 2. of analyzing the
types of classes to be dealt with, and 3. of the several types of texts that
can be used in developing materials for class use.
Chapter 10, the final chapter, is designed to give a practical orientation
to the classroom application of the rhetorical process. It gives a suggested
order of presentation of topics and suggests ways in which EST materials
are best handled in the class. In addition, the amount of time we plan for
each presentation and workshop is noted. Also included are suggestions
for group work and pair work in workshop sessions on visual—verbal
relationships. Finally, a procedure for controlling student writing
assignments is laid out in some detail.
3 Therhetoric of EST discourse

3.1. Introduction

This book examines the rhetorical elements in the discourse of scientific

and technical English; it also examines the grammar and lexis related to
these rhetorical elements. To many, the terms rhetoric and discourse are
synonymous. However, as noted above in section 1.2, we use the term
rhetoric to refer to one important part of the broad communicative mode
called discourse. Rhetoric in this sense we define as follows:
Rhetoric is the process a writer uses to produce a desired piece of text.
This process is basically one of choosing and organizing information
for a specific set of purposes and a specific set of readers. An EST text is
concerned only with the presentation of facts, hypotheses, and similar
types of information. It is not concerned with the forms of written
English that editorialize, express emotions or emotionally based
argument or are fictional or poetic in nature.

We can further define EST rhetoric by adding that it includes the ways in
which information is organized when ‘organization’ means 1. the sequen-
cing of the items of information in a piece of written discourse and 2. the
expression of the kinds of relationships that exist between these items.
Also, we can say that EST rhetoric is not concerned with isolated items of
information but with the larger discourse units in which these items are
found.
As the ‘EST rhetorical process chart’ (chart 3.1) shows, EST rhetoric
exists at several levels in a piece of discourse. Both in our research and in
our teaching we have found it convenient to divide the total discourse
into the four rhetorical levels shown on the chart.
Level A gives the purpose of the total discourse, this information being
usually found in the introductory section of the discourse (in, for
example, a technical article). Level B consists of those major pieces of text
which, when added together, make up the complete discourse. This level
is usually marked in scientific and technical writing by section headings
or sub-headings.
The rhetorical process is best seen operating at Levels C and D. Level C
is made up of the specific rhetorical functions that are found most

10
3.1. Introduction

commonly in written EST discourse: description, definition, classifi-

cation, instructions, and visual—verbal relationships between a visual aid
and its accompanying text. Most commonly the discourse at this level is
presented either in groups of closely related paragraphs or in single para-
graphs. A finite number of such paragraphs at Level C add up to one of the
sections of Level B.
CHART 3.I EST RHETORICAL PROCESS CHART

Level Description of level

A. The objectives of the total discourse
EXAMPLES: 1. Detailing an experiment
2. Making a recommendation
3. Presenting new hypotheses or theory
4. Presenting other types of EST information
B. The general rhetorical functions that develop the objectives of
LevelA
EXAMPLES: 1. Stating purpose
2. Reporting past research
3. Stating the problem
4. Presenting information on apparatus used in
an experiment —
a) Description
b) Operation
5. Presenting information on experimental
ee eee
procedures
C. The specific rhetorical functions that develop the general
rhetorical functions of Level B
EXAMPLES: 1. Description: physical, function, and process
2. Definition
3. Classification
4. Instructions
5. Visual-verbal relationship s
acer ee eeSS
i assum ae ae ta TN atooa
D. The rhetorical technique s that provide relationsh ips within and
between the rhetorical units of Level C
EXAMPLES: |. Orders
1. Time order
2. Space order
3. Causality and result
ll. Patterns
Causality and result
Order of importance
Comparison and contrast
Analogy
. Exemplification
OnaRONo
. Illustration

11
The rhetoric of EST discourse

Level D consists of one or more of the rhetorical techniques a writer

chooses (or is sometimes required to use) as the most functional for
presenting the framework into which the items of information given at
Level C fit or the most functional for showing the relationships
between these items. Frequently, one of the orders and one of the pat-
terns will be found together, thus providing the reader with both a
framework and a set of relationships. Although the markers showing
the relationships between items of information can consist of para-
graphs, as a rule they are found within paragraphs, in single sentences
or clauses or phrases.
While the examples listed under each level on the ‘Rhetorical process
chart’ are not exhaustive (particularly at Levels A and B), they do give
us an idea of the kinds of information each level contains and how
those various units of information relate to one another. For example,
if we think of a scientific article — or a chapter in a scientific textbook
— that has as its objective the detailing of an experiment (one of the
objectives of the total discourse listed at Level A), we find that to
achieve this purpose the discourse must include a description of the
apparatus being used and a description of how that apparatus works.
The writer, then, in developing his ideas is required to choose one or
more of the general rhetorical functions listed at Level B in order to
satisfy the objective of Level A. In this case, the required function is
presenting apparatus used in an experiment: description and operation.
Information on the description and operation of apparatus can only
be presented to the reader through the specific rhetorical function of
description (Level C). Similarly, the use of the rhetorical function of
description requires the writer to choose one or more of the rhetorical
techniques listed in Level D. By its very nature, discourse concerned
with the physical description of an object demands the use of the
rhetorical technique of space order. And as our sample discourse is also
concerned with the way in which the apparatus works, our writer must
also choose the rhetorical technique of process time and, with it, the
relational pattern of causality and result. In sum, the functions chosen
at one level almost inevitably determine those to be chosen at the next
level down.
Up to this point I have been using the terms ‘rhetorical functions’
and ‘rhetorical techniques’ with no attempt to define them or to distin-
guish them from one another. To clarify how these rhetorical elements
work within a piece of total discourse, I define a rhetorical function as
a name for what a given unit of the discourse (some finite piece of text)
is trying to do and a rhetorical technique as a name either
for the
frame into which writers fit their information or for the way
in which
the items of information chosen relate to one another or to the
main
subject of the given unit of discourse. A rhetorical techniqu
e can also
#2
3.1. Introduction

show how the informational purpose of one unit of text (at Level C,
let us say) relates to the informational purpose of units preceding or
following. The rhetorical techniques are discussed in detail in chapter
6.
If the rhetorical function defined above is a ‘general’ function (Level
B), the text covered by this function will be fairly extensive (a section
or sub-section) and most frequently will be found under a heading or
sub-heading that states the nature of the information that the section
or sub-section is contributing to the total communication. If the rheto-
rical function is a specific one (Level C), then the unit of text will con-
sist of a paragraph (or a series of closely related paragraphs) that con-
tributes to the total communication by providing such information as
definitions, descriptions, classifications, etc. The specific rhetorical
functions are discussed in chapter 7.
Although it is necessary to discuss all four levels and their rela-
tionships to one another when teaching how a piece of discourse is
organized (in terms of teaching reading) and how to organize one (in
terms of teaching writing), not much class time need be spent on Levels
A and B.' As noted above, Level A is usually expressed explicitly in the
introductory section to a total text and Level B is usually marked by
semantically functioning headings or sub-headings. Levels C and D,
however, are seldom so explicitly marked; they often require the reader
to find clues to grasp the informational purposes of the material. Also,
research has shown us that we can best see the characteristics of writ-
ten EST discourse at these levels (C and D). For these reasons we have
concentrated on the specific rhetorical functions (Level C) and the
rhetorical techniques (Level D), both in the classroom and in our
papers and presentations at conferences and seminars.
For the same reasons, then, in this book we are also concerned pri-
marily with these rhetorical functions and techniques. In addition we
look at some of the grammatical areas that present the non-native
learner with the greatest difficulties and also look at the special lexical
problems inherent in the nature of written EST discourse.
In classroom application, this rhetorical approach has proved itself
useful both in teaching reading skills to the non-native student and in
teaching the types of writing that both school and professional work in
scientific and technical English demand. A large amount of written
EST discourse is dense in presentation of ideas, often heavy-footed
stylistically, and frequently difficult in terms of grammatical and lexi-
cal elements. While we cannot change the style and language habits of
past, present, and future generations of writers of EST prose, we can
help our students cope with much of it. The rhetorical approach is one
way that has, in our experience, proved successful in helping students
handle the reading problems of this specialist discourse.
13
The rhetoric of EST discourse

When we turn to teaching students to write scientific and technical

English we need to provide additional help. The most persistent prob-
lems that we have encountered and their suggested solutions are
treated in chapter 10. Here, I only wish to point out that we have
found writing best approached as a transfer technique. That is, we
have the students consciously practice the rhetorical concepts they have
found in their reading by giving them writing exercises designed to
make them choose those rhetorical elements most appropriate for a
given purpose and a given level of reader. In requiring students to
choose specific rhetorical functions and techniques for the presentation
of their EST information, we also strengthen their recognition of these
functions and techniques when they read EST discourse. In chapter 4,
we point out how student reading assignments can lead to directed
writing exercises.

3.2 Basic premises

The rhetorical approach to teaching non-native speakers how to read

(and secondarily to write) scientific and technical English discourse is
built around three main rhetorical concepts: 1. the nature of the EST
paragraph; 2. the rhetorical techniques most commonly used in written
EST discourse; and 3. the rhetorical functions most frequently found in
written EST discourse. Related to these three concepts are the gram-
matical and lexical elements also prominent in this type of English
discourse.
We define this type of written English as follows:
EST writing is that type of discourse that has as its purpose the
transmission of information (fact or hypothesis) from writers to
readers; therefore it uses only a limited number of rhetorical functions.
It does not, for example, make use of such rhetorical functions as
editorializing, non-logical argumentation, poetic images, or those
functions that create emotions such as laughter, sadness, etc.

With this definition in mind we can now look at the three main rhetorical
concepts in the order given above.

3.2.1 TheEST paragraph

We define the EST paragraph as follows:
The EST paragraph is a unit of written English discourse that presents
the reader with a selected amount of information ona given area ofa

14
3.2 Basic premises

subject. This information is so organized by the writer that the

rhetorical concepts chosen and the relationships between these
concepts are the most functional for both the rhetorical purpose of the
paragraph and for the level of reader; that is, the reader’s position
in respect to the subject matter under discussion — beginner, expert,
etc.

In working with the discourse of EST we found that the standard defini-
tion of ‘paragraph’ did not fit well with the way that scientific and
technical English is organized and written. The ‘standard’ definition
contains, as a rule, the following ideas: ‘A paragraph is a group of sen-
tences which express a complete thought and which are set off on a page
of text by indentation or spacing.’ The difficulty in applying this defini-
tion to written EST discourse is that it confuses two quite separate
factors: the first half of the definition deals with concepts (‘... a group
of sentences which express a complete thought ...’) while the second
half deals only with the physical nature (‘... set off on a page by spacing
or indentation’) of the paragraph. Thus, in a sense we have a dual
definition.
The actual organization of a piece of EST discourse is more clearly
seen if we accept that there are two types of paragraphs rather than
insist that there is only one type. These two types we call the conceptual
paragraph and the physical paragraph. Defining in EST discourse terms,
we say that the conceptual paragraph consists of all the information
chosen by the writer to develop a generalization, whether this is stated
or only implied by the content. The physical paragraph, in contrast,
takes over the second half of the definition above, and so is defined as
that amount of information relating to the generalization which is set
off from other parts of the discourse by spacing or indentation. Here‘...
other parts of the discourse’ refers either to another physical paragraph
which is part of the same conceptual paragraph or to the previous or
following conceptual paragraphs.
This way of looking at paragraph structure and content also contains
the ideas of ‘correspondence’ and of ‘core generalization’. When a con-
ceptual paragraph is developed by only one physical paragraph, we have
a one-to-one correspondence. When a conceptual paragraph requires
two or more physical paragraphs for its development, we have a one-to-
more-than-one correspondence.
The idea of ‘core generalization’ is explained as follows. Frequently in
written EST the generalization of a conceptual paragraph is developed
by a rather complex organizational pattern that has the main idea
divided into two or more ‘sub-ideas’, each represented in the text by a
generalization on a lower level (that is, more specific) than the level of
the main generalization. These lower-level generalizations and their
15
The rhetoric of EST discourse

supporting information are indicated physically as well as sem-

antically by being put in separate physical paragraphs. The rule is:
As long as information — whether it consists of lower-level
generalizations or of details at various levels of specificity — is sup-
porting the main generalization, it all belongs to the same concept-
ual paragraph.
This concept of ‘generalization’ is basic to the rhetorical approach to
analyzing written EST discourse. We call the main generalization the
‘core’ or the ‘core generalization’ when dealing with it in the abstract;
we call it the ‘core statement’ of the paragraph when discussing a con-
crete example. This concept and that of ‘correspondence’ are illustrated
in examples 3.1A and 3.1B below.

EXAMPLE 3.IA ONE CONCEPTUAL PARAGRAPH COMPOSED OF

THREE PHYSICAL PARAGRAPHS (ONE-TO-MORE-THAN-ONE
CORRESPONDENCE)

The components composing the urban system Core of

can be categorized into two major categories. conceptual
These are the land use configuration and the paragraph
transportation system. These two categories
interact with each other as well as with
themselves.
Land use refers to the special configuration of Sub-core
supply and demand of opportunities. for no. 1
instance, the demand for interaction of
opportunities is located in institutional,
commercial, and industrial areas. The supply
side of opportunities is measured in terms of
the intensity of attractiveness, which may
be expressed by the number of jobs in the
specific zone. The spatial location and quantities
of these entities (supply and demand of
opportunities) in relation to the others are the
major attributes of the land use components of
the urban system.
The transportation system determines the ease Sub-core
of interaction between the supply and demand no. 2
configurations. The transportation system has
two attributes. One is the transportation network,
which determines the spatial coverage of its
service, and the other is the level of service or
quality of the transportation system. Both factors
have an effect on the interaction between
activities.

16
3.2 Basic premises

EXAMPLE 3.IB ONECONCEPTUAL PARAGRAPH COMPOSED OF ONE

PHYSICAL PARAGRAPH (ONE-TO-ONE CORRESPONDENCE)

The transportation system is not the only factor(2) Core is

that influences the level of interaction among composed of
various activities, though itisaveryimportantone. _ italicized
(1) Another factor (8) is the nature of the activities part of
themselves. Assuming that trip productions arise sentence 1,
from the residential population and that trip which is
attractions are primarily jobs offeredto people, we embedded
notice that the qualitative attributes of population between the
and jobs vary widely.... subject and
predicate of
sentence 2.

[Source: The Trend In Engineering, 22.2 (1970), 29-30]

In example 3.1A the writer has divided his discussion ofthis particular area
of his subject into thrée physical paragraphs that add up to one conceptual
paragraph. The first physical paragraph presents the major generalization,
which is the core statement of the conceptual paragraph. The second
physical paragraph picks up a key term in the core statement and expands
onit, giving the reader the first sub-core. The second sub-core is in the third
physical paragraph and is an expansion of the second key term in the core
statement in the first physical paragraph. For the core statement to be
adequately developed, three physical paragraphs are required. If the writer
had put all his information into one physical paragraph, he would have
failed to take advantage of the opportunity to use a one-to-more-than-one
correspondence to emphasize the importance of each of his two major
points (stated as the two sub-cores).
In contrast, inexample 3.1B we have a one-to-one correspondence since
the core statement is developed in a single paragraph; that is, the physical
and conceptual paragraphs are the same and, of course, there are no
sub-cores.
This concept of ‘core’ is of major importance to the understanding ofthe
idea of ‘paragraph’ in our approach to the analysis of written EST
discourse. Occasionally the generalization of a paragraph can be found
stated neatly in the first sentence of that paragraph and so equate with the
‘topic/thesis sentence’ pattern discussed above. Our research, however,
makes it quite clear that the generalization of an EST paragraph is not often
stated so neatly in a single sentence placed appropriately at the beginning
of that paragraph. We frequently find the core statement made up of parts
of two or more sentences or consisting of a short phrase buried somewhere
near, but not often at, the beginning. At times, the core statement is not
lull
The rhetoric of EST discourse

found expressed in words but is implied by the nature and organization of

the information that makes up the paragraph; thatis, the reader is expected
to infer the core statement from the context.
Our examples above illustrate types of core statements that are found
very often in EST discourse. In example 3.1A the core statement consists of
the subject noun phrase (NP) of the first sentence of the initial physical
paragraph and of the verb phrase (VP) of the second sentence in the same
physical paragraph: ‘The components composing the urban system are the
land use configuration and the transportation system.’ In the verb phrase
we find the bases for the sub-cores that begin the second and third physical
paragraphs. These sub-cores are stated as second-level generalizations
(that is, they are statements which, although still general, are less general
than the core — the governing generalization of the entire conceptual
paragraph).
The core statement in example 3.1B is more complex than that of
example 3.1A. It begins with the subject noun phrase of sentence 2 of the
paragraph, goes back up the embedded restrictive relative clause in sen-
tence 1, and then returns to add the verb phrase of sentence 2. The result is
‘Another factor that influences the level of interaction among the various
activities is the nature of the activities themselves’.
Because of this kind of complexity non-native learners whose exposure
to the English paragraph has been through examples of ‘topic sentences’
placed at the beginning of carefully selected (or made up) paragraphs
usually have difficulty in determining the generalizations which govern
EST paragraphs.
A more extended discussion of the concept of ‘paragraph’ as found in
EST discourse is given in chapter 5.

3.2.2 Rhetorical techniques

The rhetorical elements that bind together the information in a piece of
EST text we call the ‘rhetorical techniques’. The most frequently used of
these are listed under Level D in the ‘Rhetorical process chart’, p. 11. All
are found frequently enough in EST discourse for us to examine them in
some detail.
While the examples listed under Level D in the ‘Rhetorical process chart’
appear to be discrete items (and sometimes are), actually the concept is
somewhat more complicated. First, we are dealing with two quite distinct
types of rhetorical techniques: 1. the ‘orders’ (also called ‘natural pat-
terns’) that provide a framework for the items of information the writer
is
presenting, and 2. the ‘logical patterns’ that indicate the relation
ships
between those items of information.3
The natural patterns (orders) are so-called because the nature of
the
material determines the framework that material is put
into. In EST
18
3.2 Basic premises

discourse, the most frequent such patterns are ‘time order’, ‘space order’,
and ‘causality and result’. In contrast, the logical patterns are usually
deliberately chosen by writers to make clear the relationships between the
items of information they have chosen to present to their readers.
Second, the use of one rhetorical technique does not exclude the simul-
taneous use of others. In fact, it would be very difficult to find an example of
one of the orders — time or space — that was not developed in conjunction
with one or more of the logical patterns. For example, a paragraph using
time order to describe a process requires the use of causality and result. We
also find two or more logical patterns working together, with one usually
being dominant. We may find a paragraph developed by putting details in
their order of importance in such a way that they compare and/or contrast
as well.
Several of the examples in chapters 5 and 6 will illustrate these points.
Also chapter 5 discusses in detail the rhetorical techniques, which we can
also think of as ‘patterns of organization’. The discussion includes the
criteria for the use of each of the patterns as well as the verbal markers that
help the reader identify them.

3.2.3. Rhetorical functions

The rhetorical functions (listed at Level C of the ‘Rhetorical process chart’)

are the foundation of the rhetorical approach to the analysis of written EST
discourse. From our research, we have abstracted the five rhetorical func-
tions that occur most frequently in EST texts. These are not treated here
and in chapter 6 in any order of importance or frequency of occurrence;
however, in both places the rhetoric of description is treated first as it is
commonly found not only in isolation but also in conjunction with the
other rhetorical functions.
This wide range of occurrence of description is due to the nature of EST
material: a large amount of it is concerned with physical structures (physi-
cal description), with the purpose of a device and how its parts work
(function description), and with processes and procedures (process
description).
When we examine types of EST discourse in more detail we will see that,
similar to the natural patterns of time and space (rhetorical techniques),
certain types of discourse impose certain functions on writers’ materials;
that is, writers have no choice but to use a specific rhetorical function
because the nature of the material requires it. An example is that of
discourse written for students new to a field: this kind of discourse de-
mands the frequent use of the rhetorical function of definition since the
reader will be faced with new terms and possibly old terms with new
meanings.

19
The rhetoric of EST discourse

In chapter 6, the rhetorical functions are treated in detail in the

following order:
1. Description. This rhetorical function is divided into three types, each of
which has distinct characteristics and a clear-cut set of purposes. We
call these three types a) physical description, b) function description,
and c) process description. Physical description has to do with the
physical nature of whatever is being discussed. Function description is
concerned with the purpose of some device (usually machinery) and
how the parts of that device work separately and with one another and
with the whole. Process description deals with processes and pro-
cedures and is characterized by the detailing of a series of steps, each but
the first usually dependent on the previous step and all aimed at achiev-
ing a definite goal. Process description is considered by many to be a
special case of function description; however, it is so complex in itself
(and isso frequently found in EST discourse) that we choose to treatit as
a separate type of the rhetorical function of description.
2. Definition. The several types of definition found most commonly in
written EST discourse lend themselves well to teaching both reading
and writing through the application of the rhetorical approach. The
types of definition discussed in this book are a) simple definitions (also
called single-sentence definitions), consisting of 1. formal definition,
2. semi-formal definition, and 3. non-formal definition; and b)
complex definitions, most of which have special functions such as
stipulation, operation, and explication, and which are expansions of
simple definitions. This expansion is as a rule in one paragraph,
although it can take up an entire text.‘
3. Classification. Classification is also easily divisible into manage
able
types, thus making the task of analysis easier. We discuss classification
from two perspectives: a) the ‘direction’ in which a classification is
made — whether we are finding the members of a given class or
are
finding a class for one or more given members — and b) whether the
classification is explicit or implicit, and if the former whether itis a full
ora partial classification. Finally, we discuss the nature of the bases
for
classification, both those which express similarities and those which
express differences.
4. Instructions. Instructions are found most often in technic
al discourse,
usually in technical manuals. Instructions can be roughl
y defined as the
rhetoric of telling someone what to do and how to do it to
achieve a
certain goal. Our detailed investigation of instructions
on all levels —
from beginners to experts — shows that we can conveniently
break this
rhetorical function into two major groups: a) ‘instructions’
, the actual
telling someone what to do and how to do it, and b)
instructional
information, that additional information that accomp
anies most sets
of instructions and provides explanations, theory, warnin
gs, etc. We
20
3.2 Basic premises

find instructions themselves to be of two types: 1. direct instructions,

which are stated in the imperative, and 2. indirect instructions, which
often sound more like suggestions than commands but which actually
function as imperative statements. This type of instructions usually
contains a modal verb such as ‘can’, ‘may’, ‘should’, and less often
‘must’.
5. Visual-verbal relationships. This final rhetorical function to be
discussed is in some respects more complex than the others. It is that
part of what Henry Widdowson has called ‘information transfer’ that
deals with illustrative (graphical) material and the written text which
accompanies it. In our meaning of the term, ‘visual—verbal rela-
tionships’ also cover the placement of this textual material (the
‘verbal’) in relation to the visual — whether the two are separated (and if
so whatis the precise location of the text) or whether the verbal is part of
the visual itself. This placement of text in relation to illustration
frequently affects both the kinds and amounts of information the text
gives in respect to the illustration and the textual reference to the
illustration as well.
As we can see from the ‘Rhetorical process chart’, these five rhetorical
functions are the main ones used by EST writers to develop the general
rhetorical functions listed under Level B. In chapters 6 and 7, we demon-
strate this relationship more precisely.
Chapter 4 offers our solution to one of the most pressing problems in the
teaching of specialized language use: how to cope with a class of students
who do not form an even approximately homogeneous group. The typical
academic EST class (and most EST classes at whatever tertiary level) is
characterized by heterogeneity in respect to the students’ fields of interest,
to their ability levels in English, to their academic standing (whether under-
graduate and which year as undergraduate or whether postgraduate and
which degree is being sought), to their subject-matter knowledge, and to
their varying abilities with their native language.
Our answer to the above is the application of one kind of individualizing
of assignments. In discussing this process in detail in chapter 4 we also
suggest a way to determine the make-up of any given class, and welookata
teaching procedure that allows us to apply individualizing more satisfac-
torily than when we first faced the problem. The term we have devised for
this procedure is ‘parallelism’.
This way of individualizing assignments is illustrated again in chapter
10.

24|
4 The individualizing process

4.1. Introduction

The approach to teaching the reading of scientific and technical discourse

and, to a lesser degree, the writing of it, was originally developed for EST
classes in an undergraduate university setting; that is, a wholly academic
setting. The students taught were, for the most part, advanced both in
English and in their scientific and technical subjects. As the demand for
these courses grew, students were admitted with a lower level of English
than formerly-and, often, with less knowledge of technical and scientific
subject matter. Also, postgraduate students requested permission to enter
the course that stressed writing over reading. These students were usually
well able to read English easily, especially in their subject-matter fields;
however, their ability to use language orally and to write it adequately
was normally very low. This disparity in student levels — sometimes both
in language use and in scientific and technical background — as well as the
differing basic subject-matter interests of the students resulted in our
developing a procedure for meeting the needs of each individual student
as well as we could. This procedure we call the ‘individualizing process’ or
‘individualization’.
Our procedure consists of several steps, as follows. First, we present the
rhetorical concept under discussion (that is, the paragraph, or rhetorical
techniques, or rhetorical functions) by distributing handouts or examples
(sample texts) or, less often, by throwing overhead projector transpar-
encies on a screen. The first set of examples is thoroughly labelled
and
both the texts and labels are discussed in detail by the teacher. The second
set of examples, which are given out as soon as the discussions of the
first
set are ended, have no labels. (‘Label’ here means a gloss such
as the
explanations in the margins of examples 3.1A and SBE ppHlee
174)
Using this set as a basis for discussion, the teacher now tries to
get the
students to recognize the points made concerning the first
set. Whereas
the initial discussions were mostly teacher oriented, these are more
evenly
divided between teacher and students.
At this point we begin the individualizing process: the studen
ts are
asked to find in their own subject-matter reading exampl
es similar to
those in the handouts. Thus, if the nature and structure of the
EST para-
graph is the subject under discussion, the students might be asked
to find
ane
4.2 Individualization: a definition

examples of paragraphs having a one-to-one correspondence and of those

having a one-to-more-than-one correspondence, and to label them as
completely as possible. (A bonus to this type of assignment is that often
the students’ examples are useful for reproduction and distribution for
additional discussion or when the time comes for review of this area of
the course.) Other types of assignments relating to paragraphs are given
in chapter S.
The individualizing process itself is discussed in this chapter along with
the procedures necessary for providing a base for formulating indi-
vidualized assignments. We discuss 1. class make-up (analysis of
students), 2. the technique of parallelism, 3. the several types of texts to
consider (‘genuine’, adapted, synthesized, or created texts), and 4. the
individualizing process, using the above discussion points as guidelines.

4.2 Individualization: a definition

Individualization of assignments (that is, the individualizing process) is

defined as the process of finding a way to create a set of general assign-
ments that can be used by each of the students in a given class in respect to
their individual needs. This type of individualizing makes a meaningful
connection between what the students have learned in their English
classes and what they have learned (or already know about) in their
subject-matter classes and/or their fields of interest. This definition does
not include the meaning that many people have for ‘individualizing’: the
one-to-one procedure; the tutorial. Rather, it refers to a series of specific
assignments related in such a way that they all deal with the same area of a
subject but are individual within that area and are so designed that they
relate to the individual needs of each student.
As we shall see, the individualization process is also a way of making
the problem of heavy emphasis on subject matter work for the teacher,
the materials writer, or the curriculum designer. However, before we can
get to the individualized assignments themselves, we have to perform the
following activities:
1. We need to determine the make-up of our class, as this tells us how
much individualizing we must plan for.
2. We need to determine the resources available to the students. What
books and journals have they access to? Is there photocopy equipment
that they can use (and can afford)? Do their class schedules give them
time enough to prepare our assignments?
3. What are the students’ backgrounds? Have they done much reading
and/or writing — in English? in their native language? What is their
ability level in their native language?
Finally, we come to the process of preparing for individualized
23
The individualizing process

assignments. This preparation consists of giving the students a solid basis

for recognizing — and using — the rhetorical concepts by applying what we
have called ‘parallelism’.

4.3. Determining class make-up

How an EST teacher proceeds to develop individualized assignments for

any given class depends on the factors listed in the preceding section. The
first factor, determining class make-up, means finding out just how
homogeneous or heterogeneous the class is in terms of the following four
fairly broad criteria:
1. The native languages of the students
2. The students’ cultural traits related to learning
3. The students’ subject areas (or areas of interest, if not the same) —
a) levels in relation to subject (beginner, intermediate, advanced)
b) knowledge in subject area or interest area (does not always
correlate with level!)
4. Levels of ability in English —
a) oral production
b) oral comprehension
c) reading (in fields of interest and others)
d) writing (of the types functional to students’ work)
A class can be homogeneous in one or more of these areas (for example, all
may have the same native language) and still be very heterogeneous. A
completely heterogeneous class is difficult to imagine as this would have
each student speaking a different native language, have each displaying a
totally different set of learning traits, have each studying subjects totally
unrelated to the subjects studied by others, etc. Almost as unlikely would
be the completely homogeneous class: in absolute terms this must consist
of only one student with all the others being that one student’s clones.
Often a class that at first glance appears homogeneous turns out to have
considerable heterogeneity. An example could be a class of Spanish-
speaking students, all in their third year of university, all studying mech-
anical engineering, all from approximately the same socio-cultural back-
ground and, finally, all with much the same ability in English. Yet, a
closer look would show that within their field of study there exists a wide
range of interests: not all mechanical engineering students have the same,
or even similar, technical interests. Some will be interested in motor
design, others in refrigeration, others in machine tool design and manu-
facture, etc.
To face a typical EST class and realize that what we so carefully devised
for a previous group is totally unsuitable for the present one can be a
disheartening experience. But there is a more cheerful side to the majority

24
4.4 Parallelism

of EST classes. Whether they consist of a group of would-be engineers, or

natural or physical scientists or a thorough mix, they do share a certain
background in common: as students of science and technology they share
some knowledge of mathematics and of basic scientific concepts. Most
will have been exposed to, and even drilled in, the scientific method. This
commonality of background lets us assume a certain amount of homo-
geneity, enough so that we can take advantage of it in preparing our
materials. Nevertheless, we must still face up to the problem of devising
some means of overcoming the differences that exist alongside the simi-
larities. Our solution to this problem is the teaching procedure we have
labeled parallelism.

4.4 Parallelism

We define parallelism as a process that uses a unit of discourse (in our case
written discourse) as a vehicle for carrying the rhetorical, grammatical,
and lexical features of EST discourse through the medium of special
subject matter. This subject matter is ‘special’ in that it belongs to no field
of study at a level that would exclude any member of a class from under-
standing it. Thus we can say that the subject matter we work with is
always close to a basic level of comprehensibility. Further, this unit of
discourse should interest the students without being too dense in content
or structure for both their language levels and their subject-matter levels.
Finally, the unit should not be so advanced or so esoteric that it gives any
student advantage over any others.
Parallelism is successful as a teaching device mainly because of the
knowledge that all but the most elementary students of science and tech-
nology have in common an understanding of the basic concepts of science
and of the scientific method. Also, whatever the fields of study of the
students, they will find that the rhetorical techniques and the rhetorical
functions dealt with in the discussions and in the examples handed out are
the same as those they find in their subject-matter reading. This inevitably
gives a feeling of reality to their EST English courses and so helps avoid
the charge that these tend to be contrived. As an example, we can choose a
unit of discourse that stresses simple formal definition. Once the students
understand the kinds and amounts of information a formal definition
provides, they have little trouble transferring this knowledge to the more
complicated materials they have to read in their scientific and technical
courses."
It may be argued that since parallelism is aimed at all the students in any
given classroom it is not really individualizing. As we see in section 4.6
below, the result of applying the first stage of the process is that each student
25
The individualizing process

has an assignment that is ‘specially’ designed in relation to individual fields

of study.
For examples of parallelism in action we can go back to sub-section 3.2.1
and examples 3.1A and 3.1B. The discourse in these texts is fairly simple in
content and in structure and so should not createa comprehension problem
for most students at university level. At the same time, it is on a topic that
would give advantage only to the most advanced students in the field of
urban planning. Thus we can use it with virtually all EST students to
illustrate complex core statements and to demonstrate the two types of
correspondence and so differentiate between conceptual and physical
paragraphs.
The following is a most useful example of a small unit of discourse that
can be used to illustrate several of the important rhetorical features of
EST texts. At the same time it is simple enough for students at virtually
any level: EOP students, beginning academic students, etc.

EXAMPLE4.I SAMPLE TEXT CONTAINING SEVERAL RHETORICAL

FEATURES

A barometer is a meteorological instrument used for the

measurement of atmospheric pressure. Barometers may be
classified into two general types, depending on the ways in which
they record the pressure of the atmosphere. The mercury
barometer is the larger and more accurate of the two types, while
the aneroid barometer is more compact but less accurate.
The aneroid barometer is a portable meteorological instrument
designed to record changes in atmospheric pressure. It consists of
a thin, hermetically-sealed cylindrical metal box, exhausted of air
so that the ends of the box tend to approach or recede from one
another with change in the pressure of the atmosphere. A train of
levers within the box magnifies this movement and records it by an
index arm moving over a scale that is graduated to give barometric
pressure in feet and inches of mercury.
The mercury barometer is a meteorological instrument used for
measuring the pressure of the atmosphere in terms of the height of
a column of mercury which exerts an equal pressure. In its
simplest form the mercury barometer consists of a vertical glass
tube about 80 cm. long, closed at the top and open atthe lower end.
This lower end is immersed in mercury ina dish. The tube contains
no air; rather it contains a vacuum.
[Source: Submitted by a student; precise source unknown. ]

[This example has the following rhetorical features:

Paragraph. This text illustrates a one-to-more-than-one
correspondence with the three physical paragraphs making up the
conceptual paragraph and with the core statement made up of the

26
4.5 Types of texts

first sentence of the first physical paragraph plus the names of the two
types of barometers from the third sentence of the same paragraph,
these names being the bases for the sub-cores in physical paragraphs
2 and 3. (See chapter 5.)
Rhetorical functions. The conceptual paragraph contains three
examples of formal definition, a statement of classification, and
physical, function and process descriptions. The original has an
illustration (not shown here) of the two types of barometers, thus
giving us an example of visual—verbal relationships as well. (See
chapter 7.)
Rhetorical techniques. The major rhetorical techniques found in
this paragraph are 1. causality and result and 2. comparison and
contrast. In addition, the second and third physical paragraphs
contain space order while the second paragraph (in the statement of
process) contains process time order. (See chapter 6.)]

To begin our process we need to choose sample pieces of discourse that

parallel the same areas that occur in the students’ scientific and technical
reading. Once these have been discussed and analyzed, then we can begin
to apply the actual process of individualizing. Our initial procedure is to
determine which are the best materials to use to present our rhetorical
features; that is, we need to choose our ‘parallel’ texts.

4.5 Types oftexts

We find it convenient to divide the written EST discourse that we use for
teaching purposes into four categories: 1. ‘genuine’ materials, 2. adapted
materials, 3. synthesized materials, and 4. created materials. Many
teachers appear to assume that in teaching EST only ‘genuine’ materials
should be used. However, we have found that the other types are equally
useful and for lower (below tertiary) level students often more useful.
Since each type has its strengths and weaknesses and is functional in its
own particular way, it is useful to look at all four in some detail.

4.5.1 ‘Genuine’ materials

‘Genuine’ materials are those taken directly from a printed source and
presented without alteration. The more homogeneous the group, the
more closely these materials should relate to the learners’ subject-matter
interests.
To make use of ‘genuine’ materials in the classroom, we need learners
with fairly solid backgrounds in English. Guided by this and by the
students’ basic scientific and technical knowledge, we can choose texts
over a wide range of subject-matter difficulty. There are, for example,
a,
The individualizing process

scientific materials written for absolute beginners in a subject, while at the

other end of the spectrum are materials written for those who are experts in
the various fields EST students might be studying.
While we can vary the technical level of the subject matter by choosing
our texts carefully, we can do little about the language — either the struc-
tures or the lexis. The suggestion has been made that to find simple
language one should go to children’s books on scientific topics. As feasible
as this sounds, it seldom works for non-native students. Unfortunately,
just because something is written for a child, it is not necessarily (in fact
seldom is) presented in language simplified in the way it must be for a large
number of non-native readers. Despite numerous efforts, I have yet to find
the kind of simplification that is useful to non-native readers in books
written for native-speaking children. Writers naturally assume that
children have an understanding of many common and basic terms in their
own language — terms that are not always included in beginning courses of
English for non-native speakers.
A further objection to the use of ‘genuine’ texts in many situations is that
non-native learners who are perfectly capable of grasping the scientific or
technical principles involved (they may even have studied them in their
own language) still find handling the English lexis difficult. Moreover,
they find even more difficult the often complex rhetorical—
grammatical features that virtually all native learners understand with
little, if any, conscious thought.
Several examples of ‘genuine’ materials are found in examples 4.2A,
4.2B, and 4.2C, and 4.3 below. In each case it is clear that while each
example is in itself useful to illustrate rhetorical features, all pose the same
problem: the teacher has no control over the grammatical elements, the
lexis, or even the rhetorical features once the choice has been made.

SAMPLE GENUINE MATERIALS

EXAMPLE 4.2A
Holography and photography as methods of forming optical images
Photography basically provides a method of recording two-
dimensional irradiance distribution of an image. Generally
speaking, each ‘scene’ consists of a large number of reflecting or
radiating points of light. The waves from each of these elementary
points all contribute to a complete wave, which we will call the
object wave. This complex wave is transformed by the optical lens
in
sucha way that it collapses into an image of the radiating object.
It is
this image which is recorded on the photographic emulsion.
Holography is quite different. With holography, one records not
the optically formed image of the object but the object wave itself.
(Source: Howard M. Smith, Principles of Holography, Wiley Interscien
ce (New
York: Wiley, 1969), pp. 1-2.]

28
4.5 Types oftexts

EXAMPLE 4.2B
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is said to be shown by a (physiological) system if,
given a moderate disturbance that tends to displace the system
from its normal values, its parts so react and interact that the harmful
effects of the disturbance are much diminished.
[Source: Michael A. Arbib, Brains, Machines, and Mathematics (New York:
McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1964), p. 106.]

EXAMPLE 4.2C
The nature of glass
Weare concerned here with glasses, a class of solids that do not
crystallize when cooled from a melt and thus do not exhibit long
range periodicity of atomic structure: The structure ofa glass is
often inferred from the analysis of some crystalline modification of
the material that forms it.
[Source: R. J. Charles, ‘The Nature of Glasses’, Scientific American, Sept. 1967,
p. 126.]
[Example 4.2A is from a book designed for advanced undergraduate
engineering and science students. This excerpt is from the
Introduction, which is the least technical part of the book. The
usefulness of this piece of text lies in its rhetorical features: it gives us
a defining statement expanded by description. This description
contains a simple definition by synonym. Finally, the two paragraphs
provide us with a good example of contrast. The paragraphs are two
separate one-to-one correspondences; that is, each is a single physical
paragraph making up one conceptual paragraph.
Grammatically, we have examples of the passive voice and of
relative clauses, both of which cause problems for non-native
learners. We also have some quite advanced level EST lexis: for
example, the way that ‘photography’ is defined as ‘. . . the two-
dimensional irradiance distribution of an image.’ In contrast, much
of the lexis is such that any students, non-native or native, should
control by the time they reach a level where they would read a book of
this nature.
Example 4.2B.is from a book intended for supplementary reading
in elementary science courses at university level. This type of book is
designed to present a simplified version of a topic. It is not, however,
designed for the non-native reader. No concessions are made in
respect to lexis or simplification of grammatical structure, as this
example illustrates clearly. The most useful rhetorical elements it
provides us with area stipulatory definition (see chapter 7) and an
embedded relative clause.
Example 4.2C is from the American journal Scientific American,
which has been characterized as providing information for the

29.
The individualizing process

interested and educated layman. Like the other examples, it makes

no concessions — lexically, grammatically, or rhetorically — to its
readers. While it is a useful tool to use in EST classes at the
university level, it is no less difficult to read than the supposedly
more specialized books from which examples 4.2A and B were
taken.
Rhetorically, example 4.2C gives us a fairly long and (for the
non-native student) difficult formal definition — difficult because of
the negatives it contains — and we have a good example of lexis that
can confuse all but the very knowledgeable reader: a common non-
technical term ‘glasses’ used in a very technical sense. Because the
writer uses the plural, we would normally assume that he refers
either to the ‘glasses’ that improve sight or to the ‘glasses’ one
drinks from. It would take an experienced non-native reader to
realize at the beginning of the article that the writer uses ‘glasses’ to
refer to the substance from which all things of ‘glass’ are made.
To add to the confusion for non-native readers, the writer violates
the ‘rule’ that is found in virtually all textbooks for beginning
classes in English, that ‘glass’ in the general meaning is an
uncountable noun. While it is true that students of English are
(supposedly) taught early that when an uncountable noun is
pluralized it takes on the meaning of ‘kinds of ....’ (kinds of teas, of
glasses, of coffees, etc.), this does not seem to stay in the students’
minds as well as the ‘regular rules’ relating to uncountable nouns.
Another point of confusion surely must be the writer’s use of the
uncountable ‘glass’ with the indefinite article. Again it would take
students fairly experienced in reading scientific and technical texts
to grasp quickly that ‘kind of glass’ or ‘a piece of glass’ is meant
here.
Standard references are of little help for the puzzled student since
only in scientific and technical dictionaries does the learner find
uncountable nouns used in the plural (but not the explanation for
this use). The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, for
example, labels ‘glass’ with the general meaning as ‘U’. In contrast,
in Godman and Payne’s Longman Dictionary of Scientific Usage the
plural form is given in a discussion of ‘polymers and glasses’. ]

This type of example text is most useful for students who have shown
that they can handle lexis of this difficulty. However, for the majority of
non-native readers, it might be safer to leave out examples of this type,
as tempting as they are at first look. I am not trying to suggest here that
difficult lexis should be avoided simply because it is difficult, (if we set
difficulty as a criterion we would be hard put to find any sample mater-
ials!) since it is not just difficulty but difficulty plus apparent ‘rule’
violation that tends to create the problems. A good illustration of diffi-
cult lexis that has not kept a text from being useful to heterogeneous
groups of intermediate level EST students is example 4.3. Few of the

30
4.5 Types oftexts

students who work with this know the specialized medical vocabulary,
nor do they expect to have to learn it. The value for them lies in the
rhetorical content: we have easily identified rhetorical functions and
rhetorical techniques and an almost classic illustration of a one-to-
more-than-one correspondence, with the first of the three physical para-
graphs used to state the core and to provide the base words for the
sub-cores that begin the following two paragraphs.

EXAMPLE 4.3. ARHETORICALLY USEFUL BUT LEXICALLY

DIFFICULT ‘GENUINE’ TEXT
The autonomic nervous system is separated into two parts, both
structurally and functionally. These are called the sympathetic
and parasympathetic systems.
Inthe sympathetic system, the cell bodies of the first motor
neurons lie in the thoracic and lumbar portions of the spinal cord.
The axions of these neurons exit ventrally from the cord and run to
the ganglia lying near the cord, where they synapse with second
motor neurons whose cell bodies lie in the ganglia. Thus the
synapse between the first and second motor neurons occurs ina
ganglion that is:at a distance from the target organ, and the axion
of the second motor neuron is quite long.
Two principal structural differences distinguish the
parasympathetic system from the sympathetic system. First, the
cell bodies of the first motor neurons of the parasympathetic
system lie in the brain and the sacral region of the spinal cord.
Second, the synapses between first and second motor neurons of
the parasympathetic system occur in the immediate vicinity of the
target organs; the axion of the second motor neuron is thus
relatively short.
[Source: Submitted by a student; precise source unknown. ]

{In this example the writer gives us a rhetorical function that is

often difficult to find: physical description in almost ‘pure’ form;
that is, with virtually no intrusion of function or process
description. While in the core statement, we find the word
‘functionally’ in the phrase ‘both structurally and functionally’, this
conceptual paragraph is clearly an example of development by
physical description. The nearest the writer comes to bringing in
function description is at the end of the second and third physical
paragraphs where causality and result statements tell us that the
length of the axion of the second motor neuron is a function of the
distance of the synapse between the first and second motor neurons
and the target organs. In addition to this example of the rhetorical
technique of causality and result, the writer gives us several
statements of contrast: The second and third physical paragraphs
contrast with one another as a whole and specific statements in

31
The individualizing process

physical paragraph two contrast with similar statements in

paragraph three.
In terms of the above-described features this is a very useful
example, but in our experience it is best limited to classes with
comparatively high levels of English. While the rhetorical features
are easily identified even by students who have not had a great deal
of experience in reading scientific and technical texts, this same
inexperience causes them to be put off by the somewhat
overwhelming number of unfamiliar words. |
It is obvious that we can use unmodified text materials with fairly
advanced students — advanced either in subject-matter knowledge or
English or both. However, the fact that we are working with advanced
students can lead us into a self-laid trap: so often we find ourselves
lured by what seems a perfectly logical idea — gain the students’ inter-
est by giving them solid technical material, material they can feel is
‘real’. Thus we find ourselves choosing texts for their subject matter
rather than for their rhetorical, grammatical, or lexical features. When
we begin discussing these features, we find that we are dealing with
materials over which we have no control. Our sample text may be
strong on technical terminology or scientific method but lack a clear-
cut example of whatever rhetorical (or other) point we want to make.
Frequently the result is that we either try to compensate by bringing in
more texts of the same types (thus compounding the problem) or
we try to use the weak example we have and ‘talk’ it into something
more useful, thus taking away any possible feeling that the material is
‘real’.
This is not to say that ‘genuine’ materials are not usable. They can
be the best choice, particularly for advanced classes or for those that
have the type of homogeneity that can be exploited. However, because
of the dangers inherent in ‘genuine’ materials, they must be most care-
fully chosen and with the major criterion being functionality: if our
immediate topic is the rhetorical function of definition, then we should
not choose a text simply because it contains one or more definitions;
rather, we should be sure that the chosen text has examples
of the
kinds of definitions we are concerned with. Do we want to illustrate
simple formal, semi-formal, or non-formal definitions? Do we want
to
illustrate definitions expanded in certain ways?
One way in which we can make use of ‘genuine’ texts and
at the
same time make certain that we have the ‘right? examples
for our
immediate needs is to take our ‘genuine’ materials and give
them a
modifying treatment. If this treatment is gentle enough,
students
usually accept such texts as genuine — unless, of course,
we just happen
to choose one that some of those students are very familia
r with. This
process of modification we call ‘adapting’.

of
4.5 Types of texts

4.5.2 Adapted materials

Adapted materials allow us to stress — and sometimes even create — the

features that we want to work with. While the process does not eliminate
all of the pitfalls involved in choosing texts because we think (hope?) that
they are in the students’ fields of interest, we can avoid many problems
first, by selecting material as close to what we actually want and need as
possible and second, by making minimal changes. Another advantage to
this process is that when adapting we are performing teaching-related
operations on our selected texts. Thus, involving ourselves in the
adapting process can in itself alert us to problems inherent in our par-
ticular materials.
However, a word of caution: adapting texts can turn into an awkward
and frustrating exercise in preparation if we try to work with too many
features at the same time. To try to adapt for rhetorical features (whether
the paragraph or rhetorical techniques or rhetorical functions or all of
these) and at the same time try to modify grammatical and/or lexical
features as well is courting disaster. This is in part because few EST teachers
are scientifically trained and so making major changes can result in errors
that enable students to recognize a piece of work as contrived. Adapting is
more successful—and certainly more of a pleasure— when we make changes
in only one area or at most in two areas should these be sufficiently closely
related. Examples 4.4 and 4.5A and B below illustrate texts that have been
adapted in order to simplify (and to stress) rhetorical features.
Lexical changes are not exemplified here because making such changes is
not often rewarding: in scientific and technical discourse there is seldom a
precise synonym for a technical or sub-technical word, and even less
frequently can we find a simpler (more common) word to do the job being
done by the word we want to change. We have done little to the structures
except to shorten the original version and to make such changes as help
show up the rhetorical elements we wish to point out.
Example 4.4 is the original version. It has been taken from a book
designed for American secondary school students planning their future
careers. Example 4.5A is an adaptation of the first four paragraphs of
example 4.4. The adapting was minimal: physical paragraphs one and two
are combined to make a new beginning physical paragraph containing the
core of the entire selection (that is, the four-to-one correspondence that
adds up to the conceptual paragraph). Paragraph 4 of the original has been
broken into two parts to show the separation of the pieces of information
that made up the original. The main purpose of this adapting was to
provide an example of formal definition expanded by explication (see
into its
chapter 7) and to illustrate that breaking a conceptual paragraph
component physical paragraphs is not purely arbitrary butis done in order
to best organize the items of information for the reader.
33
The individualizing process

Example 4.5B is an adaptation of paragraph 5 of the original. Here we

have done somewhat more adapting than in the previous example. The
first step in this kind of adapting is to take the basic rhetorical feature to
be focused on and place it in as prominent a position as is feasible. In our
case, this rhetorical feature is the formal definition of engineering. As our
Purpose is to show a different method of expansion of a definition, we
then take the etymological information from the original and use this as a
basis for our text. We add to this by inserting a new sentence, which has
the purpose of giving the derivation of the term ‘engineering’. This not
only balances the derivation of ‘science’ and adds to our expansion by
etymology but it also provides a statement giving us an example of the
rhetorical technique of comparison and contrast.
While this paragraph (which is an example of one-to-one correspond-
ence) shows more alteration than does 4.5A, we still have made only a
minimal number of changes. The result of this rather small amount of
adapting provides us with two examples of the development of core
statements: 1. two kinds of physical—conceptual paragraph correspond-
ence; 2. two ways of expanding the same definition (by explication and by
etymology); 3. several examples of comparison and contrast used to
develop ideas within a paragraph; and 4. an example of contrast used to
show the relationship of two paragraphs and to act as a transition
between those paragraphs.

EXAMPLE4.4 ORIGINAL VERSION

... we might say that engineering is the process of solvinga

particular kind of problem (involving the control or utilization
of the
forces of nature) ina particular way (by the application of
principles of sciences, mathematics, and special problem-solvin
g
methods) in order to achieve certain practical desired
results.
More simply, we might define engineering as the process of
harnessing or directing the forces and materials of na ture for
the
use and convenience of man.
Such a definition of engineering is by no means comple
te and
exhaustive. But for our purposesit isa good working
definition
because it emphasizes three major points that are critical
to our
understanding of what engineering is.
First, the word ‘process’ suggests a continuing activity.
Engineering is not a single specific action, but a combina
tion or
sequence ofactions. It is both an art anda science
—a science
because it requires specific knowledge, underst
anding, and use of
the laws of nature, and an art because it also require
s the human
talents of imagination, insight, judgment, and elastici
ty of thinking.
The words ‘harnessing’ or ‘directing’ suggest the
how-to-do-it
function of engineering. Engineering involves
the changing and
molding of materials and forces rather than the mere
study and

34
4.5 Types of texts

observation of them. Finally, the words ‘use’ and ‘convenience’

suggest the ultimate goal of engineering: not only to serve the
needs of man, but to make things work more easily, more safely,
more economically, or more comfortably for him.
Wecanalso see that this simple definition clearly points out the
basic difference between science and engineering. The word
‘science’ is derived froma Latin word meaning ‘to know’. The
work of science is to expand the boundaries of our knowledge of
the laws of nature. The work of engineering is to find useful and
practical applications for that expanding treasure of scientific
knowledge for the improvement of man’s welfare.
[Source: Alan E. Nourse, So You Want to Be an Engineer (Harper and Brothers,
New York, 1962), pp. 13-14.]

EXAMPLE4.5A SIMPLEADAPTATION

We might define engineering as the process of harnessing or

directing the forces and materials of nature for the use and
convenience of man. Such a definition is by no means complete
and exhaustive, but it is a good working definition because it
emphasizes three major points that are critical to an
understanding of what engineering is.
First, the word ‘process’ suggests a continuing activity.
Engineering is not a single specific action but a combination or
sequence of actions. It is both an art and a science —a science
because it requires specific knowledge, understanding, and use
of the laws of nature, and an art because it also requires the human
talents of imagination, insight, judgment, and elasticity of
thinking.
Second, the words ‘harnessing’ or ‘directing’ suggest the how-
to-do-it function of engineering. Engineering involves the
changing and molding of materials and forces rather than the
mere study and observation of them.
Finally, the words ‘use’ and ‘convenience’ suggest the ultimate
goal of engineering: not only to serve the needs of man but to
make things work more easily, more safely, more economically,
or more comfortably for him.

EXAMPLE 4.5B MORECOMPLEX ADAPTATION

We might define engineering as the process of harnessing or

directing the forces and materials of nature for the use and
convenience of man. This simple definition clearly points out the
difference between science and engineering. ‘Science’ is derived
froma Latin word meaning ‘to know’. ‘Engineering’ is derived
from Latin also, froma root meaning ‘to produce’; later it came to
mean ‘to invent’ and ‘skill’. The work of science is to expand the
boundaries of our knowledge of the laws of nature. The work of

35
The individualizing process

engineering is to find useful and practical applications for that

expanding treasure of scientific knowledge for the improvement
of man’s welfare.

Adapting in order to make grammatical changes is probably the most

frequent (and the simplest) way of modifying texts for classroom use.
Example 4.6A is an original text containing a heavy load of passive verb
forms and example 4.6B is a partial revision made to show the changes
necessary to convert passive forms to active. The revision is only partial
so that the passage can be used either as an exercise for the students or as a
basis for grammatical discussion.

EXAMPLE 4.6A ORIGINAL: A HEAVY PASSIVE LOAD

The d-c relays described in chapter 7 are primarily used with pilot
devices to operate the larger contactors or circuit breakers.
The complete contactor is composed of an operating magnet,
which is activated by either switches or relays, fixed contacts, and
moving contacts. It may be used to handle the load of an entire bus,
ora single circuit or device. However, when heavy currents are to
be interrupted, larger contacts must be used. The contacts must
snap open or closed to reduce contact arcing and burning. In
addition to these precautions, other arc-quenching means are
used.

[Source: Submitted by a student; precise source unknown. ]

EXAMPLE4.6B PARTIALLY ADAPTED TO ACTIVE VOICE

We use the d-c relays described in chapter 7 primarily with pilot

devices to operate the larger contactors or circuit breakers.
An operating magnet, fixed contacts, and moving contacts make
up the complete contactor. This magnet is activated by either
switches or relays. [Complete the paragraph by changing the
passive forms — where change is logical - to active forms. Use
‘we’
when you need a subject for an agentless Passive verb converte
d to
an active one.]

Adapting to changes in verb tense, mood or voice is often a quite

simple,
straightforward substitution procedure. Adapting for other gramma
tical
changes, however, often requires a bit more effort. This is illustr
ated by
the changes made to an original text designed for secondary
school
students in Yugoslavia (example 4.7A): a substitution of simple
past
tense for present perfect in order to show a piece of discour
se written in an
36
4.5 Types oftexts

‘historical mode’ and several structural shifts made to incorporate rela-

tive clauses into the text. Example 4.7B shows the results of these
changes.

EXAMPLE4.7A ORIGINAL: PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

The revolution in shipbuilding which began in the 1960s has

continued to grow. In order to meet increasing demands for more
cargo to be shipped across the oceans, many ships have been
reconstructed to carry more and different cargoes — and new ships
have been built incorporating changes in size, in ways of handling
cargo, in ship design, and in power plants.
This revolution in shipbuilding is best seen in the development of
container ships — ships that carry their cargo in large containers, or
boxes, to make loading and unloading faster and easier. Much of
this new concept in cargo handling has taken place because of
technological improvements. Automation has allowed more
complex ship designs and greater safety with smaller crews. New
alloys and steels as well as new welding processes have permitted
ever increasing ship sizes, and new types of power plants — ranging
from improved diesels to nuclear power — have contributed to the
development of ships up to 500,000 tons, and soon they will be even
larger.
[Source: Louis Trimble, Zlata Kipcic, Mia Gottwald, Nevenka Murgic, and
Davorka Celmic, New Horizons: A Reader in Scientific and Technical English
(Zagreb: Skolska Knjiga, 1975), p. 60.]

[The above was written by Mia Gottwald. The book was designed for
secondary technical school students in Croatia, Yugoslavia, and was
used in several systems there and in other non-English speaking
environments. |]

EXAMPLE 4.7B ADAPTED: TENSE CHANGED; RELATIVE CLAUSES

ADDED

The revolution in shipbuilding began in the 1960s. In order to meet

increasing demands for more cargo to be shipped across the
oceans many ships were reconstructed, which enabled them to
carry more and different cargoes. Also new ships were built which
incorporated changes in size, in ways of handling cargo, in ship
design, and in power plants.
This revolution in shipbuilding is best seen in the development of
container ships, which are types of ships that carry their cargo in
large containers, or boxes, to make loading and unloading faster
and easier. Much of this new concept in cargo handling took place
because of technological improvements: automation, which
allowed more complex ship designs and greater safety with smaller

37
The individualizing process

crews; new alloys and steels along with new welding processes,
which permitted ever-increasing ship sizes; and new types of
power plants — ranging from improved diesels to nuclear power -—
which contributed to the development of ships up to 500,000 tons.
Soon ships will be even larger.

In all adapting, a good rule of thumb is to make the least alteration

possible in the sentence structure (unless, of course, the purpose of the
modification is to show a different structure) and also make minimal
change in the lexis. Even if the lexis should obviously be simplified , it is
often best left alone: as I noted above, trying to ‘improve’ lexis is a
frustrating and seldom successful task. A final point: while it may take
more time to hunt through several sources for just the right piece of text
to adapt, this can reward us, both in ease of adapting and in finding the
best material for a given group.

4.5.3 Synthesized and created materials

I lump together synthesized and created materials for purposes of discus-
sion as they are the results of very similar processes. Both give us more
control over the grammatical, rhetorical, and lexical features than
do
adapting or using ‘genuine’ materials. At the same time, it must be
admitted that both synthesizing and creating require more time and effort
on the part of the person preparing materials than do either of the other
two procedures.
By synthesizing we mean the process of taking ‘genuine’ materials from
two or more sources, deleting the unwanted items and fusing the
remaining information into a continuous text. Although synthes
izing
does not rule out using direct quotations, the fewer used, the more
‘real’
the synthesized piece will sound: much more control can be
achieved by
clever paraphrasing than by relying on too much original languag
e. In
other words, we can leave the original where appropriate and,
when we
wish, adapt for specific points of rhetoric, structure, or lexis.
By creating we mean much the same as synthesizing except
that our
sources are used purely for reference and all of the wording
is our own.
This method obviously gives us almost complete control in
building our
units of discourse as we want them, in stressing those
grammatical
elements we wish to have practiced, and in providing the lexis
that is most
useful for any given group. Since few of us carry in our
heads a body of
scientific and technical information that we can
produce on call, the
procedures involved in creating materials can be
very time consuming —
especially at the beginning of our ‘research’. Even so,
the results usuall y
justify this extra time and effort. For, despite the
‘genuine materials only’
advocates, control over one’s material is a vitally
important element in
38
4.5 Types oftexts

teaching an EST class of non-native students, especially those at lower

levels. And, clearly, we get the most control from creating or synthesizing.
Example, 4.8 below illustrates synthesizing from several sources, pri-
marily histories of technology and encyclopedias. The purpose of the text
is dual: first, to exemplify the rhetoric of description and the rhetorical
technique of comparison and contrast, and second to exemplify typical
passive-voice technical writing and from this to set up an exercise in a)
recognizing the passive and b) learning how to transform it into the active
where possible — and logical.
This piece of discourse is relatively short (a little over 200 words) but
synthesizing allows us to get in all the features noted above as well as
others worth discussing: transitions, demonstratives, and one-to-one
correspondence.

EXAMPLE 4.8 A SYNTHESIZED TEXT

One early technological change that had far-reaching effects on

man and his environment is that of the plow. Before the late 600s AD
the ground was not turned over by plows, but its surface was only
scratched, even when the plows were drawn by a pair of oxen.
Thus cross-plowing was needed and so fields tended to be made
more square. The fairly light soils of the Middle East and the
Mediterranean could be worked quite easily by this method, while
the heavier soils of northern Europe, on the other hand, could not
be. However, by the end of the 7th century (the late 600s), anew
kind of plow was being used by northern Europeans. This plow
was equipped with a vertical knife with which the furrow was cut; a
horizontal piece (which is called the ‘share’) that cut under the sod;
anda moldboard by which the soil was turned. The pressure of the
soil against this plow was so great that eight, rather than just two,
oxen were required to pull it. Now, because cross-plowing was no
longer needed, the shape of fields was changed from square to
long and striplike; and because the soil was worked so much more
completely, greater harvests were possible.

[The above selection is clearly awkward in using passive forms when

active ones would obviously be stylistically better as well as easier to
understand. I refer especially to sentence 6, where the ‘new’ plow is
described. Hopefully, the students will change ‘with which the
furrow was cut’ to ‘that cut the furrow’ and ‘which is called the share’
to the still passive but simpler ‘called the share’ and ‘by which the soil
was turned’ to ‘that turned the soil’. The other passives sound more
‘natural’ but most could still stand transforming into actives.|

Example 4.9 is an elementary-level created text, built on the model of

example 4.1. Its purpose is to provide an example of parallelism that
39
The individualizing process

illustrates the rhetorical functions of definition, classification, and

description along with the rhetorical technique of comparison and con-
trast. Although not specifically designed for the purpose, this text can
also be used in a discussion of paragraphing: it has two clear cut cores and
one sub-core and it has two separate conceptual paragraphs — the first two
illustrating a two-to-one correspondence and the third, a one-to-one
correspondence.

EXAMPLE4.9 A CREATED TEXT

A thermometer is a measuring instrument used to give the

temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. Thermometers may
be divided into types according to their means of indicating
temperature. The most common types of thermometers are those
which use alcohol or mercury inside a glass tube. In fact, we can
classify thermometers by the materials they use to record
temperatures. Other ways of classifying them are 1) by the type of
scale each uses and 2) by their function or purpose.
Four different scales are used for temperature measurement.
The Fahrenheit scale divides the temperature between the freezing
and boiling points of water into 212 units; that is, degrees. The
Celsius scale (often called Centigrade) divides this same range of
temperature into 100 degrees. The Kelvin scale begins its
measurement at Absolute Zero with its degree intervals (intervals of
temperature) corresponding to the Celsius scale — thus the freezing
point of water on the Kelvin scale is 273.15°K. The Rankine scale is
also an Absolute Zero scale; however, its temperature intervals are
based on the Fahrenheit rather than the Celsius scale.
Thermometers may be grouped according to their purpose or
function in several ways. One simple grouping is to divide them
into a) medical thermometers, b) weather thermometers, and c)
scientific thermometers.

I am not suggesting here that we never use ‘genuine’ materials in our

EST
work. They do, after all, provide that air of verisimilitude that makes
students feel that they are working with something besides materials
contrived for the classroom and, therefore, suspect. This reaction
is
especially true of advanced undergraduate and postgraduate
science and
engineering students. In fact, a workable rule is, ‘The more advance
d the
class (advanced in both English and subject matter), the more
useful are
“genuine” materials.’ In our experience, the basic criteria for determi
ning
whether to use ‘genuine’ materials or to adapt or synthesi
ze or create
them are 1. the language and subject-matter levels of a given
group and 2.
the features to be stressed ina given teaching sesssion.*
The first criterion needs little commentary. Concerning the second
40
4.6 Individualizing: examples

criterion, however, it is worthwhile to remember that ‘genuine’ materials

seldom provide us with precisely the features — whether rhetorical, gram-
matical, or lexical — that we want for any given day. Unfortunately, when
they do satisfy these needs, they often include additional (and unwanted)
features that tend to distract many students. This is especially true with
lower-level groups. We cannow add to our ‘rule’ above: ‘Theless advanced
the class, the less one should use “‘genuine” materials and the more one
shouldrely onadapting, synthesizing and creatingtogetthe most functional
discourse units.’
To return to one of the basic points of this chapter, any of the examples
can provide material for parallelism. In our experience, however, the
most useful are examples 4.1 and 4.9 for illustrating the rhetorical func-
tions of description, definition, and classification and the rhetorical tech-
niques of causality and result and comparison and contrast; these
examples plus example 4.4 for illustrating the conceptual—physical para-
graph correspondences and the rhetoric of definition; and examples 4.6
and 4.8 for illustrating the ‘passive’ style of much scientific and technical
writing and for setting up passive—active transformation exercises.

4.6 Individualizing: examples

The following brief discussion makes no attempt to be exhaustive.

Detailed individualized assignments are given in each of the chapters
concerned with the major topics of this book: the paragraph, the rheto-
rical techniques, the rhetorical functions, the rhetorical-grammatical
relationships, and the problems of lexis. In this section only two examples
are given, both based on the assumption that the students are involved in
studying the EST paragraph.
Other assumptions on which the individualizing examples are based
are the following:
1. The class consists of students with average ability both in English and
in subject-matter knowledge.
2. All are undergraduate students, their fields being engineering, pre-
medicine, communications, anthropology, and English as a second
foreign language.
3. They have had three sessions on the paragraph. In the first, they were
given a labeled set of example paragraphs (examples 3.1A and B), and
in the second, an unlabeled set of paragraphs (example 4.5A). The first
session stressed the concept of physical—-conceptual correspondences
and the second that of core statements. In the third, the students were
shown a number of paragraphs taken from writings in various fields of
science and technology. Some of these examples were untouched;
41
The individualizing process

others were adapted to stress the idea of ‘core’, the main point of the
discussion.
The first sets of individualized assignments were designed to improve
reading skills by teaching students to see quickly what a paragraph was
going to be about. (The instructions on photocopying and cutting and
pasting are not vital to the process. The students can hand copy or type the
material if photocopy equipment is not available or if photocopying is too
costly. The purpose of photocopying for this type of assignment is to make
sure that the students avoid putting their own errors into the material as
they so often do when copying by hand.’)
The sample assignment shown in chart 4.1 requires the students to find
six different paragraphs taken from their subject-matter reading and is
clearly too long to be given as a single assignment: it is a composite of parts
of two assignments, one designed to test an understanding of correspond-
ences and the other, recognition of core statements. The instructions
following the assignment are also a composite from the two original
handouts. Adapting this assignment for class use is discussed in section
10.4, chapter 10.

CHART 4.I SAMPLEINDIVIDUALIZED READING ASSIGNMENT

Using your assigned books or other reading materials related to your
own scientific or technical courses, find examples of the following
types of paragraphs:
1. Aparagraph with a one-to-one correspondence
2. Aparagraph with a one-to-more-than-one correspondence
3. A one-to-one paragraph that has its core statement in the first
sentence
4. Aone-to-one paragraph that has its core statement anywhere but
in the first sentence
5. Aconceptual paragraph made up of three or more physical
paragraphs with the core statement in the first sentence
6. Aconceptual paragraph made up of threeor more physical
paragraphs with the core statement anywhere butin the first
sentence
Instructions: Photocopy each example. Trim it and paste it on a sheet
of paper that has your name, the course number and the date at the
top. Leave space above and below your example. Above each
example put a label giving the type of correspondence of that
example. Beneath the example give your source in detail. On the
example itself, underline the core statement.

Once the students show that they recognize paragraph types and core
statements in their own reading, we can help ‘fix’ this knowledge by
having them write paragraphs similar to those they have already handed
in. Chart 4.2 is a sample individualized paragraph writing assignment
designed to follow the reading assignments shown in chart 4.1 above.

42
4.6 Individualizing: examples
One way of keeping a certain amount of control over student writing is
to have the students take their assignment away and bring back not their
completed paragraphs but notes along with a list of sources. They then
write their paragraphs in the class from their notes. While this method
serves the purpose of the teacher avoiding receiving paragraphs written
by the students’ native-speaking friends (a not infrequent occurrence in
our experience), it still leaves some unsolved problems. First, unless we
vet the students’ notes, we usually find direct quotes from the source
instead of paraphrases. This is often done innocently since many native
students have too little control over the language to be able to paraphrase
successfully. Second, the method described above requires using consider-
able class time —a commodity few of us have enough of when teaching. A
detailed discussion of this problem of controlling writing assignments,
including some suggested solutions, is in chapter 10.
The assignment shown in chapter 4.2 is not the actual one students
receive as a handout. In the beginning section only two paragraphs are
asked for, while on the actual assignment sheet, the students might be
asked for more — depending on the capacity of a given class to do work of
this kind. The list of core statements gives only excerpts from the actual
lists used. In the complete assignment each field has approximately 8 to
10 sentences for the students to choose from. Also, sentences (topics) are
changed according to the fields represented in a particular group.

CHART 4.2 SAMPLEINDIVIDUALIZED WRITING ASSIGNMENT

Choose a sentence from your field and write a paragraph using this as
the core statement of a one-to-one correspondence. Do the same with
another sentence, using this as the core statement for a one-to-more-
than-one correspondence.

Engineering [This may be broken into several fields.]

1. Statics and dynamics are two basic fields of study for engineers.
Communications
1. Computers that can converse with one another will soon be here.
Anthropology
1. The remains of possibly the earliest form of homo sapiens have
been found in East Africa.

English as a second/foreign language

1. There are several basic differences between spoken and written
forms of a language.

Additional examples of individualized assignments are given in chapter

10, sections 10.5 through 10.8.

43
5 The paragraph inEST

5.1. Introduction

In chapters 1 through 4 J have attempted to establish the framework

the rhetorical approach to teaching EST fits into. In this sense these
chapters are introductory. The remaining chapters discuss the main
elements that make up the rhetorical approach, stressing EST reading
but also looking at writing. These elements are given in an order that
our experience shows is most successful in working with university-
level EST classes. However, the presentations do not mirror precisely
those of the classroom: how much of a given topic is discussed and
how much time is spent on each of the areas (rhetorical, grammatical,
or lexical) depends to a great degree on the make-up of the individual
class. For example, a group composed mainly of postgraduate students
seldom needs as much time to grasp the basic principles of the rheto-
rical functions as does a heterogeneous class of undergraduates; on the
other hand, this group may need considerably more time on the prob-
lems involved in writing EST discourse.
The elements that make up the rhetorical approach to teaching EST
reading (and, secondarily, writing) are discussed in the following
order:
ChapterS, The paragraphin EST
Chapter 6, The rhetorical techniques
Chapter 7, The rhetorical functions
Chapter 8, The rhetorical-grammatical relationships
Chapter9, The lexical problems
Chapter 10, Teaching the rhetorical process
Each of these topics is discussed in respect to its relation to the
total process. Most of the examples are from our university classes.
Each example is accompanied by a brief analysis designed so that it
can be used as a basis for a classroom presentation of whatever
thetorical element is being illustrated. The discussion of the
thetorical process begins with the paragraph. This should receive
quite detailed coverage since the students need a sound grasp of
the concepts in order to be able to understand and use the other
rhetorical features.

44
5.2 The EST paragraph

9.2. The EST paragraph

We chose the paragraph as the basic discourse unit for the analysis of
written scientific and technical English because it carries information in
clearly organized ‘packets’ and because it shows how the various pieces of
that information are related. Also, it separates generalizations from
specifics and from one another so that the trained reader can learn to
differentiate easily between levels of generality.
To recapitulate, the key elements in the semantic unit of discourse that
we call the EST paragraph are the following:
1. The paragraph is a conceptual concept and it may be realized in a
group of sentences (or even in a single sentence) set off from other
groups by spacing or indentation, or the demands on the way in which
the information is most functionally organized may require two or
more such groups of sentences.
2. The ‘conceptual’ paragraph is developed around the semantic element
that we call the ‘core generalization’ or, simply, the ‘core’. This is the
generalization that is supported by the lesser generalizations and/or
the specific statements that make up the information in the paragraph.
As a rule, this ‘core generalization’ is the most general statement in the
paragraph (but see example 5.1B for the ‘exception to the rule’). When
we refer to a particular core generalization that is realized in the text,
we call it the core ‘statement’. While this can usually be put in the form
of a single sentence, it is often found as a clause or a phrase or a
combination of several parts of different sentences. If our generaliz-
ation is to be called the ‘core statement’ of a paragraph, its words must
be found somewhere in that paragraph. Otherwise, we have an
‘implied’ core and we talk about the ‘core’ or the ‘core idea’ rather
than the ‘core statement’. While there is no rule concerning this choice
of terminology, we find it more useful for class discussion to be consis-
tent, if only to avoid confusing our students.
An illustration of a generalization that can be stated clearly in a single
sentence and of its development in the form of lesser generalizations and
specifics (that is, specific in relation to the generalizations that govern
them) is example 3.1A (repeated below). In addition to the brief analysis
made by the ‘notes’ in the right-hand margin of the example, we would
add the following information to a classroom discussion:
As noted in chapter 3, the core statement is made up of parts of the first
two sentences of the first physical paragraph: “The components
composing the urban system are the land use system and the transpor-
tation system.’ This statement is the broadest generalization in the entire
conceptual paragraph (made up, remember, of three physical para-
graphs). Lesser generalizations are, in a sense, abstracted from the major
generalization to provide the sub-cores for the remaining two physical

45
The paragraph in EST

paragraphs: the first is ‘Land use refers to the spatial configuration....’

and the second is ‘The transportation system determines....’ We find
direct support for our major generalization (our ‘core’) given by the lesser
generalization, “These two categories interact with each other as well as
with themselves.’ The other two physical paragraphs then develop our
core statement and its supporting generalization.
Each of the two sub-cores is supported by a mixture of lesser
generalizations and specific information. An easily seen example is the
way in which the sub-core ‘Land use refers to ...’ is supported. We have
the first lower-level generalization ‘... demand for interaction of oppor-
tunities ...’ followed by more specific information: *... located in insti-
tutional, commercial, and industrial areas.’ The second lesser generaliz-
ation “The supply side of opportunities. ...’ is supported with even more
detailed items of information.

[EXAMPLE 3.1A] ONE CONCEPTUAL PARAGRAPH COMPOSED

OF THREE PHYSICAL PARAGRAPHS (ONE-TO-MORE-THAN-ONE
CORRESPONDENCE)

The components composing the urban system Core of

can be categorized into two major categories. conceptual
These are the land use configuration and the paragraph
transportation system. These two categories
interact with each other as well as with
themselves.
Land use refers to the special configuration of Sub-core no. 1
supply and demand of opportunities: for
instance, the demand for interaction of
opportunities is located in institutional,
commercial, and industrial areas. The supply
side of opportunities is measured in terms of the
intensity of attractiveness, which may be
expressed by the number of jobs in the specific
zone. The spatial location and quantities of these
entities (supply and demand of opportunities) in
relation to the others are the major attributes of
the land use components of the urban system.
The transportation system determines theease Sub-coreno.2
of interaction between the supply and demand
configurations. The transportation system has two
attributes. One is the transportation network,
which determines the spatial coverage of its
service, and the other is the level of service or
quality of the transportation system. Both factors
have an effect on the interaction between
activities.

46
5.2 The EST paragraph

Because the idea of ‘core’ is so basic to the rhetorical analysis of EST

paragraphs, I want to look closely at some of the other characteristics of
this type of discourse. The first concerns a point we have already touched
on — the placement of core statements. The fact that these are not always
neat, single sentences handily placed at the beginning of the paragraph
can at first cause problems for students (native or non-native) who were
introduced to the concept of the paragraph by being given carefully con-
structed ones with their generalizations made up of the initial sentence.
While EST paragraphs do sometimes have their core statements as the
first sentence, these are in the minority. Examples 5.1A and 5.1B illustrate
these points: example 5.1A has its core statement as the initial sentence ;
example 5.1B has its core statement as the second sentence, which is
preceded by an even broader generalization than that of the core
statement.

EXAMPLE 5.IA CORESTATEMENT IN FIRST SENTENCE OF

PARAGRAPH

Soil physicists have characterized the drying ofa soilin three

stages. They are: the wet stage, where the evaporation is solely
determined by the meteorological conditions; an intermediate or
drying stage, where the soil occurs in the wet stage early in the day,
but then dries off because there is not a sufficient amount of water in
the soil to meet the evaporation rate; and the dry stage, where
evaporation is solely determined by the molecular transfer
properties of water within the soil. There is a striking change in the
evaporation rate as the soil dries during the transition from the wet
stages to the drying stage.
[T. J. Schmigge, ‘Measurement of Soil Moisture Utilizing the Diurnal Range of
Surface Temperature’, Significant Accomplishments in Science and Technology:
Goddard Space Center, 1974 (NASA: Scientific and Technical Information
Office, 1975, pp. 2-3. Quoted in Thomas Huckin and Leslie Olsen, “Teaching the
Use of the Article in EST’, in Larry Selinker, Elaine Tarone, and Victor Hanzeli
(eds.), English forAcademic and Technical Purposes (Rowley, Mass.: Newbury
House, 1981), p. 178.]

This paragraph is an almost classic example of paragraph structure

organization of information: the paragraph (an example of a one-to-one
correspondence) begins with a one-sentence core statement. This is sup-
ported by three statements which, while generalizations in themselves,
are specifics in relation to the major generalization. The paragraph is
neatly rounded off by a concluding sentence which also relates to the core
statement but less directly than the preceding information. The para-
graph is also an example of writing for a reader educated in another field
of science or technology; it is, in this sense, similar to the level of writing
found in the journal Scientific American.

47
The paragraph in EST

As noted above, core statements can be other than the first sentence in a
paragraph or the most major generalization of that paragraph. Example
5.1B illustrates both of these points.

EXAMPLE 5.IB CORE STATEMENT IN SECOND SENTENCE OF

PARAGRAPH

Physical comfort does not depend on temperature alone but on

other factors as well. One of the major factors on which comfort
depends is humidity. High humidity helps prevent heat loss from
the body and makes even high temperatures less bearable.
Dehumidifying the air helps the body to lose heat and thus bear
higher temperatures. However, beyond certain limits, removing
the moisture from the air becomes harmful to the body. The
mucous membranes of the nose and throat can become dry, thus
increasing susceptibility to respiratory diseases.

[Source: Submitted by a student; precise source unknown. |

That the core statement is the second sentence rather than the first in the
above paragraph can best be seen by examining the information given in
the supporting information: this information is concerned with humid-
ity, not with the larger topic of physical comfort, of which humidity is
one part. The first sentence is obviously the broader generalization and (as
is so often the case with initial sentences) is a transition from the pre-
ceding piece of text.
Such structures as this can be very confusing to the non-native learner,
especially to those who have been taught that the first sentence is the
generalization (the thesis/topic sentence) of the paragraph and that all
other information in the paragraph supports this generalization. Even
when they learn that the subject of the paragraph is not necessarily found
in the first sentence, many students continue to have trouble until they are
able to differentiate between the several levels of generalization that a
paragraph might contain and also between the general and specific in-
formation. The ability of students to make such distinctions and at the
same time grasp quickly the subject matter of a paragraph is one of the
bases for improved reading comprehension and speed and (as explained in
detail in chapter 10) for a successful transfer of these reading skills to
writing.
Another important characteristic of EST paragraphs is that the major-
ity are deductive in structure. As both examples above illustrate, most
EST paragraphs have their core statements near the beginning; that is, the
governing generalization precedes most or all of the supporting
information.
While this is the structure found in all examples given to this point, it is

48
5.2 The EST paragraph

not the only paragraph form found in EST. Prevelant enough to be worth
discussing are three other structures: the inductive paragraph, the
‘hybrid’ paragraph, and the ‘implicit’ paragraph. This last is, of course, a
misnomer as it is not the paragraph that is implicit but the core statement.
Each of these structures is exemplified below.
The inductive paragraph has its core statement found at or near the
end; that is, the supporting information precedes the generalization. This
type of paragraph is found most often in the kinds of peer writing in
which the events (physical or mental or both) leading to a discovery (or
new hypothesis, etc.) are given chronologically with the results stated as a
kind of climax. A second type of EST discourse in which we can
frequently find inductive paragraphs is in a different part of our spectrum
— in ‘popular’ scientific writing as in newspapers and books for ‘non-
experts’. This type of text is illustrated here in preference to an example of
peer writing as it is less technical in vocabulary while at the same time
retaining the essential elements of ESF discourse.

EXAMPLE 5.2 A PARAGRAPH DEVELOPED INDUCTIVELY

The first uses of plastics were to replace natural materials such as

metal, leather, rubber, and so on. Telephones came to be made ofa
plastic called ‘bakelite’; the soles of shoes and, later, the uppers
came to be made of various mubber and leather substitutes; and the
Second World War brought about the development of ‘butyl
rubber tires and innertubes. Although called ‘nibber’, things made
of butyl were, and are, wholly synthetic. Without plastics we would
not have many of the things we take for granted: we would not have
several kinds of important electrical insulation nor would we have
the wide diversity of photographic film.available today. When we
look back, we can see how our lives have been changed by
plastics.

[The core statement of this synthesized paragraph is in the last

sentence. It would not be difficult to make this a ‘deductive’
paragraph by a simple transfer of the core to the beginning of the
paragraph and only the change of one word (e.g., ‘If we look back, we
can see how our lives have been changed by plastics.’).|

Both inductive and deductive structures are found in the ‘hybrid’ para-
graph, with specific statements leading to a core and then following from
it. Since the core statement is usually in or near the centre of the para-
graph, we have a kind of sandwich made up of specific information with
the core in between. Example 5.3 illustrates a hybrid paragraph aimed at
lower-intermediate-level students.
49
The paragraph in EST

EXAMPLE 5.3. A ‘HYBRID’ PARAGRAPH

Date palms have grown prolifically in both Mesopotamia
(modern Iraq) and Egypt for many thousands of years. Dates are
rich in sugar and in such warm climates fermentation into a
liquid containing alcohol took place fairly quickly. Thus, while
our first records of dates being made into winecome fromthe
period 3000 to 2000 B.C., we feel certain that it was made much
earlier. Since the fruit itself houses the yeast fungus that causes
fermentation, making date wine was a fairly simple process.
The only pieces of equipment needed were ajar to hold the
date ‘must’ (the dates and the liquid from them) and a strainer
used at the end of the fermentation.
[Source: Adapted from Henry Hodges, Technology in the Ancient World
(New York: Knopf, 1970), pp. 114-15.]

[The core statement is, as the italics indicate, ‘Dates (were)

made into wine much earlier [than] the period 3000 to 2000
B-Cyy

A final type of paragraph development found commonly enough to be

worth studying is the ‘implicit’ paragraph; that is, the paragraph
which has its core implied by the nature of the information. In this
type of structure, the writer seems to assume that readers can supply
their own generalizations from the details presented. A paragraph
with an implied core is illustrated by example 5.4, which is from a
peer-level engineering report best used with advanced students.

EXAMPLE 5.4 A PARAGRAPH WITHOUTA STATED CORE

The spans over the water are made up of triple two-pin steel
spandrel braced arches with their arch springings situated just
above water level. The two spans over the land are continuo
us
steel deck beams supported by portal type concrete trestles
on
rocker bearings that are located just above the ground level.
The water spans measure 134 meters between arch pin
centres,
with each of the pins receiving a direct thrust of approximately
2,240 tonne. The land spans are 73 meters overall and they
impose vertical loads of some 1,000 tonne on each of the
rocker
bearings that are under the intermediate support.

[Source: Extracted by a student froma ‘British engineering report’; precise

source unknown. ]

In the following chapters most of the examples are in the

form of de-
ductive paragraphs.

50
5.3 Application

5.3 Application
As a rule, we need to give our students several examples of each type of
paragraph structure and each type of correspondence to make sure that
they have grasped the basic concept of ‘paragraph’. We also need to ‘fix’
this knowledge by having our students make as many analyses as there is
time for and, as discussed in chapter 4, by making individualized
assignments that require them to find ‘real world’ examples in their own
subject-matter reading. Chart 4.1, p.42, the ‘Sample individualized
reading assignment’, is a composite of several such assignments designed
to be given at the end of the discussion on the EST paragraph.
Among many of the examples brought by the students in fulfilling such
assignments we will inevitably find a few that either illustrate our points
without needing modification or that could be made to do so with only
very minor changes. This, then, is a fruitful source for the kinds of
examples we need (assuming permission from the students who have
submitted them).
Once we feel that the basic concepts of the paragraph have been under-
stood, then it is time to move to the next stage: the analysis of EST
discourse in order to discover the rhetorical techniques. Chapter 6 deals
with these rhetorical techniques through the presentation and analysis of
‘pre-tested’ examples. In discussing how these examples can be used in the
classroom, we assume that the students have understood the ideas pre-
sented here on the paragraph — just as the teacher must assume that these
same students can not only understand the paragraph but can apply their
knowledge of it when they begin the more complicated stage of studying
the rhetorical techniques.
Here I want to stress the point that learning the rhetorical process is a
cumulative activity. We use our knowledge of the EST paragraph to help
us analyze for rhetorical techniques. We use our knowledge of the EST
paragraph and of the way that rhetorical techniques work to analyze and
to understand the rhetorical functions. And we use all three stages of the
process to some extent when we work with the rhetorical-grammatical
relationships that so often make EST discourse difficult for the non-native
learner and when we suggest solutions to the difficult problems created by
two of the lexical elements of EST discourse: noun compounding and
sub-technical vocabulary. This cumulative aspect of the rhetorical pro-
cess is shown in chapter 10, beginning with section 10.2.

54
6 Therhetorical techniques

6.1 Introduction

The rhetorical techniques are those rhetorical elements that bind together
the items of information in a piece of EST discourse. These techniques are
listed at Level D in the ‘Rhetorical process chart’, p. 11. While there are
many more than we show at Level D, in teaching EST through the rheto-
rical approach we limit ourselves to just those listed on the chart: the
three ‘orders’ and the six ‘patterns’, as these are the most commonly
found and thus are the most important to an understanding of the rela-
tional concepts of EST discourse. Each is discussed with respect to the
type of rhetorical technique it represents and to its application in the
classroom.
In presenting the rhetorical process we are concerned with the rheto-
rical techniques as they operate within our basic unit of discourse — the
paragraph. In this respect we can think of them as ‘cohesive ties’ and we
define them as the semantic elements, both explicit and implicit, that bind
together the items of information within our unit of discourse and,
as
well, show the relationships of these items to the core idea.
We are also concerned with the rhetorical techniques when they func-
tion as cohesive ties between paragraphs; that is, when they operate
to
show the relationships between the specific rhetorical units at Level C.
These ties, in turn, can relate a group of Level C units not just
to one
another but to the ‘purpose’ of the group; that is, to one of the general
rhetorical functions given for Level B. As noted earlier, however
, the
rhetoric of Level B is beyond the scope of this book and so in
these
discussions we limit ourselves to the organizational patterns
and rela-
tionships we find operating at Level C and, especially, Level D.
In teaching the rhetorical techniques we found that the most success
ful
approach is to have the students equate the techniques with
‘patterns of
paragraph development’. When the ideas of a given paragraph
are tied
together by only one pattern — by, let us say, causality and
result or
Process time order — the teaching task is a fairly simple
one. Unfor-
tunately, paragraphs are not often constructed so
simply: as a rule, we
find two or more patterns working together, in which cases
we can talk
about major and minor patterns of development. A further
step is to
by
6.1 Introduction

divide the techniques into the two groups shown in the ‘Rhetorical pro-
cess chart’, with the criterion of division being whether the pattern was
imposed on the discourse by the nature of the material or by the writer’s
choice.
Our research into EST discourse shows that the ‘natural’ patterns
(those imposed by the nature of the content) are time order, space order
and, at times, causality and result. That the material itself imposes one or
more given patterns onto the paragraph does not mean that writers have
no options in this regard. They can choose to impose a natural pattern
onto the paragraph. In fact, in one sense writers always do this by
choosing the particular information they want to make up the discourse.
The other patterns we call ‘logical’ patterns. These are treated below in
the following order: order of importance, causality and result,
comparison and contrast, analogy, exemplification, and visual illustra-
tion. This order is not intended to show either frequency of occurrence or
the importance of the pattern to the discourse, but is arbitrary with the
exception that analogy seems to be better understood when juxtaposed
with comparison and contrast; otherwise, changes in the order of presen-
tation should have no effect on the teaching process.
The term ‘logical’ used to describe this set of patterns refers to the logic
exercised by the writers when they select one or more as the frame for
their material. In the discussion we point out reasons for the writers
choosing a particular pattern for a particular kind of information. In
chart 6.1 below we indicate the most common semantic markers that
writers use to signal each pattern to their readers.

CHART6.1I PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE EST PARAGRAPH

(Terms following the names of the patterns are some of the markers
most commonly found in written EST discourse.)

ORDERS (natural patterns)

Time order
Chronology: dates and clock times
Process: first, second, finally, last, now, then, after

Space order
General: in, out, above, below, to the left, in the centre
Specific: 1mmdirectly above, ata 45° angle, normal to

Causality and result

(Both natural and logical patterns use the same terms.) thus, hence,
therefore, as a result, causing, so that, such that as, since, asa
consequence of

53
The rhetorical techniques

PATTERNS (logical patterns)

Order of importance
first, second, third, most important, least important
Comparison and contrast
Comparison (relates similarities): in comparison, similarly, in like
fashion, as does X, so does Y
Contrast (relates differences): incontrast, on the other hand,
however, nevertheless, by way of
difference
Analogy
(Compares things basically dissimilar): by way of analogy,
analogically, by analogy, in
much the same fashion
Exemplification
For example, by way of example, for instance, as can be seen
Illustration :
(Reference to a visual aid): asfig. 1shows, as we can see from
Table N, See fig. 3

6.2 Natural patterns

The development of paragraphs by one, or a mixture, of the natural
patterns is, with few exceptions, the result of the particular rhetorical
function (Level C) that writers choose as the vehicle for their informa-
tion. If, for example, a mechanical process is being described the writer
has no choice but to use process time order since by definition a process is
an ordered (in time) procedure with one step following, and usually
dependent upon, the preceding step. Similarly, should the physical struc-
ture of one of the mechanical elements in this process be described, the
writer cannot avoid the use of space order as it is an integral part of the
rhetorical function of physical description. Finally, whenever process or
function description is the rhetorical feature chosen by the writer,
causality and result is found in the text since these types of description
require statements of the occurrence of events and of the results of those
occurrences.

6.2.1. Timeorder
Both chronological time and process time are found commonly in written
EST discourse, with process time being the more frequent. Chronological
time occurs whenever the writer uses a framework of dates, clock
times,
etc. It is found in historical accounts and in reports of time-controlled

54
6.2 Natural patterns

experiments. An illustration of a paragraph that has its chronological

time framework determined by the nature of the materials is the para-
graph (one-to-one correspondence) in example 6.1, which is intermediate
level, as are examples 6:2A and B.

EXAMPLE6.I TIME ORDER: CHRONOLOGY

Since the Middle Ages the output and consumption of pit coal had
been greater in England than in any other country of Europe.
Already during the 13th century, domestic coal consumption in
London is said to have been so great that restrictive by-laws
became necessary to check the increasing smoke nuisance.
During the 17th century, English coal was already shipped to the
continent in considerable quantities. The actual ‘coal age’,
however, set in during the second half of the 18th century when it
became possible to use steam power for the drainage of collieries,
thus permitting the working of deeper galleries under conditions
of greater safety.
[Source: Hans Straub, A History ofCivil Engineering (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT
Press, 1962), p. 165.]

Here the chronological framework is shown by the markers: ‘Already

during the 13th century’; ‘During the 17th century’; and ‘... during the
second half of the 18th century’. In addition, we have a statement of
contrast, marked by ‘however’, and, following that, a clear example of
causality and result, tied together by ‘thus’. The paragraph also contains a
more complex set of causality and result statements in the second sen-
tence, where we have a cause (domestic coal consumption) creating a
result (increasing smoke nuisance) which, in its turn, becomes a cause
creating a second result (restrictive by-laws). The first sentence contains
the core statement: ‘Output and consumption of coal in England since the
Middle Ages (or from the Middle Ages to the late 18th century) ...’ This
paragraph, then, can be used profitably as a parallelism device since it
illustrates not only a one-to-one correspondence but also three kinds of
rhetorical techniques while not using any terms or structures that might
be too difficult for intermediate-level students.
Process time is required whenever we have a series of steps leading to a
predetermined goal. Examples 6.2A and B show how a particular type of
content can require development by process time.

EXAMPLE6.2A TIME ORDER: PROCESS (DESCRIPTIVE)

The first man to produce a practical steam engine was Thomas
Savery, an English engineer (1650-1715), who obtained a patent in
1698 for a machine designed to drain water from mines. The

55
The rhetorical techniques

machine contained no moving parts except hand-operated steam

valves and automatic check valves, and in principle it worked as
follows: Steam was generated ina spherical boiler and then admitted
to a separate vessel where it expelled much of the air. The steam
valve was then closed and cold water allowed to flow over the vessel,
causing the steam to condense and thus creating a partial vacuum.
This vacuum pulled water from the area to be drained into the vessel.
Then by a further operation of the valves, steam was readmitted to
the vessel to force water through a vertical pipe to the discharge
elevation.
[Source: J. F. Sandfort Heat Engines, Science Series S 27 (New York: Doubleday,
1962), p. 11.]

The process time markers are ‘then’ and juxtaposition of sentences describ-
ing the activities that make up the process. Along with the process time we
have six instances of causality and result. These are marked either by jux-
taposition (for example, ‘Steam... admitted to a separate vessel, where it
expelled much of the air’) or by lexical indicators: for example,‘cause ;
‘thus’, and ‘to’ (for * in order to’).
Process time is also found in ‘instructional discourse’ (as opposed to
‘descriptive’ discourse). This occurs most often in technical manuals and
differs from the standard ‘paragraph’ structure as the text usually consists
of a series of numbered steps, often with a kind of ‘shorthand’ sentence
structure and with the verb in the imperative. While we find the core idea of
this type of text most frequently in the heading, we seldom find markers to
show causality and result or other indicators of relationships unless our
series of steps is augmented by explanatory information. (See chapter 7,
section 7.5, for a discussion of instructions.) Process time in instructional
discourse form is illustrated in example 6.2B.

EXAMPLE6.2B TIME ORDER: PROCESS (INSTRUCTIONAL)

Carriage and Assembly Removal
1. Remove the snap rings from the chain anchors and pull the chain
anchors out of the carriage.
2. Secure the carriage with an overhead crane. Remove the carriage
by pulling it out the bottom of the mast channels.
3. Remove the two middle and two lower assemblies.
4. Remove the two upper roller assemblies by removing the cap-
screws that connect the retaining plates to the stub shafts. Pull the
roller assemblies off the stub shafts.
(Source: Section 3-4, Quad Lift Mast Service Manual (Portland, Oregon: Cascade
Corporation, 1974), p. 22.]

The core idea (not a core statement) is given by the heading to the set of
instructions. While this material could be put in paragraph form, it would
lose much of its value as a set of instructions. The standard procedure is to

56
6.2 Natural patterns

put instructions in numbered lists with each instruction as brief as is

consistent with clarity. However, changing instructions to paragraph
form, and vice versa, can give the students useful practice in manipulating
verb forms and other structures.
As an illustration, we can take part of example 6.3 and change it to
standard paragraph form: ‘Carriage and assembly removal is carried out
by the following steps. First, we remove the snap rings from the chain
anchors. We then pull the anchors out of the carriage. Once the anchors
have been removed, we secure the carriage with an overhead crane. We
then remove the carriage from the mast by pulling it out the bottom of the
mast channels. ...’
Sentence 1 is the core statement of the paragraph. While it is a
‘complete’ sentence, it hardly gives us more information than the heading
of the original. Nor does using paragraph form help toward achieving the
purpose of the instructions. If anything, it can cause a certain amount of
interference: it is wordier; finding each step in the process takes more
time; and what might be an advantage — the use of relational terms not in
the original — is compensated for by the use of numbers and spacing in the
original. Disadvantages as well as advantages in sets of instructions are
discussed in chapters 7 and 10 along with additional suggested exercises.

6.2.2 Space order

Space order is usually divided, as is time order, into two categories: we
speak of ‘general’ space order and ‘specific’ space order, depending on
how exact the writer is in giving measurements and spatial relationships.
In using general space order, writers are merely trying to give us ‘rough’
pictures of spatial relationships and measurements. In using specific space
order, writers are more concerned with giving us precise pictures of these
relationships and measurements.
Example 6.3 illustrates general space order. Note that the triode is
described with non-precise terms such as ‘inside’, ‘surrounding’,
‘between’, etc. (These and the other ‘space’ words in the paragraph are
italicized.) If readers are interested in knowing just how much distance
‘between’ represents or how far within is ‘inside’, etc. then this is not a
useful type of space description. If, on the other hand, the readers’ inter-
ests are in getting only a generalized picture of a triode then the descrip-
tion is adequate.

EXAMPLE 6.3 SPACE ORDER: GENERAL

Wewill describe a simple triode as a vacuum tube with three

electrodes inside an evacuated glass envelope. Rightin the center
will be one electrode, the cathode. It is a specially treated tungsten

57
The rhetorical techniques

wire and is referred to as the filament. This filament resembles the

filament in an electric lamp and, like the lamp filament, it becomes
white hot when electric current flows through the wire.
Surrounding the cathode and well spaced from itis the anode, or
plate. The plate is usually in the form of a hollow cylinder, and it
collects the electrodes that are supplied by the cathode. Between
the cathode and the anode, and usually quite close tothe cathode,
is a wire screen or cage that completely surrounds and encloses
the cathode. This third electrode is called the grid. Electrons that
flow from the cathode to the anode must pass through the holes in
the grid.
[Source: Compiled from R. M. Page, The Origin of Radar, Science Study Series
$26 (New York: Doubleday, 1962), pp. 53-5.]

In contrast, we have specific space order illustrated in example 6.4. The

descriptive information in this paragraph is about as precise as any reader
could wish. A good test for specificity of space order information is to ask
yourself if the object or device being described could be drawn to scale
from the verbal description. In the case of example 6.3 this is clearly
impossible. Example 6.4, however, is a good basis for a precise visual
representation.

EXAMPLE 6.4 SPACE ORDER: SPECIFIC

The Test Section

The test section was constructed ofa pure copper cylinder 2 ft 6 in
long, 6 inid and 6.25 in od. Both ends of the cylinder were closed
with removable Pyrex-glass plates in thick. A fluid port was
located at each end of the cylinder.
(Source: A University of Washington (Seattle), College of Engineering Research
Report, n.d., n.p.]

[The less common abbreviations used in the above example are the
following: id. = ‘inner diameter’; od. = ‘outer diameter’. These are
standard abbreviations used in describing the measurements of any
object which has a (roughly) circular cross-section anda tubular
(hollow centre) construction. For a discussion of 1) the use of the past
tense in this example and 2) the distinction between the Passive and
stative verbs see chapter 7, section 7.5, and chapter 8, section 8.2.]

6.2.3 Causality and result

Causality and result (often called ‘cause and effect’) differs from time and
space order patterns in that it is seldom found as the major pattern
of
development of a paragraph. As a rule, we find it helping other patterns
,
58
6.3 Logical patterns

both natural and logical: with the natural patterns of chronological and
process time (see examples 6.1 and 6.2A) and with any of the logical pat-
terns, but especially with analogy and exemplification (see example 6.7).
The discussion following example 6.2A pointed out that we find
causality and result marked in two ways: by a lexical item or by jux-
taposition of information. We also noted a complex instance of causality
and result in example 6.1. Outside of the phrase ‘... became necessary’
that example was marked by juxtaposition rather than by any lexical
items. The difficulty for non-native readers when faced with this way of
expressing relationships between pieces of information is that the only
clues are to be found in the logic of the context, and the ability to see this
kind of logic is not an easily developed facility. It must be taught.
Admittedly, such rhetorical complexity is not too common in EST
discourse, but it is common enough to need to be stressed for those
students who are reading (or are going to read) difficult scientific and
technical English texts.
Some analysts of EST discourse have suggested that conditionality is a
separate logical pattern and should be so treated. However, in our experi-
ence it is best handled as one type of causality and result. The argument
here is that we are dealing with a causal relationship even though it is not
yet realized and may not be: if X occurs, then Y will happen.
Few non-native students have any problem in recognizing that ‘if
clauses govern possible or potential events. Where many students have
trouble is in failing to see that the relationship between the ‘if’ and ‘result’
clauses is one of causality and result but contingent on the ‘clause of
causality’ actually occurring. As a rule, once this is pointed out, the con-
cept is quickly understood, especially as the juxtaposition of the clauses
makes for a causality and result structure more easily identifiable than
many in EST texts.
In terms of teaching, whether causality and result is a natural or a log-
ical pattern is of little importance. That the students can identify the pat-
tern quickly either by noting the markers or by learning to react to the
kinds of structures we are concerned with here — these are the important
points to be sure of. It is often worthwhile spending extra time on
causality and result simply because so many processes and other activities
are expressed by scientific and technical discourse that relates actual or
hypothetical causes and results.

6.3 Logical patterns

In addition to causality and result the most commonly occurring logical

patterns of paragraph development are 1. order of importance, 2.
comparison and contrast, 3. analogy, 4. exemplification, and 5. visual

59
The rhetorical techniques

illustration. (These are not stated in frequency of occurrence in EST texts

nor in any other kind of priority; from early on we used this order and
have found no reason to alter it.)
As a rule we find these patterns either mixed with one another (two or
more) or in conjunction with time or space orders, but with one more
prominent. Which pattern takes on prominence is usually a function of
the material that a writer uses in any given unit of text. Very often we can
see that a choice of other material or a small change in emphasis or even a
different phrasing would result in a different major pattern of develop-
ment. Thus we might find a paragraph such as that in example 6.5A
rewritten so that the original key pattern is changed: instead of the para-
graph being developed by ‘order of importance’, small changes create
development by ‘exemplification’. In both cases, the secondary pattern is
causality and result.
Example 6.5A is an adaptation of a paragraph concerned with ‘Exhaust
smoke from small engines’; example 6.5B uses the same information but
phrases it somewhat differently, thus shifting the emphasis and so the
pattern of development.

EXAMPLE 6.54 LOGICAL PATTERNS: ORDER OF IMPORTANCE

Research into the causes of smoke in the exhaust systems of small

internal combustion engines shows that three factors are primarily
responsible for excessive smoke. The most frequent cause is an air
mixture that is too rich; that is, the fuel-air ratio is greater than 10:1.
The second most frequent cause is oil in the fuel in concentrations
greater than 60 cc per gallon of fuel. The result of such heavy
concentrations of oil is seen in the dense blue exhaust smoke. A
third, and somewhat less frequent, cause is the speed of the engine
itself. The lower the speed, the greater the density of smoke from
oil burning in the combustion chambers.
(Source: Adapted from Paul Douglas, Communication Through Reports (New
York: McGraw Hill, 1957), p. 37.]

EXAMPLE6. 5B CHANGING THE LOGICAL PATTERN

1. Changing to exemplification
Research into the causes of excessive smoke in the exhaust
systems of small internal combustion engines shows that there are
several factors responsible. For example, one very common
cause is an air mixture that has an air-fuel ratio greater than 10:1.
Another frequent cause is oil in the fuel in concentrations greater
than 60 cc per gallon of fuel. A somewhat less frequent but still
important cause is the speed of the engine itself. The lower the

60
6.3 Logical patterns

speed, the greater the density of smoke from oil burning in the
combustion chambers.

2. Changing to causality and result mixed with definition

Research into excessive smoke in the exhaust systems of small
internal combustion engines show three main causes: 1) atoo rich
air mixture, which means one that has an air-fuel ratio greater than
10:1; 2) a heavy concentration of oil in the fuel, which means one
that is greater than 60 cc per gallon of fuel; and 3) slow engine
speed, which means....

[This pattern can be presented in several ways. The one above states a
common result first and then gives the three main causes that govern
this result and provides additional information on each cause by
using the phraseology of definition (see chapter 7, section 7.3). We
could just as well have begun our paragraph by stating the causes
first: “A too rich air mixture, too much oil in the fuel, and slow engine
speed are the three most common causes of... .’ Making alterations
of this nature in a paragraph and then having the students do the same
to other paragraphs can provide several fruitful exercises leading to a
better understanding of the rhetorical techniques and the ways in
which they work to establish frameworks and relationships. |

The following examples of paragraphs developed by the remaining most

common logical patterns need little comment as they are all found quite
prominently in most types of English factual discourse. However, some
observations may serve to point up the elements in the patterns that we
find most troublesome to non-native learners. The examples following
should not, in themselves, cause problems for the majority of students:
they were designed to be used in intermediate-level (and above) classes
but have been given quite successfully to students with little exposure to
EST English and even less scientific background.
The troublesome elements we refer to are 1. an understanding of the
difference between comparison and analogy and 2. grasping the rela-
tionships between the verbal and graphic elements of an illustration. We
define comparison as ‘revealing similarities of things basically alike’ and
analogy as ‘revealing similarities of things basically different’. Quite
often we find a paragraph developed by comparison as the major pattern.
Analogy, however, cannot stand alone; it needs one or more of the other
patterns, logical or natural, to work in conjunction with it.
Visual illustration (graphics) is so called to differentiate it from verbal
illustration, which is a special type of exemplification and is not found
often enough in EST discourse to warrant discussion. Visual illustration
is unique among the patterns discussed in that it requires two distinct
parts to form the whole: a text and an illustration. (This topic is also
treated from a different point of view in chapter 7, section 7.6, where we
61
The rhetorical techniques

take a detailed look at visual—verbal relationships as a rhetorical func-

tion. Here, of course, we are looking at the illustration as a technique for
relating pieces of information to one another.)
Both scientific and technical discourse rely heavily on graphical mater-
ial to add information to points made verbally. Illustrations range from
the very simple —for example, a drawing of a single line or a circle — to the
very complex — such as a set of highly detailed blueprints or circuit
diagrams. Unfortunately, the quality of accompanying text does not
always match that of the visual element. We find information too skimpy
to be of much use to the reader; we find writers forgetting to tell readers
where to find the illustration being discussed; and we find information so
dense that even an expert can have difficulty with it. While it is not
necessary to offer our students a series of ‘negative’ examples, it is
worthwhile to mention (even to illustrate) some of the inadequate writing
they are liable to meet in their advanced studies and in their professional
careers.
Example 6.9, however, has none of these weaknesses and so is useful
with intermediate and, especially, advanced classes. It has an easily read
visual, simply laid out, and the text tells the readers what they need to
know to be able to relate the visual to the discussion. The lexical element
may seem difficult but it seldom causes problems for students who
have
finished their basic undergraduate engineering courses. Examples
6.6,
and 6.8, illustrating comparison and contrast, and exemplificatio
n
respectively, can also be used successfully with undergr
aduate en-
gineering or science students. Example 6.7, illustrating
analogy, is
simpler and is useful even at the secondary level.

EXAMPLE6.6 LOGICAL PATTERNS: COMPARISON AND

CONTRAST /

Many types of mathematical problems are similar in one

way or
another as are their methods of solution. However,
there are also
distinct differences in both types of problems and their
methods of
solution. For example, many interesting proble
ms in maxima and
minima can be solved by elementary methods:
that is, by the
methods of algebra and plane geometry. But there
are many more
maxima and minima problems that require the techni
ques of
differential calculus for their solutions. Finally,
there are many
other problems of a more complicated nature in which
quantities
are to be maximized or minimized that cannot be
handled by the
methods of the differential calculus: These
require treatment by
methods of the calculus of variations.
(Source: M. E. Levenson, Maxima and Minima
(New York: Macmillan, 1967),
P. viii.)

62
6.3 Logical patterns

[This example very clearly shows the writer’s use of comparison and
contrast as the main frame of the paragraph, with the rhetorical
technique of exemplification providing the necessary support. Using
examples to emphasize the points made in a paragraph developed by
one of the other techniques is one of the more common patterns
found at all levels of written EST discourse. |

EXAMPLE6.7 LOGICAL PATTERNS: ANALOGY

Sound waves are created by the compression of the molecules of

air, this compression generated by the origin of the sound. The
resulting wave motion is analogous to that created in water whena
rock is thrown in a pond. By studying the properties exhibited by
water waves, we can become familiar with the properties of all
wave motion. First, we note that the waves produced on the water
by arock striking it move away at a constant speed: This speed is
called the velocity of propagation. Second, we note that the waves
have crests and troughs. The distance between successive crests
or troughs is called the wavelength. Third, as the waves move pasta
given point, they cause an up and down motion of the water at this
point. This motion is the frequency of the wave.
(Source: Adapted from W. E. Kock, Sound Waves and Light Waves, Science Study
Series S 40 (New York: Doubleday, 1965), pp. 1-3.]

[The writer marks the pattern of analogy only once, when he uses the
term ‘analogous’ in the second sentence. However, the three times he
describes events connected with water waves, he defines a term
associated with a sound wave. Thus, the readers are presumed to
apply the marker and so read ‘analogy’ each time. In addition to this
pattern and the three definitions, we have two instances of causality
and result, the first and third ‘analogies’. The first is marked only by
juxtaposition (a rock striking the water produces waves) and the
third by ‘cause’ (waves moving past a given point cause an up and
down motion at this point). It is alsointeresting to note that the
supporting information in this paragraph consists of lower-level
generalizations rather than specific statements. |

EXAMPLE6.8 LOGICAL PATTERNS: EXEMPLIFICATION

Most of the things with which science deals can be measured.

Whatever part of nature is being studied, science aims to quantify,
it, to express its properties and behavior in terms of measurable
quantities. Certain measurable entities can be fully specified by a
single number - called a scalar —a number that gives their
magnitude or size, telling how many basic units they contain. For
example, a length can be fully specified by a single number that
represents the number of basic units of length (centimeters or

63
The rhetorical techniques

inches or some other such units) it contains; a population can be

fully specified by the number of basic units it contains (mice or
human beings, etc.) and so forth.
Many measurable entities are not scalars; rather they are
vectors. That is, a single number does not suffice to specify fully
whatever is being measured; instead, two numbers are needed.
For example, traffic flow at Fifth Avenue and Forty-Second Street
in New York requires one number to denote the magnitude of
flow (say in cars per hour) and a second number to denote the
direction of the flow (in, say, degrees, with Fifth Avenue as the
baseline). Another example of a measurable entity that is not a
scalar is the result of an experiment in which gray male mice are
bred with gray female mice, where each of the gray mice isa
hybrid of a pure white and a pure black parent. The result of such
an experiment cannot be fully specified by a single number but
requires an array of numbers arranged according to the skin
color trait inherited from each of the parents.

(Source: D. A. Greenberg, Mathematics for Science Courses (Amsterdam: W.E.

Benjamin, 1965), pp. 163—4.]

[In this example we have a one-to-more-than-one correspondence

with two physical paragraphs making up the conceptual paragraph.
The core statement of the paragraph comes out of the second
sentence of the first physical paragraph: ‘Whatever part of nature is
being studied, science aims . . . to express its properties in terms of
measurable quantities.’ The first sub-core follows in sentence 3,
where ‘scalar’ is defined. The second sub-core follows the same
pattern, defining ‘vector’ but using both the first and second
sentences of the physical paragraph to present the information.
Each of the physical paragraphs uses two examples to support its
sub-core. In the first physical paragraph, only the initial example is
marked, the second being indicated by the semi-colon following
‘contains’. In the second physical paragraph, however, each example
is marked separately, the first by the standard term ‘For example’
and the second by ‘Another example of...’ Finally, we note that
the initial sentence of the first physical paragraph is the largest
generalization but, as we have seen before, it is a transition from the
previous paragraph and not the core of the one it begins.

EXAMPLE6.9 LOGICAL PATTERNS: VISUAL ILLUSTRATION

Vertical Reference Unit

The Vertical Reference Unit (VRU) consists of two single-axis
inclinometers, as shown in the figure below. One inclinometer
is
aligned with the fore-aft axis and the other with the port-starboard
axis. The inclinometers operate froma + 15 Vdc source in the
System Junction Box. The inclinometers sense the mechanical

64
6.4 Application

angle deviation from the horizontal plane, in the direction of the

aligned axis. The output is an electrical signal proportional to the
mechanical angle.

+15VDC FORE-AFT 6p PITCH ANGLE

SINGLE AXIS 222 mV/DEG
—15 VDC INCLINOMETER

PORT-STBD 6, ROLL ANGLE

SINGLE AXIS 222 mV/DEG
INCLINOMETER

Vertical Reference Unit (VRU) block diagram

[Source: ‘RS-7 Digital Acoustic Position Indicator, Operation and Maintenance’
(Honeywell Marine Systems Division, Seattle, Washington, 1976), pp. 4-6.]

6.4 Application

In teaching the rhetorical techniques we can use the same approach as

suggested in chapter 5 for the paragraph: first, handing out paragraphs
annotated to show which rhetorical techniques the writer chose for dealing
with his information and, second, handing out paragraphs without
annotation so that the students can make their own analysis. This second
step can be used for oral work and for testing as well as for in-class
eXercises.
We use two different forms for showing our analysis of a piece of text: one
is to annotate in the margin as in examples 3.1A and B, pp. 16, 17; the other
is to put the analysis in a separate paragraph following the text, somewhat
as in examples 6.7, 6.8, and 6.9 above. From our experience, a successful
way of handling this type of teaching procedure is to incorporate both
forms: we first hand out quite simple examples annotated in the margins
and discuss them, adding information for the students to write into the
margins along with the annotations already there. Our second step is to
hand out paragraphs without annotation but with right margins so that the
students have room to make annotations as they discuss the texts. Up to
this point, all sample paragraphs should be as simple as possible within the
framework of ‘good’ examples of EST discourse.
Depending on the make-up of the class, at this point we either continue
the procedure as given below or, should we feel that the students need
more work on the basic concepts of the rhetorical approach up to this
point, we pause to review and/or test. Reviewing is a matter of handing out
65
The rhetorical techniques

examples that illustrate the points that have proved most difficult; testing
at this stage is better if kept to those same points: our best results have come
from very short tests not designed to test all areas of the rhetorical
approach presented so far but only the troublesome problems.
If the class can go on without pausing for review or testing, we then hand
out more complex examples, this time with the analyses in paragraph form
and following the texts. Because this type of analysis is more complete than
margin annotation, it can be used more successfully for complex para-
graphs. It is also useful as a model since it is this type of analysis we want the
students to be able to make when they bring examples from their own
subject-matter reading.
Example 6.104 illustrates annotation of a basically simple paragraph
for both the rhetorical techniques and the paragraph elements. Example
6.10B is more difficult and so is analyzed in a paragraph following the text.
Since, as noted above, the steps in the rhetorical process are cumulative,
this analysis includes comments on both the paragraph — type and core —
and the rhetorical techniques.

EXAMPLE6.1I0A PARAGRAPHANALYSIS: ANNOTATION IN

MARGIN

A basic gas turbine engine One-to-one

The basic gas turbine engine consists of correspondence.
three main parts or sections: the air com- Process time order
pressor, the combustion chamber, and the paragraph
turbine. Briefly, here is how it works: Air, at Core
atmospheric pressure is pulled into the air statement
compressor where its volume is decreased
as the pressure is increased. Since com- ‘Since’ —causal
pression of air causes a heat rise the highly marker
compressed air, at high temperature, is
forced into the combustion chamber. In the
combustion chamber a fuel nozzle (fuel
injector) sprays in fuel, under high pressure,
to mix with the hot air. The fuel-air mixture is
ignited with a resistance type spark plug. As “As’—causal
the fuel-air mixture in a turbine engine burns marker
continuously, once ignited the ignition may Note that no ‘time’
be turned off. The exhaust leaves the com- words are used.
bustion chamber through a duct to enter the The order of steps
turbine unit. Here it delivers most of its 1s indicated only by
energy to the turbine wheel. the order of events.
(Source: Adapted from Frederick E. Bricker, Automobile Guide
(Indianapolis,
Indiana: Audel Books, Howard W. Sams, 1972), p. 16.]

66
6.4 Application

EXAMPLE6.IOB PARAGRAPH ANALYSIS: DISCUSSION FOLLOWS

TEX

Everything in language depends on order. In writing even a minor

mix-up in the proper ordering of letters and spaces can reduce the
finest phrase to gibberish. To achieve this proper order in written
language, we must first agree on an alphabet and adopt
conventions on the ordering of letters (proper spelling) to form
words. Secondly, we must assign proper meanings to words,
individually and in context. Thirdly, we must accept mules of
grammar establishing the order of words in phrases and sentences,
these rules reflecting, of course, the natural use of the language as
developed over time, not the artificial uses prescribed by the so-
called purists. And, fourthly, we must develop and obey laws of
logic in the association of the ideas expressed by words, phrases,
sentences, and paragraphs. If we violate these rules, we disrupt —
even destroy — the communication of thought.

[Source: Adapted from D. G. Fink, Computers and the Human Mind, Science
Study Series § 43 (New York: Doubleday, 1966), p. 61.]

Analysis of paragraph
[Since this paragraph is structured as a series of steps toward a
definite goal, we have an example of a time process paragraph, even
though we are not concerned with a mechanical object as in our
previous time process paragraphs. The core generalization is not
stated completely but is an expansion of the first half of sentence 3,
giving us, ‘To achieve order in written language we must follow these
rules.’ The first sentence is the largest generalization in the paragraph
but it does not govern the information that follows: it is a transition
from the previous paragraph. The second sentence is a lesser
generalization that works backward to expand on the initial sentence
and forward to set up the topic ‘written language’, which we find first
used in the third sentence. This sentence is a generalization on the
same level as the second sentence and it specifies the topic, equating
‘writing’ (in sentence two) with ‘written language’. In the final
sentence we have conditionality; that is, potential cause and result. |

The levels of language and subject-matter difficulty of the paragraphs

above, and for most of the examples up to this point in the book, are low
enough to be usable with any tertiary-level EST class. For very homogen-
eous groups, of course, examples more closely related to their field of
study would be more appropriate.
All of these examples have been used with university-level students
ranging from first-year undergraduates in arts and social sciences to
science and technology students at all levels from beginners to doctoral
candidates. Since the purpose of the class work is to teach students to use
the rhetorical process as a tool for analyzing written EST discourse,

67
The rhetorical techniques

whether the subject matter is more historical or more currently technical

seems to be of little importance at this stage. What we find important is
that the examples chosen work well in the ‘parallelism’ process by stress-
ing the particularly rhetorical elements we are teaching and not being too
cluttered with other elements that can be distracting. Of course, what is
meant by ‘too cluttered’ changes as we work with the rhetorical
approach: by the time the students finish the three stages of the process
(the paragraph, the rhetorical techniques, and the rhetorical functions),
few paragraphs can be said to be ‘too cluttered’ since all of the rhetorical
elements will have been taught.
Further application of the rhetorical process at this point follows the
pattern laid down in the discussion of individualized assignments. Now
we can expand those assignments, having our students find one or more
rhetorical techniques and a specific paragraph type together. The chart in
chapter 10, section 10.5, illustrates a small sample of possible assign-
ments asking for the rhetorical techniques alone or in conjunction with
types of correspondences and cores.
The danger in making individualized assignments is in our asking too
much of the students at one time. If we give assignments requiring, let us
say, a half dozen different paragraphs — each to have an analysis — we must
be sure that the students have time enough to do a proper job. A painful
lesson most of us learn early in teaching EST is that science and tech-
nology students are more interested in their subject-matter courses than
in their English courses. The result is that, when they are pressed for time,
the English course is the one sacrificed first. Nevertheless, if we tailor our
assignments by having the students find the sample paragraphs but not
make analyses, we are losing a good opportunity to find out how much
each student really understands about the rhetorical process (especially if
we have the analyses written in class) and also losing an opportunity to
work on student writing.
The application of the rhetorical process is discussed at the end of
chapters 7, 8 and 9 and in more detail in chapter 10.

68
7 Therhetorical functions

7.1. Introduction

As I noted in chapter 3, the rhetorical functions are the heart of the

rhetorical process presented in this book. In a sense the preceding
chapters have laid the groundwork for this and the following two
chapters (chapters 7, 8, and 9). These, in turn, provide the major bases for
the procedures that allow the students to discover which lexical, gram-
matical and rhetorical features writers have chosen to best present their
information. We feel that by teaching readers to make these discoveries in
a systemic manner, they are able to understand more clearly the concepts
involved in a writer’s organization (that is, the writer’s rhetoric) and so
relate the ideas in the discourse more quickly and easily to similar
concepts.
The successful application of this discovery procedure is based on three
assumptions:
1. The basic rhetorical functions found commonly in EST discourse are
fundamental parts of the organization of scientific and technical
information.
2. These rhetorical functions and their related grammatical elements are
capable of being isolated and studied separately as well as in the total
context of a piece of discourse.
3. Each rhetorical function provides readers with different kinds and
different amounts of information. As a result, each function is clearly
separable and identifiable. (This assumption is the most important of
the three for the person applying the procedure.)
In sum, the discovery procedure assumes that the basic rhetorical func-
tions treated here are fundamental elements in the organization of a piece
of text and that they are also intimately related to certain grammatical
and lexical elements. Therefore, a clear recognition and understanding of
all three of these elements as well as of the paragraph and the rhetorical
techniques is necessary for full comprehension of written EST discourse.
The discovery procedure is carried out in five steps which, while
distinct, are interdependent:
Step 1. The determination of the core generalization and the structure
(correspondence) of the discourse unit (in our case, the para-
graph) that is being analyzed. This enables readers to know what
69
The rhetorical functions

specific subject this piece of discourse is dealing with. It also

guides them in separating general from specific concepts and in
understanding different levels of generality. (Chapter 5)
Step 2: The determination of the rhetorical techniques chosen by the
writer. The readers can now see the organizational framework of
the discourse unit being analyzed, the relationships that exist
between the items of information within this framework, and the
relationships between the units that make up the total discourse.
(Chapter 6)
Step 3. The determination of the specific rhetorical function (or func-
tions) that writers have chosen (or which their material required
them to use) for presenting their major items of information.
This, added to the information gained from steps 1 and 2 above,
enables the reader to see the total organizational (rhetorical)
pattern of the unit of discourse. (Chapter 7)
Step 4. The determination of the rhetorical-grammatical relationships;
that is, of the specific grammatical elements which appear to be
governed by the rhetorical functions that writers choose to carry
their information. This helps readers understand why a par-
ticular piece of grammar (for example, a verb tense or mood or
definite article) is used in a particular text when this use may
seem to violate the logic or the ‘rules’ of the language. (Chapter 8)
Step 5. The determination of the lexical items that most often confuse
readers. This enables readers to get the full meaning from a piece
of text and thus, in conjunction with the other steps in the pro-
cedure, provides a more complete understanding of the unit of
discourse being analyzed. (Chapter 9)
In this chapter we work our way through the application of step 3: the
determination of the rhetorical functions writers choose. These functions
(Level C of the ‘Rhetorical process chart’) are discussed in respect to the
kinds and amounts of information each provides the reader. The func-
tions and their ‘sub-functions’ are outlined here in the order treated
below:
1. Description — physical, function, and process description
2. Definition — formal, semi-formal, non-formal, and expanded
definition
3. Classification — complete and partial classification
4. Instructions — direct instructions, indirect instructions, and: instruc-
tional information
5. Visual—verbal relationships — text information, text placement, and
placement of visuals

70
7.2 The rhetoric of description

7.2 Therhetoric of description

In our research into the nature of written EST discourse we isolated three
major types of descriptive information: physical description, function
description, and process description. These are not mutually exclusive:
for example, we often find a text developed mainly by physical descrip-
tion containing some function description and a text developed mainly by
function or process description containing some physical description.
From each of these types of description the reader gets a different kind and
amount of information.

7.2.1 Physical description

Physical description gives the physical characteristics of an object and the
spatial relations of the parts of the object to one another and to the whole,
and of the whole to other objects concerned, if any. The physical charac-
teristics most frequently described are dimension, shape, weight,
material, volume, colour, and texture. (This list does not imply any order
of importance or frequency of occurrence.)
Physical descriptions are found in EST discourse ranging from the very
general to the very specific. General physical description uses such loca-
tive terms as ‘above’, ‘below’, ‘in the center’, ‘to the right’, ‘at an angle to’,
‘near’, etc. In contrast, specific physical description requires much more
precise terms: ‘1 mm directly above’, ‘at an angle of 45°, ‘2 cm out from
the perimeter’, etc.
Since the rhetorical function of physical description and the rhetorical
technique (pattern of development) of space order are clearly tied to-
gether, the examples illustrating general and specific space order (chapter
6, examples 6.3 and 6.4) also illustrate general and specific physical
description. The difference between the rhetorical technique of space
order and the rhetorical function of physical description is that physical
description refers to the purpose of a piece of discourse while space order
refers to the relational framework into which writers fit their material.
Thus, in space order terms, in the examples in chapter 6, the material
consists of the important (to the writer) physical characteristics of the
objects being described; in physical description terms, the purpose of the
paragraphs is to describe the objects physically — in general terms in
example 6.3 and in specific terms in example 6.4. Other examples of space
order are found in the examples illustrating function and process descrip-
tions, and also in chapter 10.

7.2.2 Function description

Function description gives the reader information relating, as a rule, toa
device of some kind. This information falls into two broad categories:
71
The rhetorical functions

1. the use or purpose of the device (for example, ‘The helical gear reduces
the ratio....’); and 2. the functioning of each of the main parts of the
device (for example, ‘Depressing the lever causes the spring to compress’).
Function description is frequently associated with causality and result as
the second example above shows.

7.2.3 Process description

Although process description can be characterized as a type of function
description, the differences are sufficient to have it treated separately. It
refers, by definition, to a series of steps or stages that are interrelated in
that each step (but the first) is dependent on the preceding step and that all
steps lead toward a definite goal. Often a process description is a series of
instructions. However, as this type of process usually requires the impera-
tive form of the verb, it is treated in section 7.5, ‘The rhetoric of instruc-
tions’.
Whereas a function description might describe the operation of only
the key elements of a device involved in a procedure and a physical
description might select just those characteristics that the writer feels are
important to the discussion, a process description always includes all of
the steps leading toward the goal; that is, it leaves out none that might be
of use to the reader.
Example 7.1 illustrates these differences in a paragraph containing all
three types of description. The first and second sentences are primarily
physical description, while sentences 3 and 4 mix physical and function
description; however, only the ‘key’ parts of the device are treated but
with just two of those described both physically and functionally. The
remainder of the paragraph is a description of the process. While describ-
ing the procedure for using the device, the writer adds one more part, the
tube cap, but leaves out entirely other, possibly equally important, parts
such as those that join the various main pieces.

EXAMPLE7.I A PARAGRAPH COMBINING THE THREE LYPBES

OF DESCRIPTION

A canal bottom sampler, used in the Imperial Valley, California,

canals consisted of a brass tube 2.7 centimeters in diameter and
15.2 centimeters long. At the bottom was attached a sharp steel
cutting blade. The upper end of the tube was threaded into the base
of a cone, the shoulder of which prevented the brass tube from
sinking into the canal bed beyond the required depth. The upper
end of the cone was attached to a handle of 2}-inch pipe, made up
of short sections coupled together so that the length of the handle
could be varied according to the depth of the water. In takinga
sample, the tube was pushed into the bottom deposit as far as the

72
7.2 The rhetoric of description

shoulder of the cone permitted. The handle was filled with water
and a cap was screwed on the upper end. When the tube was
withdrawn a partial vacuum was formed, which held the sample in
the tube.
(Source: Submitted by a student; precise source unknown.]

Example 7.2 describes an object with almost the same function as the
canal bottom sampler; however, in this example all three types of descrip-
tion are thoroughly mixed except for sentence 1, which contains just the
name and the statement of the purpose of the object, and the final sen-
tence, which gives us only physical description.

EXAMPLE7.2 A PARAGRAPH OF MIXED DESCRIPTION

The Peterson Dredge was designed for use in biological work in

whicha sample of the fauna and bottom material of a definite area of
bottom was desired. The apparatus consists of two flat-sided,
straight-edged scoops hinged together and fitted with a device that
holds them apart until they come in contact with the bottom. The
catch is released when the line becomes slack, and the scoops
close when a pull is again applied to the hoisting line. As usually
constructed, the scoops measure 25 cm on their lower edges, and
they are set 25 cm apart so that an area of 625 square cm is scraped
by the apparatus. Since the closing of the scoops is effected by an
upward pull on the sounding line, lead weights must be attached to
the upper, distal portions of the scoops to insure a strong scraping
action on the bottom. The total weight of the dredge is about 55
pounds.
[Source: Submitted by a student; precise source unknown. |

[Sentence 3 illustrates a problem that frequently causes confusion to

even quite advanced non-native readers: the writer uses the definite
article with the first mention of two nouns — ‘catch’ and ‘line’ — and he
defines ‘the line’ only on second mention, referring to it as ‘the
hoisting line’. Definite article problems are discussed in some detail in
chapter 8, section 8.4.]

Chart 7.1 summarizes the different kinds and amounts of information

given by each type of description.

CHART7.I INFORMATION GIVEN BY EACH TYPE OF

DESCRIPTION

1. Physical description:the physical characteristics of an object, and

the spatial relationships of the object’s parts to one another and to
the whole and of the whole to other objects.

73
The rhetorical functions

Physical characteristics include: dimension, shape, weight, color,

texture, material, volume.
Spatial relationships include:
a) for general descriptions, position indicated by terms such as
‘above’, ‘below’, ‘to the right’, ‘close to’, etc.
b) for specific descriptions, position indicated by terms such as
‘perpendicular to’, ‘1 mm from the center’, ‘at an angle of 38°,
etc.
. Function description:
the purpose or use of an object and the way in
which each ofthe parts and the whole function.
Use or purpose:
a) of apart—‘The upper dial registers the ohms for each stage.’
b) ofthe whole — ‘The FBX3 calculates the incoming frequencies.’
Function:
a) of apart—‘Pushing lever A contracts the spring.’
b) of the whole—‘The purpose of the device is to collect bottom
flora.’
. Process description: the steps of a procedure, the order in which
these steps occur, and the goal of the procedure. (By definition,
each step but the first is dependent on the preceding step.)
a) Process description in paragraph form:
‘By turning on the current the teeth, or vanes, on the timer core
pass by the teeth on the pole piece so that a magnetic path is
established, causing a voltage pulse to be induced in the pickup
coil. This voltage pulse causes TR-3 in the amplifier to conduct.
This action turns TR-1 and TR-2 off, which interrupts the current
flowing through the primary winding of the ignition coil. Thus, a
high voltage surge is produced in the coil secondary, causing the
firing of the proper spark plug.’
(Source: Adapted from Bricker, Automobile Guide, p. 318.]

b) Process description in instructions (list form):

‘The procedure for checking the operation of the current limit
range is as follows:
1. Setcurrent limit range to 0.02A.
2. Set the meter range switch to A.
3. Set the decade controls to zero (000000).
4. Connect an 8.2K, 10% 1W resistor across the output
terminals.’
[Source: Model 382A Voltage/Current Calibrator Operator’s Manual
(Seattle, Washington: Fluke Manufacturing Co., 1964), p. 4-2.]

74
7.3 The rhetoric of definition

7.3 Therhetoric of definition

There are many kinds of definitions and they come in all sizes from a
single word to entire books. The kinds of definitions we are usually
concerned with in written EST discourse are fortunately among the
shortest and simplest. They also appear in our discourse very frequently,
especially in elementary texts such as training manuals, textbooks for
beginners in a field, etc. We find them also in more advanced discourse;
in fact, when writers present new concepts, or when new technology
needs explanation, or when someone is describing a new way of looking
at an old idea. All of these require definitions ranging from a word to, at
times, several paragraphs.
Our research into EST discourse yielded two broad categories of defini-
tion — simple definition and complex (or expanded) definition. Simple
definition, by which we mean a definition completed in one sentence or
less, we divide into three basic types: formal definition, semi-formal
definition, and non-formal definition. Each of these provides information
in different amounts and at different levels of precision. The formal
definition gives us the most and the most precise information; the semi-
formal definition, while it leaves out one important item, gives us almost
as much information with almost as much precision; and the non-formal
definition gives us considerably less information and a good deal less
precision.
The rhetorical process was originally designed to deal only with simple
definition, since it was the most common category in EST discourse.
However, when we realized the frequency of occurrence of more complex
forms of definition, we found that we could work with these as well by
applying some of the procedures used in the analysis of paragraphs and
rhetorical techniques. These more complex forms of definition we usually
call ‘expanded’ definition and, in certain cases, ‘special types’ of defini-
tion. Characteristically, most expanded definitions are developed in para-
graph units and have, as a rule, a simple definition — formal or semi-
formal — for their core statement. The most common types of expansion
are those incorporating other rhetorical functions (for example, descrip-
tion or classification) along with some of the rhetorical techniques such as
time or space order, causality and result, contrast, etc. The special types
we treat in this book are definition by stipulation, definition by expli-
cation, and definition by operation.

7.3.1. Formal definition

Theoretically, a formal definition gives the most information and the
most precise information of any of the three types of simple definition. It
is, of course, the well-known equation-like ‘Species = Genus +

&)
The rhetorical functions

Differentia’, usually called ‘formal’ because of its rigidity of form. We

have kept the term but expanded its definition by adding the amount and
kind of information it includes. When teaching formal definition we
avoid the Latin terms and use English ones, starting with an equation
T = C+D, and defining it as follows: T is the term being defined; C is the
class (or ‘set’) of which the term is a member (‘subset’); and D is the sum of
the differences given to distinguish this term from all other members of
the class. This is a great deal of information to get from a single sentence
and the learner, especially the non-native learner, often needs to have
pointed out just how much information can be drawn from this small bit
of discourse.
An example we find very useful is the formal definition of ‘arachnid’:
‘An arachnid is an invertebrate animal having (or, which has) eight legs
extending at equal intervals from a central body.’ The three pieces of
information in this definition are:
1. T, the term, = arachnid
2. C, the class, = invertebrate animal
3. D, the differences (that is, the differences between our term and all
other invertebrate animals) =
a) an arachnid has eight legs, and
b) these extend at equal intervals from a central body.
Both of these differences are necessary since other invertebrate animals —
the octopods — also have eight legs; however, the arachnid is (insofar as
we know) the only eight-legged invertebrate animal that has its legs
extending at equal intervals from a central body.
Because of the importance of the relationship of the items of informa-
tion in a formal definition to one another as well as to the process of
classification, it is useful to point out these relationships to students: first,
we have the term, a name (and one which may be new in the reader’s
experience); second, we have the name of a group (class or set) into which
the term fits, thus possibly giving us another new word and certainly a
new set of relationships (between the term and the class); and third, we
have some vital characteristics that definitely identify our term and at the
Same time separate it from its siblings — the other members of its class.
Although it is possible to have a virtually unlimited string of differences
in a one-sentence formal definition, writers seldom go beyond the limits
of acceptable sentence structure. Instead, when they need (or want) to add
to the precision of their definitions by giving additional information,
writers usually expand their material to a paragraph — with as many
physical paragraphs as are necessary — and with the original defining
sentence as the core statement. Expansion of definitions is
discussed
below in sub-section 7.3.4, ‘Complex definition’.
A fruitful approach with students studying science or techno
logy is to
show the relationship of the items of information through diagra
ms
76
7.3 The rhetoric of definition

whenever possible. In working with definition and, as we will see later,

with classification, diagrams are a very useful adjunct to a standard class
discussion. Chart 7.2 is the type of definition diagram we find applicable
to students on all levels of subject-matter knowledge, from beginning to
advanced, and on levels of English ability from lower intermediate on.

CHART 7.2 FORMAL DEFINITION DIAGRAMS

An anemometer = a meteorological instrument

that

is used to measure the speed of the wind

An arachnid an invertebrate animal

having

eight legs

extend(ing) at equal intervals from a central body

7.3.2 Semi-formal definition

Although semi-formal definitions presumably provide the reader with
less information than do formal definitions, this is not always true. By
definition, a semi-formal definition contains only two of the three basic
defining elements: the term being defined and the statement of differences.
‘Semi-formal’ refers to the form of the definition, and indicates that it is
not complete: the class is left out.
Asatule, writers will leave out a statement of class not because they are
forgetful, careless, or bad writers but because the class is assumed to be
either obvious (that is, the idea of the class is contained in the term being
defined) or is so large as to be meaningless. For example, in the first
instance, if the term being defined ends in ‘-logy’, there is little point in
telling the reader that it is a member of a class called ‘science’; in the
second, a class such as ‘device’ or ‘science’ is too large to carry much
ig
The rhetorical functions

genuine information to a reader. In cases such as these, a semi-formal

definition really brings readers as much information as a fully formal
definition.
However, there are many occasions when semi-formal definitions do
not provide as much information as a formal definition nor, for that
matter, even all of the information necessary to give the reader adequate
‘defining information’. If we drop the class from our previous definition
of ‘arachnid’, what remains is the typical structure of a semi-formal
definition: ‘An arachnid has eight legs projecting at equal intervals from a
central body.’ This is clearly a definition by description of all arachnidae,
but it leaves out the important information given by the class ‘inverte-
brate animal’. We could, as some writers of definitions do, incorporate
the information in the class into the statement of differences: ‘An arach-
nid has eight legs extending at equal intervals from a central body and
is invertebrate.’ This way of defining obviously has its limitations, both
stylistically and in terms of overloading the statement of differences.

7.3.3 Non-formal definition

A non-formal definition gives neither as much information nor as precise
information as do either formal or semi-formal definitions. The function
of a non-formal definition is to define in a general sense so that a reader
can see the familiar element in whatever the new term may be. The
non-formal definition, therefore, is not designed to provide very much
basic, precise defining information.
Most non-formal definitions are found in the form of synonyms; that
is, they attempt to substitute a word or phrase familiar to the reader for
one presumably unfamiliar. A non-formal definition of our previously
defined term ‘arachnid’ would be ‘An arachnid is a spider.’ In terms of
precision of statement, this definition is not, strictly speaking, true. A
spider is merely one kind of arachnid; thus, the definition is not
substituting a term that is on the same level of generality as the term being
defined. This is a weakness of many definitions by synonym. However,
since precision is not the writer’s interest here and since a spider is the
most well known form of arachnid, the definition quite adequately satis-
fies its purpose of giving readers enough of an idea of the meaning of
‘arachnid’ that they can continue reading with little, if any, loss of
comprehension.
From the above we can see that one type of non-formal definition gives
a term in the form of a class and then defines by naming a commo
n
member of the class. On a more formal level this would be ‘A spider is
an
arachnid which. ...’ A second frequently found method of definin
g non-
formally is to give a term and then define it by its most common (or
most
outstanding) characteristic. We can define ‘helix’ in this way as ‘A
helix is
78
7.3. The rhetoric of definition

a spiral.’ Although any spiral form or structure can be called a helix, not
all helixes are spiral; some are cylindrical, for example. Our definition of
‘helix’, then, gives a characteristic of the most common form of helix
rather than a true synonym.
Non-formal definition has its place even in EST discourse, where pre-
cision of statement is of major importance. Learners, however, need to be
taught to recognize the difference in the amounts and preciseness of in-
formation given by each type of definition. They should not, for instance,
assume that a statement such as ‘An arachnid (spider)....’ provides as
much precise information as one of the more formal forms of definition of
the same term.
The other forms of non-formal definition are 1. definition by negative
statement and 2. definition by antonym. We can define arachnid nega-
tively with the statement ‘An arachnid is not an insect’, although to many
this is not a definition at all. We also find a kind of negative in definition
by antonym: ‘The opposite of indigenous is foreign.’ While this can be a
useful means of defining, especially when there is no well-known ‘posi-
tive’ word to use as a synonym, it is unfortunately too often misused by
writers who fail to follow the basic logic of the relationship between a
term being defined and its definition. A definition must be more well
known (or simpler) than the term being defined. The problem is obvious
when we get definitions such as ‘The opposite of foreign is indigenous’, or
by synonym, ‘Native means indigenous.’ This is the type of definition too
often found in those small bilingual dictionaries non-native students tend
to carry in their pockets. We find it worthwhile to warn students against
dictionaries of this type, especially when they (commonly) put in such
definitions as ‘tautological’ means ‘redundant’ and then go on to define
‘redundant’ as ‘tautological’. Chart 7.3 is a summary of the kinds and
amounts of information given by each type of definition.

CHART 7.3 INFORMATION GIVEN BY TYPES OF DEFINITIONS

|. Formal definition. A formal definition gives the reader three kinds

of information:
1. Thename of the termbeing defined.
2. The classto which the term belongs (i.e., the set of which the
term is a subset).
3. The difference(s) between the term and all other members of
the class: these differences are essential characteristics of
the term (essential in respect to the subject under discussion).
Il. Semi-formal definition. A semi-formal definition gives the reader
two kinds of information:
1. The name ofthe termbeing defined.
2. The difference(s) between the term and the othermembers —
of the class. (This class is not stated; itis often assumed by

hy
The rhetorical functions

the writer either to be obvious or to be of no importance to the

discussion.)
Non-formal definition. A non-formal definition gives the reader
two kinds of information:
1. The name of the termbeing defined.
2. Another word or phrase having the approximate meaning of
the term, or giving an outstanding characteristic of the term.
(This word or phrase can be stated positively, as asynonym, or
negatively, as an antonym; in either case, it does not carry
defining information as precise as that of the other two types
of simple definition.)

Each of the types of definition discussed above is illustrated in example

Tass

EXAMPLE 7.3 EXAMPLES OF THE THREE TYPES OF SIMPLE

DEFINITION
I. Formal definition
1. developed by physical description:
‘An arachnid is an invertebrate animal having eight legs
extending at equal intervals froma central body.’
2. developed by function description:
‘An anemometer is a meteorological instrument that
registers the speed of the wind ona dial or gage.’
3. developed by use/purpose:
‘An anemometer is a meteorological instrument that is
used to measure the speed of the wind.’

II. Semi-formal definition

1. containing physical descriptive information:
‘An arachnid has eight legs extending at equal intervals
froma central body.’
2. containing descriptive information:
‘An anemometer registers the speed of the wind ona dial
er gage.’
3. containing information on use /purpose:
‘An anemometer is used to measure the speed ofthe
wind.’
III. Non-formal definition
1. by synonym:
‘An arachnid is a spider.’ /‘An arachnid (spider). ...’
2. by antonym:
‘The opposite of indigenous is foreign.’
[NOT ‘The opposite of foreign is indigenous.’]

80
7.3. The rhetoric of definition

7.3.4 Complex definition

This category of definition includes those special types that are found
most often in written EST discourse. These are definition 1. by stipula-
tion, 2. by operation, and 3. by explication. We occasionally find defini-
tion by stipulation in a single sentence; however, as a rule all three are
forms of expanded definition and so are found in full paragraphs or even
in groups of paragraphs. In addition, we frequently find that EST texts use
several other ways of expanding definitions. These are discussed below
along with the three special types of definition.

Stipulation. Stipulatory definitions are found only in connection with

other types of definition which are usually (but not necessarily) formal in
form. The purpose of a stipulating definition is to set limits — in time, in
place, in field, in meaning — to the main definition. For example, in our
discussion of paragraph we stipulated (note 4, chapter 3) that ‘paragraph’
meant ‘conceptual paragraph’; that is, we limited the meaning of the term
being defined.
In written EST discourse, we find three types of stipulatory definition:
mathematical stipulation, legal stipulation, and ‘general’ stipulation,
this last so called because we find it commonly throughout English
discourse, not just in EST. Each type of stipulation is illustrated in
example 7.4.

EXAMPLE7.4 SPECIAL TYPES OF DEFINITION: STIPULATION

1. Mathematical stipulation is used mostly to identify the symbols

in a formula or an equation or to set values to variables:
‘In this formula X represents the vertical vector.’
‘Pj, inthis equation, has the value of 3.14159.’

2. Legal stipulation is found mostly in contracts and similar

business documents:
‘The term “special tooling”, as used in this clause, includes all
jigs, dies, fixtures, molds, patterns... and other special articles
of equipment.’

(Source: Quoted in H. M. Weisman, Basic Technical Writing (Columbus, Ohio:

Merrill, 1962), p. 135.]

3. General stipulation is used frequently in EST discourse when

scientists coin names for discoveries; or assign new terms, or
apply old terms in new ways, to activities, processes or objects
resulting from research and similar investigations:
‘In information theory, “entropy” means “information” or
9)
“freedom of information source .

81
The rhetorical functions

Operation. An operational definition tells the reader what to do in order

to experience — physically and/or mentally — whatever is being defined.
Most (though not all) operational definitions in written EST discourse
refer to a physical, usually mechanical, activity. Often the text of the
definition will contain a set of instructions, but with the verbs usually in
the indicative rather than in the imperative. Example 7.5 illustrates two
different styles of operational definition. Note that in each the discourse
begins with a definition: the first is a formal definition of the ‘sound [f]’;
the second contains all the formal elements but is not stated in formal
definition terms. In the case of the first example, we have a single sentence
definition with the ‘operational’ element coming in the statement of
differences. This type of operational definition — with the entire definition
in a single sentence — is not at all common since most texts of this type
would go on and develop the information in at least one paragraph. The
second example has a definition as the core statement of its paragraph and
the supporting details in the form of operational information.

EXAMPLE7.5 SPECIAL TYPES OF DEFINITION: OPERATION

1. An operational definition in one sentence:‘The sound [fJisa
voiceless, labio-dental fricative, formed by placing the lower lip
lightly against the upper teeth, closing the vellum, and forcing
the breath out through the spaces between the teeth or between
the teeth and the upper lip.’
(Source: Quoted in H. M. Weisman, Basic Technical Writing, p. 136.]
2. Amore typical operational definition (one requiring
at least a
paragraph for full development): ‘Torque, ina motor, isa
measure of how much load the motor can turnor lift. On small
motors, torque is measured in inch-ounces. A simple
way to
determine torque is to wrap a cord around a pulley
secured to
the shaft, then add small weights until the motor
is no longer
capable of lifting the load.’
(Source: Quoted in H. M. Weisman, Basic Technical Writing,
p. 136.]

[Note: The operational part of the definition begins with senten

ce 3.
The definition (also the core statement) is formal in that
it provides
three kinds of information: the term is ‘torque’; the class,
‘measure’;
the difference, ‘how much load... .’ The stipulation ‘in a motor’
limits this particular definition of torque to a motor;
that is, the
definition does not necessarily apply to other mechan
ical devices. ]
Explication. Definition by explication is found as a
rule in elementary-
level EST discourse (beginning textbooks, manuals
for apprentices, etc.).
The purpose of an explicated definition is to give the
reader new informa-
tion about the key terms in the original definition.
This new information
82
7.3. The rhetoric of definition

is usually in the form of synonyms — words and/or phrases — that

substitute for the original defining words or phrases that the writer
wishes to clarify. An excellent illustration of a writer clarifying an origi-
nal definition for the benefit of readers presumably new to the subject area
being defined is example 4.4 along with the adapted version in example
4.5A. Dr Nourse uses additional physical paragraphs to explicate the key
terms in his statement of differences and, to give the reader even more
information, he also explicates the class, ‘process’. Our illustration of an
explicated definition (example 7.6) is much simpler, consisting of a
formal definition followed by two sentences, each explicating one of the
key phrases in the statement of differences.

EXAMPLE7.6 SPECIAL TYPES OF DEFINITION: EXPLICATION

The two key phrases explicated in this definition are ‘soil

management’ and ‘crop production’:
‘Agronomy is a science which seeks improved methods of soil
management and crop production. By crop production we mean
new techniques that will increase the yield of field crops. By
improved soil management we mean the use of fertilizers which
contain the necessary nutrients needed for the crops.’
[Source: Submitted by a student; precise source unknown. }

Other ways of expanding definitions. In addition to the expansion of the

special types of definitions, writers often add information to other types
of simple definition by expanding these into paragraphs, again with the
initial definitions usually the core statements of those paragraphs. As a
rule the writers use the rhetorical functions of description and classifi-
cation and the rhetorical technique of exemplification as their main
methods of expansion. Each of these three methods is illustrated in
example 7.7.

EXAMPLE7.7 ' OTHER WAYS OF EXPANDING DEFINITIONS

1. Expansionbydescription .
‘A source is a device that selects and transmits sequences of
symbols froma given alphabet. Each selection is made at
random. The channel transmits the incoming signal to the
receiver....’
[Source: F. M. Reza, An Introduction to Information Theory (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1960), p. 3.]

[The expansion of the formal definition is by function description

(statement of differences and sentence 2) and then by process
description (the remaining sentences of the paragraph, of which only

83
The rhetorical functions

the first is given here). The writer uses the formal definition as his core
statement. He could not leave out the class (‘device’) as would
normally be the case since the word ‘source’ is not usually thought
of as something mechanical. To write ‘A source selects and
transmits...’ would not have given the reader adequate
information. ]

2. Expansion by classification
‘The triode is a standard vacuum tube [which is] used where
signal to noise ratio is not critical. Other standard vacuum tubes
are the tetrode, the pentode, and the multi-unit. The tetrode is
used where medium signal amplification is desired. The
pentode is used .../The multi-unit is used. ...’ (See example
7.10 for full text.)

[The class in this definition is ‘standard vacuum tube’ and it is this

class that is expanded by listing its other important members
(important, that is, to the writer’s subject). The information on each
of the members of the class is in terms of use; this choice is governed
by the statement of difference also being in terms of use. The detailed
discussion of classification is in section 7.4.]

3. Expansion by exemplification
‘The average physical product is a measure of efficiency which
is determined by the total output divided by the total number of
variable inputs used to produce that level of output. For
example, if two variable inputs are required to produce four
units of output, the average physical product (and hence the
measure of efficiency at that level of production) is two units of
output per unit of variable input.’
[Source: Written by a student.]

[The expansion of the definition is not, as in the previous examples an

expansion of the statement of differences or of the class but of the
term itself. As this paragraph is designed, the expansion takes the
generalized statement of differences and makes it specific, thus
illustrating directly the term being defined. ]

84
7.4 The rhetoric of classification

7.4 Therhetoric of classification

To this point we have seen classification used in the development of both

describing and defining paragraphs. In addition to this supplementary
role, classification is frequently the main function of paragraphs and so is
capable of being isolated and studied on its own.
In our work with written EST discourse we found that classification is
actually a two-way process: if we have one or more members of a class,
the procedure is to find the class (and give it a name) to which those
members belong; if we have a class (named), we then try to find the
members that make up this class. This latter procedure is more properly
called ‘analysis’; however, for purposes of identifying the process of
classification in reading EST discourse and in using it in writing, we find it
better to teach the two procedures as simply two parts of the same pro-
cess. (Note that taking a device or an object and breaking it into its
component parts is neither classification nor analysis. It is a part of the
process of physical description and is correctly called ‘partition’.)
Most EST discourse classifies in the true sense of the term: it begins
with one or more apparently related items and looks for the larger group
that these might fit into. However, at times we get both procedures
operating together: after finding a class for an item (or items) we then find
it necessary to determine what other items, if any, are also members of
this class. Further, as we shall see, we find classification existing simulta-
neously at more than one level: a term which is a class at one level may
well be a member of a class at a higher level and the member of a class at
one level may well be the class of the level one step down, with level, of
course, meaning ‘level of generality’. The expression of these rela-
tionships — putting order into our universe — is one of the most common
functions of EST discourse.
Classification is worth spending teaching time on since, like definition,
it is so basic to human thinking and to scientific expression. Also,
classification is concerned with levels of generalization and of related
specifics. It is always surprising to discover how few students — whether
native or non-native — realize that a generalization at one level of a
classification can be a specific at another; nor do they always realize the
relationship between classes and members of those classes at different
levels. This problem is discussed in detail in sub-section 7.4.3; here it is
enough to point out that to have students orally make several levels of
classification about familiar things easy to classify — cars, sports, stereo
systems, etc. — is not only a useful exercise, it is one that invariably
generates a good deal of student interest.
Another approach to teaching classification is through definition.
These are such closely related functions that when a formal definition is
written on the blackboard (or on a handout) and a statement of classifi-
85
The rhetorical functions. -

cation (using the same terms) is written directly beneath it, we find that
most students very quickly see the relationships between the two and
equally quickly are able to verbalize them.
We find two essential differences between the rhetorical functions of
formal definition and classification: the first is that definition deals with
only one member of a class while classification deals with all (or the most
important) members; the second is that the statement of difference in a
formal definition has as its purpose the isolation of the term being
defined, while its counterpart in classification, usually called the ‘basis for
(or criterion of) classification’, has the purpose of naming something that
is shared by all members of the class. The meaning of the term ‘basis for
classification’ is discussed in detail in sub-section 7.4.1.
In our work with EST discourse we identified three types of classifi-
cation: 1. complete classification, 2. partial classification, and 3. implicit
classification. Each of the three types, as with the basic types of simple
definition, provides us with different amounts of information. Implicit
classification, however, like implicit definition, is determined by the way
in which the classifying information is expressed by the discourse; that is,
it is implicit if it is classifying information stated other than in classifi-
cation terms. (See chart 7.4 for a summary of information given by types
of classification.)

7.4.1 Complete classification

To be complete, a classification must provide the reader with three kinds
of information, although not necessarily in this order:
1. the item (or items) being classified — i.e., the members of the class
2. the class to which the items (members) belong
3. the basis (or bases) for classification
The first gives us the names of two or more terms and suggests that
there is a relationship between them but does not specify precisely what
this relationship is. (Note that if a class only has one member, then
the
member and the class are the same and we do not have a true classifi-
cation.) The second names the class to which the members belong
and
gives us additional information on the relationship between them.
The
third tells us in what way (or ways) the members of the class differ
from
one another and may also tell us in what way (or ways) they
are similar —
that is, how they are related — although this information may be
suggested
by the class itself.
We find all three kinds of information in the following one
sentence
classification: ‘We can classify particles into three types in respect
to size:
1. those easily visible to the naked eye; 2. those which cannot
be dis-
tinguished even under powerful optical microscopes;
and 3. those
molecules of a substance like water or sugar.’ First, we are
told that we are
86
7.4. The rhetoric of classification

to be given a classification; then our classifying information comes in the

following order: the class (particles), how many members the class will
have, on what basis these differ from one another (size), and then more
specific descriptions of this difference.
In this example we have what is called a ‘closed class’; that is, a class
which has only those members listed. Other types of classes worth
discussing are the open-ended (infinite) class and the closed class that has
a finite number of members, only some of which are essential to any given
discussion. Many closed classes have more members than are ever named
by writers making a classification: in such cases, the writers choose only
those members that are pertinent to the subject under discussion. For
example, we might have a class called ‘fasteners’. It has a finite number of
members since there are only so many kinds of ‘fasteners’. Some of these
members are ‘nails’, ‘wood screws’, ‘metal screws’, ‘nuts and bolts’, ‘stap-
les’, ‘paper clips’, and ‘brads’. Unless someone writing about ‘fasteners’
was attempting to do a complete survey, a classification would list only
those members that dealt with the fastening of particular materials: for
example, wood or paper or metal sheeting.
There are innumerable examples of open-ended classes — those with an
infinite number of members (or at least more members than we are cap-
able of counting): any type of constantly changing population, such as
bacteria, viruses, or the number of people in any given country, the stars
in the universe, etc. Obviously, it would be impossible for writers to list
all the members of such classes, even if they wanted to do so. Examples
7.8A, B, and C illustrate both open-ended and closed complete
classifications.

7.8A A COMPLETE CLASSIFICATION WITH A FINITE

EXAMPLE
NUMBER OF MEMBERS

Allcrystalline solids can be classified as members of one of

fourteen crystal systems. The number of ways in which atomic
arrangements can be repeated to forma solid is limited to fourteen
by the geometries of space division. Any one of these
arrangements, when repeated in space, forms the lattice structure
characteristic of a crystalline material. These fourteen systems
are....For example, cadmium sulphide has a lattice formed of
hexagonal units....
American,
(Source: Adapted from Sir Nevill Mott, ‘The Solid State’, Scientific
September 1967, p. 83.]

(This example has two levels of classification: the largest class is

its
‘crystalline systems’, which has ‘fourteen crystal systems’ as
members. These crystal systems become classes in turn, each of which
has an unspecified number of crystalline solids for its members. The
87
The rhetorical functions

second sentence gives us the basis for classification of the fourteen

members of the class ‘crystalline systems’. The next to last sentence
names the fourteen members of this class, and the final sentence gives
us an example (one member) of one of the second level classes; that is,
a member of one of the fourteen systems that have become classes
after first having been members of a larger class. We are also given the
name of this member: ‘hexagonal units’.]

EXAMPLE7. 8B ACOMPLETE CLASSIFICATION WITH MORE

THAN ONE STATED BASIS

We can classify the planets of our solar system by one or more of

the following characteristics: average distance from sun, Earth = 1;
solar radiation received, Earth = 1; orbital period; eccentricity;
equatorial diameter in miles; mass, Earth = 1; gravity, Earth = 1;
escape velocity in mi/sec.; rotation period; inclination in degrees;
and albedo.
(Source: Adapted from George Ohring, Weather on the Planets, Science Study
Series, S47 (New York: Doubleday, 1966), pp. 30-1.]

[Although the writer does not name the planets at this point, he does
so elsewhere in the book. He follows this paragraph by defining
several of the characteristics he lists. While he does not tell the reader
that the characteristic chosen determines the order in which the
members should be listed, it is a point worth mentioning during
discussion of the rhetoric of classification. For example, if the
criterion (basis) chosen is ‘average distance from the sun’, Earth
would be third, assuming that the first named is the closest planet to
the sun. On the other hand, if the basis is ‘equatorial diameter in
miles’, Earth would be fifth, as there are four planets (if we include
Pluto) with smaller equatorial diameters. ]

EXAMPLE Teo AN OPEN-ENDED CLASSIFICATION

In the many types of service conditions in which refractories are

used, there is a great variety of different kinds of abrasion. The
destructive action of abrasion ona furnace lining may be the result
of scraping, scouring, gouging, rubbing, impingement of
relatively fine particles of material, or impact of heavy objects. For
convenience in discussing the various types of abrasive action, we
can classify abrasion under three general headings, namely:
1. Abrasion by rubbing
2. Abrasion by impingement
3. Abrasion by impact
[Source: Report on ‘Abrasion’ quoted in Gordon H. Mills and John A. Walter,
Technical Writing, 3rd edn (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970),
n.p.]

88
7.4 The rhetoric of classification
[The basis for classification is not given in so many words; however, it
is clear from the writer’s statements that the basis is ‘the differing
actions of the “different kinds of abrasion”’’. While it is probable
that ‘abrasion’ is a finite class with a countable number of members,
the writer here treats it as open-ended and lists those he considers the
most important types of abrasion. Since he lists three others, we have
an unstated second level of classification with these subsumed under
one of the ‘general’ types of abrasion. ]

7.4.2 Partial classification

Whether the class is open or closed, it is considered complete only if the
basis is stated (as in examples 7.8A and B) or is clear from the context (as
in example 7.8C). Classification that leaves out the basis for classifying is
called partial classification. Writers usually fail to state the basis because
they feel that it is obvious (or, unfortunately, because they are sometimes
poor writers). Example 7.9 illustrates a paragraph of classification that
has no stated basis because the writer felt that this was obvious from the
context.

EXAMPLE7.9 APARTIAL CLASSIFICATION WITHITS BASIS

UNSTATED BUT OBVIOUS

Atriode is a standard vacuum tube which contains three

electrodes: an anode, a cathode, and a control electrode called the
grid. Other standard vacuum tubes are: tetrode, pentode, and
multi-unit. The tetrode is a four electrode electron tube containing
the three elements which the triode has plus one additional
element: This is ordinarily a screen grid. The tetrode is used where
medium signal amplification is desired. With the addition of a fifth
element, the resulting tube is called a pentode. The pentode is
used in circuitry where high amplification is desired. The multi-unit
tube has two or more separate tubes in one shell. It is used asa
space saver because it contains two tubes in one.
(Source: Written by a non-native advanced undergraduate engineering student
for an in-class exercise in classification, University of Washington (Seattle), HSS
304, Winter Quarter, 1978.]

[Since the writer does not explicitly give the basis for classification,
this is called a partial classification. Actually all three of the
requirements for a complete classification are obvious from the
context, especially since the classification starts with a formal
definition of one member, thus establishing the name of a member,
the class, and how this member differs from the others (as yet
unnamed) in the class. Using this information, the writer carries the
reader quickly into the classification of vacuum tubes by naming

89
The rhetorical functions

three other important members of the class. Thus by the end of the
second sentence, we have all of the basic information needed: the
class, the members of the class, and—from the formal definition—a
clear statement of difference, which later suggests (but does not state)
the basis for classification; that is, the number of electrodes differs for
each member of the class. A one-sentence example of a partial
classification that is helpful to use in the beginning of the discussion
is ‘Razor blades can be classified as single edge or double edge.’ Here
we have the name of the class and of its two members but no
statement of the basis for classification, although this is quite
obvious. Even so, we find it worthwhile to ask the students to make
the classification complete by providing a basis for classification. A
typical answer would be, ‘Razor blades can be classified according to
the number of edges a blade has. There are single-edged and double-
edged blades.’]

7.4.3 Implicit classification

Implicit classification refers to classifying information that is present in
the discourse but not in classification terms. Above, we noted that the
basis for classification in a partial classification is often present in the text
but not stated explicitly as the basis. In an implicit classification all of the
classifying information is present but is not stated as such. Nor does the
paragraph have classification as its rhetorical function. Just as with
implicit definition readers can be taught to find the classifying informa-
tion in a paragraph that does not have the overt purpose of classifying and
they can also be taught to abstract out this information and rearrange it in
classificatory form.
Example 7.10A is fairly typical of implicit classifications found in
elementary science and technology textbooks. There are a number of
ways that students can be helped to learn how to abstract out the neces-
sary classifying information from a piece of discourse of this type. One
way is to write down the names of each of the items of information
expected from a classification, follow each name with a blank and then
find terms and phrases that fit the names and so fill in the blanks. This is
both a sound in-class exercise and one for learners to do with their own
subject-matter reading.

EXAMPLE7.IOA A PARAGRAPH CONTAINING SIMPLE IMPLICIT

CLASSIFICATION

The Three States of Matter

In the solid state a body has definite volume and is almost
incompressible. It also has a shape independent of the space in
which it is placed. As considerable force is necessary to separate

90
7.4 The rhetoric of classification

portions of it, it is said to possess considerable cohesion. Inthe

liquid state matter also possesses a definite volume and has little
compressibility, but it has no definite shape and automatically
takes the shape of any vessel into which it is placed. Also a liquid
shows much less cohesion than a solid. In the gaseous state matter
has neither fixed volume nor fixed shape. A quantity of gas
introduced into any closed space immediately spreads out to fill
that space. Also a gas shows considerable compressibility and has
practically no cohesion.
[Source: Submitted by a student; precise source unknown. ]

[Using the information in the above example, we can fill in the

classification chart described above as follows:
CLASS: States of matter

MEMBERS OF THE CLASS: Solids, liquids, gases

BASIS (BASES) FOR

CLASSIFICATION: Compressibility, definiteness
of shape, volume, cohesion

A more visual and often more functional way for readers to record
the classifying information from an implicit classification is to put
the information in the form of ‘trees’, as shown in the two
paragraphs of example 7.10B. This ‘tree’ method of recording
the results of analysis of texts for classifying information we find to
be most useful for the students, both in the classroom and outside,
when they need to analyze their subject-matter reading. A
‘classification tree’ follows immediately after each paragraph. ]

EXAMPLE7.IOB TWO PARAGRAPHS ILLUSTRATING IMPLICIT

CLASSIFICATION

Paragraph 1: Simple implicit classification

Underground water reserves are much larger than those on the
surface, but as they are unseen we tend to underestimate them. It is
vitally important that we make use of these underground reserves,
but never haphazardly. For example, where does the water come
from which we find in one or another of the underground water-
bearing layers (aquifers)? How does it move? How is it renewed?
And, if this water is used, what effect will it have on the discharge
and future level of the water table? What are the laws of hydrology?
Despite the immense progress of recent years, all of these
questions still have not been fully answered.

(Source: M. Batisse, Courier (UNESCO, July—August 1964); quoted in J. R. Ewer

andG. Latorre, A Course in Basic Scientific English (London: Longman, 1969),
p. 123.]

91
The rhetorical functions

Classification tree:

Water reserves

fee
peecrmrermaen*
Underground Surface
water reserves water reserves

[Basis for classification: location of water reserves]

Paragraph 2: Complex implicit classification

Asimilar need for research exists in the branch of hydrology that
deals with the quality of water. In nature, there is no water like the
pure water defined by chemists, made up of only hydrogen and
oxygen. River water, ground water, and even rain water always
contain other dissolved or suspended elements, and these, even
when present in small quantities, play an important role.
[Source: Batisse, in Ewer and Latorre, pp. 123—4.]

Classification tree:
Water

| Natural
Man-made (implied)

Pure River Ground Rain

[For the bases for classification of the three classes in the above
complex classification tree, see the discussion in the following
paragraph.
This example of complex implicit classification has two levels of
generality: the class of the first (highest) level is ‘water’, with the two
members ‘man-made’ and ‘natural’, ‘man-made water’ being implied
by the second sentence of the paragraph. Dropping downto the
second level, we find that the members of the first level have become
classes on the second level. The class ‘man-made’ is shown with only
one member; however, since chemists can obviously make other
kinds of water along with ‘pure water’, we canalso imply additional
members: ‘impure water’, ‘saline water’, ‘heavy water’, etc. Also, the
writer gives us only three members of the class ‘natural (water)’ even
though there are several other natural sources. Finally, although he
fails to give us the bases for classification for any of the three classes,
we can easily supply these from context: at the first level, we clearly
have as the basis for classification, ‘How the various kinds of water
are produced’; and at the second level we have ‘quality of water’ as
the basis for the class ‘man-made’, and ‘sources’ as the basis for
‘natural’.'}

92
7.4 The rhetoric of classification

The kinds and amounts of information given by the three types of

classification discussed above are summarized in chart 7.4.

CHART 7.4 INFORMATION GIVEN BY TYPES OF

CLASSIFICATION

|. Complete classification. A complete classification gives the

reader three kinds of information:
1. Thename ofthe class (thatis, the set)
2. The members of the class (that is, the sub-sets of the set) —
sometimes writers give all members of the class; at other times
they give only those members pertinent to the subject. This is
especially true when the subject of the discourse is such that
the class has a very large number of members or is non-finite.
3. The basis (or bases) for classification —thatis, the
characteristics of each member that are similar and those that
are different. Sometimes only the differences are stated: the
similarities are then implied in the class.

ll. Partial classification. A partial classification gives the reader two

kinds of information:
1. Thename of the class
2. Themembers of the class (as above)

[A partial classification leaves out the basis for classification either

because the writer assumes that the information will be obvious to
the reader or is not important to the discussion. ]
lll. Implicit classification. An implicit classification is found in a piece
of discourse that has a rhetorical function other than
classification. Most implicit classifications contain all three kinds
of information listed under ‘Complete classification’ above,
although it is not stated in classifying terms. Context usually
provides the information in such a way that it can be easily
abstracted from the text and put into a classification chart or in the
form of aclassification tree so that the reader can more easily see
the whole and, therefore, the relationships of the information in
the classification to other information in the discourse.

7.4.4 Classification as a process

On the surface, classification seems a simple enough concept to be taught
in the classroom with little difficulty. Having the students find examples
in their reading poses few if any problems: virtually all scientific and
technical discourse contains samples of classification. However, we
discovered early in our work that even though the students bring excellent
examples to class, they are not always able to interpret these as easily and

=
The rhetorical functions

fully as they can their examples of definition and description. Many

students recognize that they are dealing with more than one level of
generality but are unable to discuss these in a way that shows they have
gained the necessary insights into the concepts involved. This is, as to be
expected, especially true when they are dealing with implicit
classification.
We devised the following solution: first, we get the students to recog-
nize explicit classifications that have only one level. Once we feel satisfied
that they have grasped the basic principles involved we get them to pro-
duce their own paragraphs of explicit classification. This approach is not
simply a matter of telling the students to use as models the paragraphs
handed out as examples or those from their own subject-matter reading.
To classify well requires more understanding of the concept of classifi-
cation than does just recognizing that a writer is classifying. For this
reason, we give the students a set of ‘rules’ to use when writing paragraphs
of classification. These rules are fairly obvious; yet it is surprising how
often they are not followed even by ‘published’ writers. If they are not
followed (or are followed ‘badly’), the result can be an unordered mish-
mash of details or, at the very best, an example of fuzzy thinking. This set
of ‘rules’ is summarized in chart 7.5 and discussed in more detail in
chapter 10.

CHART 7.5 SUMMARY OF RULES FOR CLASSIFYING

1. Writers must be able to define their class and each member of that
class. They should understand the relation of the class and the
members to one another and to the ‘outside world’.
2. Aclass must have at least two members. If aclass has only one
member, then that member and the class are the same. In implicit
classification some or all members may have to be reconstructed
from ‘logic’ as well as context.
3. Inlarge classes it is not usually necessary nor advisable to state all
members. With these and with ‘infinite’ classes, writers must decide
which members to list for the readers.
4. Allmembers of a class must have at least one characteristic in
common: this commonality is the basis for their all being members
of the same class.
5. Each member of a class must be clearly separated from all other
members by the basis (bases) for classification which functions to
differentiate them from each other.
6. Classification must be made on only one level at atime. Mixing
levels is a sure sign of lack of understanding ofthe principles of
Classification.

Many students tend to confuse the process of ‘partition’ with that

of
classification. Partition is the process of breaking an object
into its
94
7.5 The rhetoric of instructions

component parts and naming each part—or, at the very least, naming each
important part. Partition, then, is related to the rhetorical function of
physical description and the rhetorical technique of space order. The
difference between partition and classification in respect to teaching is
given in some detail in chapter 10.

7.5 Therhetoric of instructions

Although we find the rhetoric of instructions exemplified in both

academic and occupational English discourse (see charts 2.1 and 2.2,
p. 6), by their very nature instructions are found more in occupational
English. In academic discourse instructions are confined primarily to
assignments in textbooks, to laboratory manuals for science and en-
gineering students, and to occasional uses in peer writing.
While there is often a marked difference between instructions for
technicians and for academic personnel, there is also a broad area of
overlap. This overlap is most easily seen in those laboratory and other
manuals used by both trained technicians in research facilities and by
academics — students and teachers — in laboratories. It is illustrated by
example 7.11, which is from a manual used by highly trained technicians
and by electrical engineering professors and their advanced undergradu-
ate and graduate students.

EXAMPLE7.II INSTRUCTIONS USED BY BOTH OCCUPATIONAL

AND ACADEMIC PERSONNEL

Operation of the VOLTAGE LIMIT control can be checked as

follows:
. Set the VOLTAGE LIMIT control to mid-range.
. Set the V-A switch to 5ma.
. Connecta 10K, 5%, #W resistor across the OUTPUT terminals.
. Connect the 881A tothe OUTPUT terminals.
. Set the decade controls to 4.000000 ma.
. Set POWER switch to ON.
. Set the VOLTAGE LIMIT toa minimum. The 881A should
WD
of
NO

indicate that the output voltage decreases to below 5 volts.

[Source: Model 382A Voltage/Current Calibrator Operator’s Manual (Seattle,
Washington: Fluke Manufacturing Co., 1964), p. 4-3.]

(This text assumes that the user already knows the various controls
and can read the ‘code’ terms, such as 88A, V-A switch, OUTPUT
terminals, decade controls, and power switch. In manuals that are for
learners (apprentices, hobbyists, etc.) most of the terminology would
be defined or identified by a labelled illustration. }

95
The rhetorical functions

7.5.1 Nature of the discourse of instructions

The rhetoric of instructions provides readers with two quite different
kinds of information: the first we call simply instructions; the second,
instructional information. Instructions are of two types: direct instruc-
tions, which are characterized by the use of the imperative form of the
verbs, and indirect instructions, which are characterized by the use of
modal verbs, the passive mood, and — most frequently — a combination
of the two; that is, passive modals. These are treated in detail in chapter
8.
We define instructions as discourse that tells someone to do (or not to
do) something. In direct instructions, this discourse is usually in the form
of a vertical list that is most often headed by a statement indicating the
goal of the instructions. In indirect instructions (unless mixed in with a
list of direct instructions) the discourse is usually in paragraph form,
often with the core statement of the paragraph indicating the goal of the
instructions. Instructional information is discourse that ‘assists’ instruc-
tions by providing corollary information: cautions, warnings, specifying
statements, descriptions, and theoretical considerations. Example 7.12
illustrates the two kinds of instructions and instructional information in
the same text. Chart 7.6 following summarizes the kinds and amounts of
information given by each type of instruction and by instructional
information.

EXAMPLE7.I2 DIRECT AND INDIRECT INSTRUCTIONS AND

INSTRUCTIONAL INFORMATION IN ONE TEXT

Section 2-19
The 382A calibrator may be used to regulate the voltage of another
power supply having higher output voltage, but poorer regulation,
than the 382A. This is performed as follows:
1. Connect the 382A and the other power supply at the + and —
sens and out terminals. The diode limits the voltage of a reverse
polarity which would be applied to the 382A in the event ofa
short circuit across the load, or when the other instrument is
turned on first.
2. The rating of the fuse should be equal to, or slightly higher than,
the rated full load current of the other power supply. The fuse is
a protective device which opens the circuit if the load becomes
shorted, to prevent applying a continuing reverse voltage to the
382A.
3. Install a diode capable of conducting the maximum short circuit
current of the other power supply until the fuse opens the
circuit.
4. The resistor is an external voltage control resistor, the value
of

96
7.5 The rhetoric of instructions

which must be 1000 ohms per volt of the output of the other
power supply.

(Source: Operator’s Manual, Fluke Manufacturing Co., p. 4-10.]

[This set of instructions mixes direct and indirect instructions and

instructional information in the following way:
The introduction gives us the purpose (goal) of the set of
instructions.
Instruction 1 begins with a direct instruction (marked by the use of
the imperative). The second sentence is a piece of instructional
information explaining the purpose of the diode CR1 and adding a
small amount of ‘theory’.
Instruction 2 begins with an indirect instruction, marked by the
modal ‘should’. The reader familiar with the conventions of written
instructional discourse will read this sentence as though it is a direct
instruction: ‘Use a fuse with a rating equal to or slightly higher than
the full rated load current of the other power supply.’ The second
sentence is again information, telling readers the purpose of the fuse
and adding a bit more theory.
Instruction 3 is a direct instruction that includes a brief function
description of the diode to be installed.
Instruction 4 reverses the order of instruction 2 by giving us the
instructional information first and then the indirect instruction. Both
pieces of information can be incorporated into a single direct
instruction: ‘Use an external voltage control resistor that has the
value of 1000 ohms per volt of the output of the other power supply.’
The type of rephrasing shown above for instructions 2 and 4 can be
the basis for useful student exercises. To rephrase indirect
instructions provides practice in using imperatives; to rephrase direct
instructions provides practice in producing and using modals and, as
later examples show, in producing and using passives and passive
modals. Chapter 8 looks more closely at passives, modals, and
passive models, all of which tend to cause problems for many non-
native learners.
A problem not touched upon to any great extent so far is that of the
specialized vocabulary of this type of discourse, primarily the heavy
use of noun compounds. These are discussed in chapter 9.]

CHART 7.0 INFORMATION GIVEN BY TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONS

|. Instructions
1. Direct instructions. Direct instructions use the imperative form
of the verb. As arule, they are given in the form of anumbered
list; that is, a set of steps in the order in which they are to be
done.
2. Indirect instructions. Indirect instructions use non-imperative
verb forms. The most frequent forms used with indirect

97
The rhetorical functions

instructions are passive verbs, modals, and passive modals,

with this last being extremely common. Indirect instructions are
almost always in paragraph, rather than in list, form, with the
core statement of the paragraph being the goal (or purpose) of
the instructions. When they are in list form, they frequently
accompany a direct instruction or some instructional information.

[Direct and indirect instructions are often mixed together. Usually, as

noted directly above, they are together in a numbered list; however,
when the mixture includes instructional information, each item in
the list can become a separate physical paragraph, with the entire set
of instructions making up one conceptual paragraph.]

Il. Instructional information

By instructional information we mean information that helps the
reader make use of or better understand the instructions.
Instructional information cannot stand alone but is always
associated with either direct or indirect instructions. It is, therefore,
adding one or more of the following kinds of information to direct
or indirect instructions.
1. Cautions: ‘This circuit will short out under any overload.’
2. Warnings (often a kind of negative instruction): ‘Do not use the
intake duct as a shelf for tools.’
3. Notes: ‘Ripple functions to provide a path for AC voltages.’
4. Specifying statements: ‘Only manual transmission models
have two thermosensors; automatics have only one.’
5. Theory (the ‘why’ an instruction is to be carried out as
specified):
[First, the instruction, in this case a direct instruction:] ‘The VRU
mounting mustbe a rigid and flat horizontal plate...’
[Second, the ‘why’ of the instruction :]‘... to avoid introducing
errors due to flexing of the mounting plate.’

[It is not always necessary to make distinctions as fine as those made

above. This is especially true with intermediate or lower-level classes.
With these, we refer to ‘cautions and warnings’, avoiding making
distinctions that are not always easily seen. In the same fashion,
‘notes’, ‘specifying statements’, and even ‘theory’ can be profitably
lumped together. With more advanced classes, however, ‘theory’ is
often best left by itself.

7.5.2 Teaching the rhetoric of instructions

As we shall see from the examples in this sub-section,
not all sets of
instructions are well written. In fact, many seem to be inade
quate in one

98
7.5 The rhetoric of instructions

or more respects: they lack clarity; they contain ambiguities; they often
lack organization; they leave new terms undefined; and so on. Here we
have a partial answer to those teachers of technical writing (and technical
reading) who ask, ‘How can we teach “good” writing with examples like
these?’ Too many teachers attempt to solve the problem by selecting only
‘good’ examples to present to their students. Unfortunately, these same
students will face a great deal of ‘less than good’ writing in the real world,
in fact, may already have faced it in some of their textbooks and supple-
mentary reading. To keep them from exposure to all of the kinds of
discourse that they will ultimately face means that they will not be able to
fully understand nor make use of these instruments when they need to.
While most native students have little trouble reading an indirect instruc-
tion as a direct instruction, few non-native students can do so without
being taught to make the transformation as they read.
Non-native learners find problems of style as well as those of lexis and
syntax to some degree in virtually every technical manual. Outside of
dense writing, a style problem that students find difficult to handle is the
shift from the very formal to the very colloquial and back again. Example
7.13 illustrates this shift. While the style and tone in this example are
exaggeratedly informal in the first paragraph as compared to the second
(formal) and the third (a compromise), this kind of shifting is becoming
more and more the rule, especially when a supposed ‘expert’ is writing for
a lay audience (for example, hobby and other do-it-yourself instructional
materials).

EXAMPLE7.13 STYLESHIFTIN ONETYPE OF INSTRUCTIONAL

MANUAL

The battery
You probably take your car’s battery pretty much for granted. In
fact, you’ve probably been ignoring if not totally abusing your
battery all summer and getting away with it. But unless you want to
be walking that first morning winter hits hard, you'd better
reestablish a proper relationship with your battery . ... Cold
absolutely zonks a battery.
Specific gravity. A standard storage battery produces current on
demand through a chemical reaction between the battery plate
material and the sulphuric acid in the electrolyte liquid. Whena
battery is fully charged there is a high percentage of acid inthe
electrolyte to react with the plates. Since acid is heavier than water,
‘the specific gravity is high if a battery is in good condition.
Strength test. To check out a battery with a hydrometer, simply
draw asample of electrolyte from each battery cell—jotting down
the specific gravity reading....A good cell will have a reading of

2?
The rhetorical functions

1.260 or higher. A discharged cell will read 1.160 or lower based on

80 degrees F.
[Source: Do- Your-Own Car Repairs (Washington, D.C., United States
Government, n.d.),n.p.]

[By the time an EST class reaches the point where material of this
kind is discussed, few students have difficulty reading at the level of
paragraph 2 as this is close to the style of their subject-matter
reading. They do, however, have considerable problems with the first
paragraph or any writing similarly colloquial. Paragraph 3 usually
causes problems only for those students whose oral English is still
confined to the classroom: thus, they may have difficulty with (in the
context of informational writing) such terms as ‘check out’, ‘simply
draw ...’, and ‘jotting down’. This difficulty disappears as a rule once
the students are able to handle language exchanges with native
speakers. ]

A few of the syntactic and lexical problems that occur all too
often in
technical manuals are illustrated in example 7.14. Poor organiz
ation in
instructions is illustrated in section 7.6, example 7.18. Other
grammati-
cal problems are discussed in chapter 8; lexical problems in chapter
9; and
possible solutions in chapter 10.

EXAMPLE 7.14 SYNTAX AND LEXIS PROBLEMS INA SET OF

INSTRUCTIONS

Technical services repair card

Oil tank quantity must be 12 quarts or more.
Remove engine oil screen for disposal.
odBefore installing the external filter assembly,
check the red
button at top of filter. If it raises 3 /16 inch, filter elemen
t
should be changed. P/N 27-7965.
Place filter assembly mounted ona cart under each engine
screen. Each cart is placarded to be used for specifi
c engine
position.
The filter assembly P/N AD-83330-24 should be at least
full
with Mobil Jet Oil II.
When servicing the filter assembly, be sure
that the valve at
the bottom of the filter is in close position.
The inlet and outlet port of the filter assembly are
attached toa
typical screen cover (JT8D) and a false filter inserte
d.
Open valve located at bottom of filter to full open
position.
Repeat valve should be opened to full open positio
n before
starting engine.
Run engine at 1.02-1.04 EPR for five minutes
and observe oil
pressure 40-35 PSIG. Oil temperature maxim
um 120 degree
C. Oil quantity not less than 12 quarts.

100
7.5 The rhetoric of instructions

10. After engine shutdown, close valve at bottom ofthe filter and
remove filter assembly cart and install new main oil screen.
Assemble screen per MSL 79-005, M.N. 79-90. Torque cover
to 25-30 in. /lbs. Safety nuts and run engine and check screen
for leaks.
ll. Service oil tank.
[Source: Saudia Technical Repair Manual (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, Saudi Arabian
Airlines, n.d.), n.p.]

[Of the eleven separate instructions in the example, eight invariably

cause trouble for non-native readers. Since almost all of the
mechanics using this repair card are non-native speakers living in
their home environment, the extent of the problem is obvious. The
errors and the difficulties of syntax and lexis are not, however,
because the manual was written by a non-native speaker; on the
contrary, it is the work of native English-speaking aircraft engineers.
Of the eleven instructions four are indirect and five direct, with
two, instructions 3 and 8, mixed. Instruction 10 has five separate
direct instructions crammed into four sentences. Instructions 1, 2,
and 11 are clear; however, this is not true of the other eight. In
instruction 3, we find a final sentence (or symbols set off as a sentence)
with no indication of the relation of this to the rest of the instruction
until we get to instruction 5, where the symbols suggest that parts
numbers beginning with P/N have something to do with filters.
Instruction 4 is both ambiguous and confusing: it is difficult to
determine from the text whether the filter assembly is to be mounted
onacart or is found already mounted ona cart. The word ‘placarded’
in the second sentence is little used as a verb and is found only asa
noun, if at all, in most of the dictionaries non-native readers use. (By
asking trained Saudia mechanics we learned that the instruction
means that on each cart there is a filter assembly and that these carts
are furnished with placards telling the mechanics what part of the
engine the assembly on the cart is designed for.)
Instruction 5 is, of course, simply careless writing. If something is
‘at least full’, it is ‘full’. (Some of the senior technicians discovered
their trainees over-filling filter assemblies to make certain that they
were actually ‘full’!) Instruction 6 caused similar problems of
interpretation with some users of the manual interpreting ‘close
position’ as ‘fully closed’ and others interpreting it as ‘near closed
position but not necessarily completely closed’. Instruction 7 is a
good example of an apparent passive construction not being a passive
but a stative. This problem is treated in detail in chapter 8.
The confusion in instruction 8 is caused by the ambiguous phrasing
in sentence 1 and the lack of a definite article in sentence 2. A large
proportion of readers first read sentence 1 as ‘The open valve is
located at the bottom of the filter . . ..” When they reach the end of the
sentence all native readers and some non-native readers are able to
adjust and so read, ‘Open the valve which is located at the bottom of
101
The rhetorical functions

the filter to full open position.’ The second sentence was taken by
many readers to mean “The repeat valve should be opened...’
whereas it actually means, ‘Repeat! The valve...’
Instruction 9 is a good example of the kind of ‘cryptic’ writing too
often found in manuals. In addition to the definite articles omitted,
the writer leaves out the key terms that could make the compound
direct object of the verb ‘observe’ clear to the reader. The writer here
intended to instruct the reader to run the engine at a certain speed for
five minutes and then to check the oil pressure to make sure that it is
40-35 PSIG and to check the oil temperature to make sure that it is no
higher than 120 degrees C. These observations are to be made with
the engine containing not less than 12 quarts of oil. In addition to
trying to ‘save’ words, the writer of this instruction is guilty of
upside-down organization of his information: the last sentence
should clearly have been placed first: ‘With the oil quantity not less
than 12 quarts, run the engine...’
Instruction 10 is, as are so many instructions in technical manuals,
inconsistent in its use of the definite article. (For a detailed discussion
of this problem, see chapter 8.) However, the main impediment to
understanding here is the non-standard use of two nouns as verbs in
the third and fourth sentences. In sentence 3 we have, ‘Torque cover
to 25—30 in./Ibs.’ an apparently verbless unit marked off as a
complete sentence. In sentence 4 we have, ‘Safety nuts ....’, two
apparent nouns in parallel with two verb + noun groups following.
Logic tells us that in these two cases our apparent nouns ‘torque’ and
‘safety’ must actually be imperative verb forms. Thus we can read,
‘Tighten with the torque wrench until its gage registers between
25-30 in./Ibs.’ and ‘Tighten the nuts to a safe tightness.’
In chapters 8 and 9 additional grammatical and lexical problems
are exemplified and discussed. Chapter 10 offers suggestions for
coping with these and with the problems pointed out in this chapter.
]

7.6 Therhetoric of visual—verbal relationships

By visual—verbal we mean the relationships between visual aids

such as
drawings, schematics, graphs, tables, charts — any illustr
ative material —
and a piece of text. The function of visual aids is to add inform
ation to
that given by the discourse; as a result, we find visual
aids only in con-
junction with other rhetorical features. Whatever the
type of visual aid or
of rhetorical function and/or rhetorical technique used,
the relationships
between them (that is, the statements made by the text)
should be such
that they provide the reader with the following information:
?
1. When the reader should look at the visual.
2. Where the reader should look for the visual.

102
7.6 The rhetoric of visual—verbal relationships

3. What the reader should look for in the visual.

4. Why the reader should look at the visual.
These are discussed in more detail in chart 7.7 below.

7.6.1 Examples of types of visual—verbal relationships

There are many types of visual aids and each has its own kind of informa-
tion for the reader. However, all have one characteristic in common:
providing information, usually detail, that is tedious to read in solid text,
or is difficult or impossible to describe accurately in words alone.
Some of the more common types of visuals found in scientific and
technical discourse are tables, graphs, schematics, flow charts, exploded
views, maps, photographs, and representative drawings (sometimes to
scale). All of these provide us with detail difficult to describe in words.
Tables and graphs usually give us numerical detail, with graphs being less
precise than tables as they are designed to show relationships quickly and,
often, more generally. Schematics and flow charts give similar informa-
tion to the reader, with the flow chart also showing the stages of a process
or a procedure. Exploded views are a kind of visual physical description
as they give the spatial relationships of the parts of an object or a device.
Maps also show physical relationships but more often of territory than of
machinery, although we do find maps that show, for example, the posi-
tions of the various pieces of machinery on a factory floor. Photographs
cover a wide range of types of information — from blown-up fine detail,
such as textures, to great sweeps of land. Representative drawings, especi-
ally those drawn to scale, are like exploded views in that they also give us
a visualization of physical description and space order. However, with-
out some kind of text explanation, no type of visual provides information
with the same clarity and precision that well-written scientific and
technical discourse does.
Whatever the nature of the visual, the text should provide at a
minimum the information listed above in section 7.6. Chart 7.7 expands
on this list.

CHART7.7 VISUAL—VERBAL RELATIONSHIPS: TEXT

INFORMATION

The text accompanying a visual should answer— as a minimum — the

following questions:
1. Whenshould readers look at the visual? Should they look at first
mention of the visual? During the reading? After the reading?
2. Whereshould readers look for the visual? (This information is
usually given when the location of the visual is not apparent to the
reader.)

103
The rhetorical functions

3. What should readers look for in the visual? What are the focal
points? (The accompanying text should make these clear.)
4. Why should readers look at the visual? What are the meaningful
relationships between the visual and the accompanying text and
between the visual, the accompanying text, and the subject matter
of the total discourse?

A major problem in visual—verbal relationships is suggested by point 2

above. Where should visuals be placed in relation to their text so that they
are most useful to the reader? In their efforts to answer this question, most
scientific and technical writers seem to apply the ‘rules’ given in chart 7.8.

CHART7.8 ‘RULES’ FOR PLACEMENT OF VISUALS

1. Ifthe visual is of direct importance to the discourse:
a) Putthe visual on the page with its text — if the visual is small
enough to fit on the page (thatis, if the visual is one-third of a
page orless in size). ,
b) Putthe visual on the following page — if the visual is too large
(over half a page) to go on the page with its text.
Cc) Putvisuals at the end of the text (or at the endofa chapter or
section) — if there are several related visuals and they cannot be
put on the page with their texts or on the following page(s).
2. Ifthe visual is not of direct importance to the discourse, put it
(them) at the end of the total discourse orina position that does
not appear to give it more importance than it warrants.

A factor in the relationship of visuals and verbals (and while more

directly applicable to the writer than the reader, still of use to the latter)
is
the question of which came first, the visual or the verbal? Asa general
rule
certain types of texts determine their visuals and certain types of
visuals
determine their texts. However, writers often fail to take advantage
of the
relationship between the verbal and the visual and instead of letting
them
complement one another, on the one hand put too much
detail in the text
and on the other put too much detail in the visual. When text determi
nes
visual and when visual determines text is summarized below in chart
7.9.

CHART 7.9 INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF TEXTS AND VISUALS

1. When the type of visual is determined by the text information,
there may be illustrations of:
a) adevice or object being described
b) aprocess by a flow chart or aschematic
C) adevice or object being defined, usually by a drawin
g or
exploded view, or a definition diagram
d) the parts of a classification by aclassification diagra
m
104
7.6 The rhetoric of visual_-verbal relationships

e) aids to carrying out instructions by exploded views, drawings of

parts, circuit diagrams, etc.
f) information difficult to describe in words — texture of
materials, complicated schematics and diagrams such as
blueprints, troubleshooting charts, etc.
2. When the text information is determined by the type of visuals,
there may be illustrations of:
a) summary information by graphs, tables
b) locational information by maps
c) tangential information (often barely mentioned in the text)

Examples 7.15 through 7.18 illustrate different kinds of visuals and/or

the different rhetorical elements in the texts related to these visuals.
Where the actual relationship in terms of location of visual and text
differs from their respective locations in the example, this is noted.

EXAMPLE7.15 TEXTILLUSTRATING SEVERAL RHETORICAL

PROCESSES

Anchor windlasses
Anchor windlasses are installed on ships primarily for handling
and securing anchor and chain used for anchoring ships. In
addition, most windlasses are provided with capstans or gypsy
heads for handling line and for mooring and warping operations.
Windlasses are located in the bow of the ship for handling the
bow anchors.
Landing ships capable of beaching and retracting from the
beach area are provided with a separate anchor winch to handle
the stern anchor used during these operations.
Anchor windlasses are designed to meet specified conditions as
follows:
a) Hoist the anchor and chain from 60 fathoms depth at specified
speed.
b) Hoist anchor and chain from 100 fathoms at no specified speed.
c) Stop and hold the anchor and chain by means of the wildcat
brake.
d) Develop a specified rope speed on the capstan or gypsy head.
e) Withstand a static load on the capstan or gypsy head equal to the
minimum breaking strength of the specified size of rope.
Types
Two general types of windlasses are installed on naval ships. These
are the horizontal shaft type and the vertical shaft type. These types
are subdivided into classes depending on the power source. These
classes include the following:
a) Electric hydraulic drive c) Steam drive
b) Electric drive d) Hand drive

105
The rhetorical functions

FRICTION BRAKE
HANOWHEEL
(WEATHER DECK)
CAPSTAN

| WILOCAT

al aj. ==
ual

LOCKING HANDWHEEL
FRICTION BRAKE
HANOWHEEL
(WINDLASS ROOM) TO UNLOCK WILOCAT

2-SPEED
MOTOR
CONTROLLED TORQUE ion

COU PEANG ies 3

LUBRICATION :
OIL RESERVOIR

FLEXIBLE
COUPLING

REDUCTION
GEAR CASING MOTOR BRAKE

Figure7.1§ Anchor windlass

106
7.6 The rhetoric of visual—verbal relationships

The essential parts of the windlass, regardless of type and class,

are the prime mover, gear transmission, chain wildcat and brake,
head for handling line and control means.
Horizontal shaft windlasses are usually made ofa self-contained
unit with the windlass and the prime mover mounted on the same
bedplate.
Vertical shaft windlasses have the power source located below
deck with only the wildcat and heads showing above the deck.

Electric hydraulic windlasses

Electric hydraulic windlasses are installed on ships having
alternating current supply .... [The remainder of the text continues
the discussion of ‘types of anchor windlasses’ by describing each
of the four types listed.]
(Source: Electrician’s Mate 3 and2 (Bureau of Naval Personnel, NAVPERS
10546-A, 1964), p. 328.]

[This selection, from a United States Navy training manual, contains

1. function description —the statement of purposes in the paragraph
beginning ‘Anchor windlasses are designed to meet specified
conditions as follows’; 2. physical description — scattered in several
places; 3. partition — following the list of members of the class; 4.
semi-formal definitions (but-with the class ‘windlasses’ clearly
understood) of horizontal and vertical shaft windlasses —in the two
paragraphs following the paragraph of partition; and 5. two levels of
classification: the first level has the class ‘windlasses’, with the
members differentiated by type into ‘horizontal’ and ‘vertical’; and
the second level has two classes, which are the members of the first
level, each having four members with the same names and each
having the same basis for differences, ‘power source’. The reference
to the visual is with the remaining text.
In the original, the visual shown here below is on the page
following the above part of the text. The remainder of the text is
beneath the visual, which by itself takes up over half of the page (thus
breaking rules 1 and 2 of the ‘Rules for placement’ (chart 7.8). Note
that the visual contains more information than is given in the text.
(The part of the text not given above has no references to any of the
terms shownas labels on the visual.) This is a good example of how a
visual can add information to a text and can also make the
information that is in the text easier to understand. }

Example 7.16 is from the same training manual. Its visual differs from
that of the anchor windlass in that it attempts to illustrate an activity
occurring in an object rather than just the object itself. In the original the
visual takes up just under one-third of the page but is on the page
following that part of the text quoted in the example because of the
l
requirements of page layout, in itself a frequent problem for technica

107
The rhetorical functions

EXAMPLE7.16 TEXT CONTAINING MOSTLY INSTRUCTIONAL

INFORMATION

The magnetic blowout operation is illustrated in fig. 7.16. It is

important that the fluxes remain in the proper relationships.
Otherwise, if the direction of the current is changed, the blowout
flux will be reversed and the arc will actually be pulled into the
space between the contacts.
When the direction of electron flow and flux are as illustrated in
fig. 7.16, the blowout force is upward. The blowout effect varies
with the magnitude of the current and with the blowout flux. The
blowout coil should be chosen so that the correct amount of flux
will be obtained. The blowout flux across the arc gap is
concentrated by a magnetic path provided by the steel core in the
blowout coil and the steel pole pieces extending from the core to
either side of the gap.
(Source: Electrician’s Mate 3 and 2, pp. 206-7.}

[The text is a mixture of indirect instruction (‘The blowout coil

should be chosen....’) and instructional information (remainder of
the text) plus a small amount of physical description (‘... provided
by the steel core in the blowout coil and the steel pole pieces
extending from the core to either side of the gap’). The visual, as
noted above, is a kind of function description of the desired activity. |

FLUX DUE TO ARC

ARC BEING BLOWN UP ENCIRCLES ARC

DIRECTION OF ELECTRON
FLOW THRU THE BLOWOUT
COIL AND CONTACTS

DIRECTION OF FLUX
FROM BLOWOUT COIL

STEEL POLE PIECES

PROVIDE A FLUX PATH
ACROSS THE CONTACTS

Figure 7.16 Action of magnetic blowout

108
7.6 The rhetoric of visual—verbal relationships
[The visual for example 7.16 clarifies a function description rather
difficult to put into words, thus enabling readers to grasp the problem
of arc caused melt and its solution by magnetic blowout.

EXAMPLE7.I17 TEXTSHOWING TIME PROCESS INA SET OF

INSTRUCTIONS

Carriage removal and disassembly

1. Remove the snap rings from the chain anchors and pull the chain
anchors out of the carriage.
2. Secure the carriage with an overhead crane. Remove the
carriage by pulling it out of the bottom of the mast channels.
3. Remove the two middle and two lower assemblies.
4, Remove the two upper roller assemblies by removing the cap-
screws that connect the retaining plates to the stub shafts. Pull
the roller assemblies off the stub shafts.
[Source: Quad Lift Mast Service Manual, p. 22. (This is the same text as example
6.2B, p. 56 above.)]

[This is an example of ‘good’ instruction writing: each instruction is

clearly separated from the others; each is written in the same ‘style’;
the articles are not omitted as is so often the case in sets of
instructions; and the steps are given in the order to be followed (not
always the case in instructions — see example 7.18). The visual
(shown below) is on the same page as the text. It provides us witha
type of ‘visual’ partition (almost an exploded view) that not only
shows each part mentioned in the set of instructions but shows also
the spatial relationships of those parts to one another.]
as
|~ GG Stub Shaft

@. Roller
Outer Shim.

(¢ hrs etaining Plate

er (jo MK CK é ae Ring
Latch Pin

i i SY i;

- - dl,:A Thrust Washer

Carriage eee
ioe Shims

Aa\ % cal
Anchor

Ca
; Roller
Cotter Key Plug
Grease Fitting

Figure 7.17 Carriage

109
The rhetorical functions

Example 7.18 is a ‘negative’ example in that it illustrates how the organ-

ization of a set of instructions can cause confusion or, at the very least,
slow response on the part of the user. The visual is not shown but is
described in the commentary following the example.

EXAMPLE7.18 TEXTILLUSTRATING AN AWKWARDLY

ORGANIZED SET OF INSTRUCTIONS

Operating instructions for underwater breathing apparatus

Perform the following operational checks and adjustments prior to
using the breathing apparatus.
a. Lay the breathing apparatus ona clean work surface.
b. Remove canister assembly (7) from back plate (18) by removing
cylinder spreader bar (24), disconnecting control block to
canister hose (15) at air inlet block (16), and unthreading hoses
(25 and 26) from breathing bag and vest assembly (17).
c. Remove regulator assembly (13) and control block assembly
(14) from the back plate by disconnecting pull rod (27) and
loosening regulator yoke assembly (22).
(Source: ‘Section IV’, Service Manual for Mark VI Underwater Breathing
Apparatus, Navships 393-0653 (Washington, D.C., Bureau of Ships, U.S.
Department of the Navy, 1963), p. 4-1; quoted in Thomas E. Pearsall, Audience
Analysis for Technical Writing (Beverly Hills, California: Glencoe Press, 1969),
p. 43.]

[The visual for this text (a kind of exploded view of the apparatus) is
in section 2 and the reader is sent back to this section. As the set of
instructions is accompanied by numbers that refer to numbers on the
visual, turning back several times during the reading of each
instruction makes this arrangement of information less than
satisfactory. Concerning the organization, the steps to be performed
start in each of the two groups of procedures with the last step and
then go to the first step and work through to the next to last step. The
students asked to evaluate this set of instructions found the
organization awkward and cumbersome. They also felt that
the steps
of the process would be easier to follow put in the more traditional
list form instead of being in paragraphs.
A suggested reorganization that covers both the organizational
and layout objections and also brings the visual onto the same Page
as
the text for easier reference is the following:
Perform the following operational checks and adjustments prios
to
using the breathing apparatus.
Lay the breathing apparatus ona clean work surface.
Il. Toremove canister assembly:
1. Remove cylinder spreader bar (24).
2. Disconnect control block to canister hose (15)
at air inlet
block (16).

110
7.6 The rhetoric of visual—-verbal relationships

3. Unthread hoses (25 and 26) from breathing bag and vest
assembly (27).
4. Remove canister assembly (7) from back plate (18).
Il. Toremove regulator and control block assemblies:
1. Disconnect pull rod (27).
2. Loosen regulator yoke assembly (22).
3. Remove regulator assembly (13) from the back plate.
4. Remove control block assembly (14) from the back plate.
The ‘use and non-use’ of definite articles have followed the pattern of
the original version: except for the definite articles preceding ‘back
plate’ in section cin the original and in section III, 3 and 4 in the
revision, the writer has chosen not to use any. This inconsistent use of
the definite article is common in instructional writing. Why writers
will use an article in front of one noun and not another or in front of a
noun in one position and not in front of the same noun in another
position is one of the unsolved mysteries of written EST discourse.
Several theories have been advanced but only in relation to specific
texts; no generalizations that appear to hold in all cases have yet been
put forward. This problem of the inconsistent use (or lack of use) of
the definite article is discussed in detail in chapter 8.]

Examples 7.19 and 7.20 differ markedly from those above as well as from
one another. Example 7.19 is from a book explaining physics to the lay
reader and so is akin to an instructional text, while example 7.20 is froma
repair manual for the Boeing 737 aircraft.

EXAMPLE7.1I9 VISUAL WITH TEXT AN EXPANSION OF THE CAPTION

\\NEWIONIAN
FOCUS

\PARABOLIC
MIRROR
Fig. 7.19 A simplified diagram of a reflector telescope. Starlight is
collected and reflected without aberration by a parabolic mirror at

140
The rhetorical functions

the bottom of along tube, and focused at some point along the
tube’s length. A small mirror suspended within the tube reflects
focused image through an eyepiece at the side of the tube. Small
suspended mirror does not interfere significantly with light-
gathering by the large parabolic mirror.
(Source: Alan E. Nourse, M.D., Universe, Earth, and Atom: the Story of Physics
(New York: Harper and Row, 1969), p. 380.]

[The text following the caption is not a paragraph, despite its

physical form. The first two sentences following the caption are
process description; the third sentence simply adds information on
the function of one part of the apparatus. Note also that the writer
leaves out some of the definite articles beginning with the second
sentence; he is not, however, consistent when he shifts to this ‘note’
style. Additional information relating to the visual is in two
paragraphs on the preceding page. This type of arrangement with the
main text discussing the question ‘Why should the reader look at the
visual?’ and the question ‘What should the reader look for?’
answered by that part of the text under the visual and following the
caption is common in textbooks and related reading material.]

Example 7.20 is a troubleshooting chart containing more information

than the average. Troubleshooting charts as a rule have three columns;
this example has four, with column 3 the one that is usually left out. Most
troubleshooting charts have columns labelled ‘Problem’, ‘Cause’ and
‘Solution’ (or words with similar meanings).

EXAMPLE7.20 VISUAL AND TEXT AS AN INDIVISIBLE UNIT

Procedure 48

Symptom Probable cause Isolation procedure Remedy

OVERSPEED automatic Turn APU master switch OFF and
shutdown. momentarily press overspeed reset
switch on APU control unit.

Start APU and listen for noise or

vibration and check for oil in
exhaust.

Fuel control unit defec- If APU starts and overspeeds, re- Replace fuel control
tive. place fuel control unit. unit.
Centrifugal switch as- If APU starts but does not over- Replace defective
sembly/electronic speed and OVERSPEED light comes component.
speed switch or APU on, replace centrifugal switch as-
control unit defective. sembly/electronic speed switch. If
problem persists, replace APU con-
trol unit.

(Source: Technical Publications Department, 737 APU Troubleshooting

Guide
(Phoenix, Arizona, The Garrett Corporation, n.d.), p. 110.]

112
7.6 The rhetoric of visual-verbal relationships

[The text and the visual are the same in this type of discourse: the
visual is a kind of matrix with (in this case) four vertical columns and
the number of horizontal rows determined by the number of
‘symptoms’ ina given chart.]

Working with visuals and visual—verbal relationships in the classroom 1s

discussed in chapter 10, where several exercises in producing both texts
and visuals are treated in some detail.
In chapter 8 we look at the troublesome grammatical problems that
occur with certain rhetorical features, with the majority of these prob-
lems occurring with the rhetoric of instructions. In chapter 9 we examine
two problems in lexis, both found in conjunction with all of the rheto-
rical features treated in this book. Chapter 10 suggests ways in which the
rhetorical, grammatical, and lexical problems can be attacked in the EST
classroom.

Be)
8 Rhetorical—grammatical relationships

8.1. Introduction

Up to this point the analysis process has been applied to the paragraph,
the rhetorical techniques and the rhetorical functions, with only
occasional reference to the grammatical problems encountered by the
non-native EST student. I am not referring here to the basic grammar of
the English language but to those specific grammatical elements that
appear to stand in a special relationship with some of the rhetorical
concepts that we have been examining.
Our work in the area of rhetorical-grammatical relationships began at
almost the same time as our research. In analyzing students’ reading
performances we discovered that writers of scientific and technical
discourse make certain assumptions — which we call presuppositions —
concerning the kind and amounts of grammatical—rhetorical information
that they assume readers share with them; that is, that readers bring to
their EST reading. These assumptions appear to be, for the most part,
valid for the native learner, but not for the non-native learner. Our
research showed — and continues to show — that the majority of non-
native students lack the cultural background that enables them to bring
more than a very limited amount of the presupposed information to their
reading of EST discourse.
Out of this same research has grown the realization that the number
of
ways in which the grammatical elements involved with the rhetoric can be
expressed is not just a matter of choice on the part of the writer. Further
exploration of this idea has resulted in the following conclusions:
1. The expression of the grammatical elements that are very frequently
coupled with specific rhetorical features is sufficiently patterned to
allow us to make generalizations concerning the relationships
between these grammatical elements and the specific rhetoric
al
features.
2. Part of the presuppositional information that a native student
brings
to reading EST discourse is the ability to comprehend these gramma
ti-
cal elements without special training. The same is not true,
however,
for the majority of non-native students. _
3. Thus, we conclude that a good deal of the ability of a reader to
handle
the presuppositional factors in written EST discourse is a functio
n of
114
8.2 Passive—stative distinctions

the relationship between the language and those socio-cultural

elements associated with it.
4. The rhetorical functions most affected by the grammar are those that
writers choose most frequently to transmit much of the basic scientific
and technical information on which they base a given technical piece
of discourse.
The areas of rhetoric most involved with the more difficult grammatical
elements are 1. description; 2. instructions; and 3. a very narrow area in
the field of ‘peer writing’. This area we call ‘the rhetoric of background in-
formation’: we find it in sections of scientific articles, books, reports,
dissertations, theses, etc. in which it is necessary for writers to report on
the work of others in the same field of research, especially that most
affecting the writers’ own work.
The grammatical elements that cause the most difficulty are 1. pas-
sive—stative distinctions in the rhetoric of description and of instructions;
2. modal use in the rhetoric of instructions; 3. non-standard use (and
non-use) of the definite article in the rhetoric of description and of in-
structions; and 4. tense choice in the rhetoric of description and of back-
ground information, this choice depending on what we call ‘non-
temporal’ factors. Each of these problems is taken up in detail below.

8.2 Passive—stative distinctions

Both passive and stative verbs are found primarily in the rhetoric of
description; we find them also in the rhetoric of instructions but less
frequently. By stative we mean those constructions that on the surface re-
semble passives in that they consist of the verb ‘to be’ plus a past par-
ticiple. (We are not concerned here with those verbs that are inherently
stative such as ‘weigh’, ‘have’ — meaning ‘possess’ — etc.) Example 8.1
illustrates passive and stative forms that are similar in appearance but
distinctly different in meaning and in function.

EXAMPLE 8.1 SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES IN PASSIVE

AND STATIVE VERB FORMS

Passives
‘The heat exchanger assembly is lowered from the compartment
while resting on the platform. The platform is loweredand raised
by the hoist crank.’

Statives
‘The RS-5 system is composed ofan undersea acoustic beacon, a
surface-vessel mounted array ...avertical reference unit... [and]

115
Rhetorical—grammatical relationships

control unit. The sensor is housed ina support assembly.... When

the gear is downand locked....’

(Sources: Passive, quoted in a student report; precise source unknown. Stative,

Honeywell Acoustic Position Indicator RS-5 Operation and Maintenance
Manual, vols. 1 and 11 (Seattle, Honeywell Marine Systems Center, 1970), p. 1-4.]

[The passive paragraph contains three passives, one without an agent

(sentence 1) and two with an agent (sentence 2). The stative
paragraph also has three ‘to be + past participle’ structures, each
appearing to be an agentless passive. The difference between
agentless passives and statives can be seen by the contrasting
examples in the two paragraphs: in the ‘passive’ paragraph, first
loweredisina context that clearly marks it as an activity. In the
‘stative’ paragraph, is down and [is] locked are both clearly
descriptive in their context —the first being the ‘real’ adjective; the
second, the participle. ]

In other words, a passive always indicates an activity (despite its name)

whether or not it has a stated agent to perform that activity; a stative, in
contrast, always describes the state or condition of the grammatical
subject of the sentence the stative verb is in. A stative, then, is simply one
type of adjective—verb phrase. In ‘The door is open’ we have verb +
adjective. In “The door is closed’ we also have verb + adjective but with
the adjective a past participle.
When non-native students are faced with a stative the problem is
almost invariably one of misidentification. They assume, not without a
certain logic, that any form of ‘to be + past participle’ is a passive. (Even
native speakers can have trouble sorting out the grammatical difference
between the forms of ‘was locked’ in ‘The door to the garden was locked’
and “The door to the garden was locked at night by the gardener.’) The
initial move of non-native students when faced with statives is to attempt
to turn them into active verb phrases. Since statives appear to be agentless
passives, these students resort to the ‘rules’ laid down for transforming
agentless passive sentences into active ones and make a subject for the
active verb by using ‘someone’ or ‘something’. Thus, the stative ‘When the
gear is down and locked ...’ becomes ‘When someone locked the gear
down ...’ and ‘The sensor is housed ...’ becomes ‘Someone housed the
sensor ...’, neither of which is the meaning intended by the stative
structures.
In our work we find the assumption that ‘to be + past participle’
statives are agentless passives and thus can be transformed into actives
most frequent in those students whose languages do not have an identifi-
able equivalent to the English passive. Their tendency is usually to ‘over-
learn’ how to handle passive structures with the result that any ‘to be
+
116
8.2 Passive—stative distinctions

past participle’ is transformed into an active structure and then into the
native language.
An even more difficult type of discourse for the non-native student is
the text that mixes passives and statives. This is often the case with
paragraphs of description since many mix physical description — which
uses statives — and function and process description — both of which use
passives. Example 7.1 is repeated here (numbered as example 8.2) with
the passive verb forms in italics and the statives in capital letters.

EXAMPLE 8.2 A PARAGRAPH WITH A MIXTURE OF PASSIVES

AND STATIVES

Acanal bottom sampler, used in Impenial Valley, California,

canals, consisted of a brass tube 2.7 centimeters in diameter and
15.2 centimeters long. At the bottom WAS ATTACHED a sharp steel
cutting blade. The upper end of the tube WAS THREADED into the
base of acone, the shoulder of which prevented the brass tube
from sinking into the canal bed beyond the required depth. The
upper end of the cone WAS ATTACHED to a handle of 23-inch pipe,
[which WAS] MADE UP OF short sections [which WERE] COUPLED
together so that the length of the handle could be varied according
to the depth of the water. In taking a sample, the tube was pushed
into the bottom deposit as far as the shoulder of the cone permitted.
The handle was filled with water and a cap was screwed on the
upper end. When the tube was withdrawna partial vacuum was
formed, which held the sample in the tube.

[The five stative verbs are all part of the physical description while the
five passive verbs are all used with function description (the first
passive) and with process description (the four remaining passives).
On first reading it might seem that such forms as ‘was attached’ and
‘was threaded’ are passive, but a closer reading shows that the writer
is not describing activities but the conditions that resulted from
them. ]

Chart 8.1 summarizes the passive—stative distinctions discussed and illus-

trated above. From both students and teachers we have learned that the
chart is best used as a reference, especially for those readers whose lan-
guages do not contain passives as we conceive them.

CHART 8.1 SUMMARY OF TYPES OF INFORMATION FROM

PASSIVE AND STATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS

Passives
There are two types of passive constructions: those with an agent
stated and those without an agent stated.

17,
Rhetorical—grammatical relationships

A passive with an agent provides readers with the following

information:
1. the grammatical subject of the sentence (the nominative form
usually preceding the verb and related to it by being the receiver of
the action indicated by that verb);
2. the tense (and thus usually the time) as well as the mood of the verb.
3. the agent—the performer of the action indicated by the verb and
the ‘true’ as well as the grammatical subject of the verb when it is
transformed into its active form.
Using this information, we can transform the passive sentence into an
active one by the following process:
Step 1. Place the agent before the verb.
Step 2. Change the verb to its active form, keeping the tense and
mood ofthe passive.
Step 3. Place the grammatical subject of the passive sentence after
the verb, thus giving it the standard position of a direct object,
which it has become.
A passive without an agent provides readers with the information
given above in 1 and 2. As this type of passive has a grammatical but
nota ‘true’ subject, one must be provided when a transformation to the
active is made. If no other subject is indicated by the context,
‘someone’ or ‘something’ — whichever is the more logical—is most
often used when making step 1 of the transformation process. Steps
2 and 3 are the same as when making a transformation with a passive
with agent.
Statives
There are several types of stative constructions; however, only the one
that looks like a passive without an agent concerns us here.
Statives provide readers with the following information:
1. aword or phrase that is both the grammatical and the ‘true’ subject
of the verb;
2. acopulative verb (almost always a form of ‘to be’) that gives us the
tense — and thus often the time — of the verb;
3. aword or phrase functioning as an adjective, this word or phrase
having as its center a past participal form.
Although the above elements look the same as those found in an
agentless passive, they function differently—as their definitions make
clear. Therefore, while it is possible to transform a stative sentence
into an active one, the result is neither logical nor semantically
acceptable as it does not provide the information the writer intended.
For example, in the stative sentence ‘The sensor is housed ina support
assembly’, a transformation to the passive would give us ‘Someone
houses (or housed) the sensor in a support assembly.’ This would
be a
Statement of an activity; the writer, however, is not describing an
activity but giving a physical (and therefore static) description of the
result of an activity.

118
8.3. Modal use in the rhetoric ofinstructions

8.3 Modal use in the rhetoric of instructions

Modals, especially passive modals, are found commonly in scientific and

technical discourse, especially in peer writing (the left end of the ‘Spec-
trum’, p. 6) in such phrases as ‘It should be made clear that. ...’, ‘It can be
assumed that..... >,etc. Our concernhere, however, is not with this kind of
semi-jargon but with the modal forms that shift from their ‘standard’
meanings when used in instructions and related discourse. Asa rule, we find
this meaning shift with the modal ‘should’ and less commonly with ‘can’
and ‘may’. By ‘meaning shift’ here I mean that the commonly taught
meanings for ‘should’ — and sometimes ‘can’ and ‘may’ — do not fit the
context of the discourse (nor the intent of the writer).
In what we might call ‘general English’ oriented grammars, the consen-
sus seems to be that ‘should’ and ‘ought to’ have a meaning close to ‘must’ —
in the sense of obligation — but with less force, less insistence that some-
thing be done (or not be done).' Only a few of the books onscientific English
comment on these modals and then to a very limited degree — perhaps
because they seldom deal directly with the discourse of occupational
English. Two books, however, do point out that in certain instances
‘should’ has the force of ‘must’: in their work on scientific and technical
English for non-native speakers, Huckin and Olsen use graphics to show
the relationship of ‘must’ and ‘should’ in respect to degrees of obligation
and of probability.’ Leech and Svartvik, although not specifically con-
cerned with the English of science and technology, briefly discuss the
meaning of ‘should’ (and ‘ought to’) in commands and instructions:
‘Strictly, these leave the decision about what to do in the hands of the
hearer. But in practice, as the examples show, they are often tactful ways of
giving commands or instructions.’
It is in this sense that we find the most common use of ‘should’ in the
rhetoric of instructions, usually when the reader is being warned to do or
not to do something. Example 8.4, from an instructional manual on
welding, shows both ‘should’ and ‘may’ used in the sense of ‘must’ in the
paragraphs under the heading ‘Weld backing’. In contrast, the paragraph
labeled ‘Edge preparation’ has ‘must’ rather than ‘should’ with the
meaning of ‘must’ and it also uses ‘may’ in its more standard use. The three
modals in this paragraph of the example—‘must’, ‘may’, and ‘can’—are also
passives. Thus we have three passive modals, illustrating a typical structure
found in indirect instructions in occupational English discourse. The
‘non-standard’ uses of ‘should’ and ‘may’ as well as the passive modals are
shown by italics.

119
Rhetorical—grammatical relationships

EXAMPLE 8.3 NON-STANDARD USES OF SHOULD AND MAY

AND PASSIVE MODALS IN A SET OF INDIRECT INSTRUCTIONS

Weld backing
Steel weld backing should be sufficiently thick so that the molten
metal will not burn through the backing. In most cases the steel
weld backing is fused and remains part of the weldment.
One of the best possible nonfusible weld backings is copper.
Copper should be of a sufficient mass or liquid cooled so as to
readily dissipate the heat. For steel thicknesses other than gage
material, a relief groove may be necessary. The depth of this relief
groove may beas little as 0.02” or as muchas 1/8” or more.

Edge preparation
Particularly for heavier weld sections the edges of the metal must
be prepared for submerged arc welding. Various methods may be
employed in preparing the edges for welding... . Metal cutting or
grooving canalso be accomplished by the carbon-arc method.
[Source: Submerged Arc Welding: Processes and Applications (Hobart Technical
Center, n.d.), n.p.]

[‘Should’ clearly means ‘must’ in the first sentence under the heading
“Weld backing’. The writer is saying in effect, ‘If the steel weld
backing is not sufficiently thick, the molten metal will burn through
the backing.’ The second example is much the same: ‘If the copper is
not of sufficient mass or liquid cooled it will not readily dissipate the
heat; therefore it must be of a sufficient mass..... **May’, is usually a
bit more difficult to read as ‘must’ here. However, a close
examination shows that it is not a matter of choice on the part of the
welder to make a relief groove should the steel have a thickness other
than gage. If so, the groove must be made; the only choice is one of the
depth of that groove. (This information came froma welding
instructor.)]

In our experience non-native students tend to transfer their reading tech-

niques developed for ‘general English’ to reading EST discourse without
realizing that adjustments are often necessary. As a result, they read
‘should’ with the meaning found most commonly in ESL/EFL grammars
and so assume that a choice is possible. The student who brought the
welding example was puzzled because he had learned to weld and felt
that
the text was misleading by suggesting that the welder had a choice
of
procedures. Although he had learned to read instruction manuals
(before
entering university) he had not learned the differences between ‘general
English’ and EST discourse. This problem is discussed further
in chapter
10, where a suggestion for treating it in the classroom is given.

120
8.4 Problems with the definite article

8.4 Problems with the definite article°

In addition to the trouble that virtually all non-native learners have with
both English articles, EST discourse presents two additional problems
with the definite article. The first is inconsistency in the use of the article
in the rhetoric of instructions, especially with those sets of instructions
found in technical manuals and related material. The second we have
called the ‘specialized use’ of the definite article. This use is found in the
rhetoric of description, most often when the functioning of a piece of
machinery is being described.
Example 8.4 illustrates the inconsistent use of the definite article in a
set of instructions. The writer had twenty-six opportunities to use the
definite article as a native speaker would expect it to be used. He did use it
‘correctly’ in five instances, but ignored it altogether in the remaining
twenty-one. This is not an isolated example, as a random look at sets of
instructions will show. (See, for instance, example 7.14, p. 100, which
includes the inconsistent use of the definite article among its many sins.)
In the example below, the five definite articles used are shown in italics;
the position of each ‘missing’ article is shown by the symbol ©.

EXAMPLE 8.4 INCONSISTENT USE OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

IN A SET OF INSTRUCTIONS

Rubber plug method of tubeless tire repair

1. Remove © puncturing object if still in the tire (© Tire is not
dismounted from the rim.)
2. Fill < tire with air to 30 psi. Dip © probe into <> cement, insert it
into < injury and work up and down to lubricate < injury.
3. Grasp each end of } patch. Stretch and roll center of © patch
into eye of needle. Remove < protective covering from
both sides of the patch, being careful not to touch © raw rubber.
4. Dip © perma strip into © cement, making sure that all surfaces
are coated.
5. Insert patch slowly and steadily into } injury, up to <>
handle. Then turn } needle ; turn and remove.
6. Without stretching the patch, cut it 1/8” from the tread.
7. Inflate to < proper pressure. < Tire is now ready for service.
(Source: Bricker, Automobile Guide, p. 467.]

A native reader of EST discourse has little trouble in supplying the mis-
sing articles when they are needed to clarify the text. Non-native readers,
however, do not have this same ‘feel’ for the article and so cannot bring to
the reading the ability of the native reader. When faced with inconsisten-
cies such as those illustrated above, they tend to apply their ‘rote-learned’
rules. Arbitrary violation of these rules creates special problems for non-
121
Rhetorical—grammatical relationships

native learners when they attempt to grasp the total meaning of a piece of
discourse, especially the dense discourse so common in EST writing.
The same difficulty occurs when the problem is one of ‘specialized use’
of the definite article. This specialized use is found in the rhetoric of
description in all types of EST discourse, including that of example 8.5,
which is from an (unidentified) elementary text. When we analyze the
example we can see that the writer has applied a special set of ‘article
rules’ that are contrary to the expectations of non-native speakers; that is,
to the ‘rules’ they have learned.

EXAMPLE 8. § SPECIALIZED USE OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

The gas turbine engine fires continuously. The engine draws air
through the diffuser and into the compressor, raising its
temperature. The high pressure air passes into the combustion
chamber, where it is mixed with a fuel and produces an intense
flame. The gas from the combustion chamber is directed through
the turbine, where the pressure of the gas decreases and its
velocity increases. The turbine drives the compressor. The gas
increases in speed as it passes through the exhaust nozzle before it
is finally expelled from the turbine. A net force results from the
change in momentum of the gases between the inletand the
exhaust. If a gas turbine is intended to drive an automobile, it must
be designed so that as much energy as possible is absorbed by the
turbine and transferred to the drive shaft.
(Source: Furnished by a student from a textbook used in technical schools; precise
source unknown. ]

[In sentence 1 the definite article is used ina defining (generalizing)

statement although standard usage requires either the plural of the
noun with no preceding article (‘Gas turbine engines fire
continuously’) or the indefinite article with a singular noun
(representing generalization from a single instance: ‘A gas turbine
engine fires continuously’). In sentences 2 and 3, the first mention in
this text of the nouns ‘diffuser’, ‘compressor’, and ‘combustion
chamber’ is indicated by the use of the definite rather than the
indefinite article as most ‘rules’ require. This same use of the definite
article to mark first mention of a noun is found also in sentences 6 and
7 with the nouns ‘exhaust nozzle’, ‘inlet’, and ‘exhaust’.
Insofar as we were able to determine by talking to native post-
graduate engineering students, to their instructors, and to
professional engineers, they were not concerned whether the article
indicated first or later mention of the noun. They all took the use of
the definite article in sentences 2,3,6 and 7 to indicate that the
machinery being described contained only one of whatever part was
being marked by that article.

f22
8.5 Non-temporal use of tense

In contrast, a brief exercise given to a group of native-speaker

candidates for MA degrees in teaching English as a second/foreign
language (none of whom hada science background) gave quite
different results. The exercise consisted of the above text with all
articles replaced by blanks which were to be filled in with either the
definite or indefinite article (not with a demonstrative). Of the
twenty-four who did the exercise, twenty-two put the indefinite
article in the blanks before the nouns in question; the remaining two
put both the definite and indefinite articles in each problem blank. It
occurred to only a few who did the exercise that the definite article
might mark the part being described as ‘one of a kind’.]

Non-native readers also try to apply the rules — sometimes with unsatis-
factory results, both for reader and writer (not to mention the teacher!). A
typical reaction from non-native readers is seen in this remark from a
postgraduate student studying electrical engineering: ‘I learned the use of
articles by remembering the rules. When I read, if the rules do not fit, I
ignore the articles. Sometimes that makes more sense to me.’ Unfor-
tunately, this way of ‘reading’ articles appears to hold for many non-
native students. While some native readers can bring to their reading
information that the writer presupposes they already possess, non-native
readers have no such reservoir to draw from. As a result, they either
by-pass the problem by ignoring the article altogether or they spend time
fruitlessly trying to reconcile an unfamiliar article use with the ‘rules’
they have so carefully learned. In either case they fail to get the total
meaning of the discourse.

8.5 Non-temporal use of tense

By non-temporal use of tense we mean that the writers of a piece of
discourse do not use time as the major factor governing their choice of
verb tenses. While time is, to some degree, a factor in writers’ choices of
verb forms, it is not always the primary factor, as we can see from the
examples in sub-sections 8.5.1, 8.5.2 and 8.5.3 below. The most
frequently used illustration of tense and time not always being in agree-
ment is that of the so-called ‘present indicative’, which, with most verbs,
can indicate almost any other time except ‘time now’. This is not the same
as the phenomenon described here: for example, using the present tense to
represent future action is not a choice dependent on rhetorical factors,
while the uses we refer to by ‘non-temporal’ do include the idea of tense
choice being dependent on just such factors.
Three areas where the non-temporal use of tense occurs regularly in
written EST discourse are 1. when writers describe apparatus, 2. when
they make text references to a visual aid, and 3. when they refer to
123.
Rhetorical—grammatical relationships

previously published research (including their own) which is related to

the subject of their discourse. This last is that ‘rhetoric of background
information’ mentioned in section 8.1 above.

8.5.1 Description of apparatus

Examples of tense choice based primarily on non-temporal factors are
easily found in EST discourse. Examples 7.1 and 7.2 in the preceding
chapter illustrate tense choice being dependent on a factor other than
time: “The canal bottom sampler’, example 7.1, is described in the past
tense, while “The Peterson dredge’, example 7.2, is described in the
present tense. Yet both of these pieces of apparatus were developed at
about the same time, both had much the same function, and both were
written about ‘after the fact’. That is, their writers were describing some-
thing made and used in the past. Why, then, did the writer of ‘The canal
bottom sampler’ choose the past tense and the writer of ‘The Peterson
dredge’ choose the present tense for their discourse? The answer,
fortunately, is a simple one: “The canal bottom sampler’ was used for only
a short time and then abandoned as a failure; ‘The Peterson dredge’, in
contrast, was a success and was used up to the time it was written about
(and may still be in use).
Based on texts of these types, we can come up with a major criterion for
determining tense choice in the rhetoric of description: if the object being
described is still functioning as a useful device at the time someone writes
about it, the writer will use the present tense. If, on the other hand, the
object being described is no longer in use, then the writer will use the past
tense. From the two brief but representative texts in example 8.6 below
we can state a second criterion for determining tense choice in terms of
the temporary or permanent nature of whatever is being described.

EXAMPLE 8.6 NON-TEMPORAL USE OF TENSEIN THE

RHETORIC OF DESCRIPTION

Temporary apparatus
The test section was constructed of a pure copper cylinder 2 ft
long, 6 in in id. and 6.25 in in od. Both ends of the cylinder were
closed with removable Pyrex glass end plates! in thick. A fluid
port was located at each end of the cylinder.

Permanent apparatus
The measurements were made in the sidewall of the one foot wind
tunnel. The tunnel is a blowdown-to-atmosphere facility operating
over the mach number range 0.2 to 3.5. Mach number in the tunnel
is generated by fixed nozzle blocks at supersonic speeds.
(Sources: University of Washington (Seattle), College of Engineering Research
Reports (n.d., n.p.).]

124
8.5 Non-temporal use oftense
[Both excerpts can be used successfully with advanced elementary
students. The first is from a report on an experiment that used the
described piece of apparatus and then broke it apart so that the
components could be used for a different experiment at a later date.
Since it was a temporary device, the writer describes it in the past
tense. The second description, the wind tunnel, is of a piece of
apparatus considered to be permanent and so is described in the
present tense. (If this tunnel is replaced or torn down, descriptions of
it then will be in the past tense.)|

8.5.2 Visual aids

When writers discuss visual aids used in their discourse, the act of gather-
ing the data for the illustration and the designing of the visual have
already taken place. Thus, as in the case of description, the activities
connected with the visual are, in the writer’s mind, in the past. Asa result,
readers are told about gathering the data and designing the visual in the
past tense. However, when writers discuss the visual itself and its rela-
tionship to the subject at hand, they choose the present tense.
One explanation for this tense shift is the writers continue to think of
their work in gathering and using the data for the visual as finished and
thus to be written about in the past tense, while in telling the reader when
to look at the visual (and sometimes where to find it) and in discussing its
relationship to the topic at hand, they shift their point of view from
themselves to their readers and so relate their discussion to ‘now’ — to the
moment when the reader is reading this particular piece of discourse. If
this explanation is a valid one, then there is clearly a strong temporal
factor in the writers’ choice of tense; however, it has been argued that the
dominant factor here is a non-temporal one: the shift in point of view by
writers from themselves to their readers. This shift is illustrated in
example 8.7.

EXAMPLE Oey TENSE CHOICES IN TEXT ACCOMPANYING A VISUAL

The results which are shown in Table V were achieved by

developing a new computer program. These results indicate that it
is no longer necessary to budget at the 7 per cent rate for repairs.
[Source: submitted by a student; precise source unknown. ]

[Although brief, the above example illustrates the shift in tense

accompanying a shift in point of view. The first sentence has a present
tense verb when referring readers to the visual (not shown here) and
then shifts to the past tense when telling how the data for the visual
were obtained. In the second sentence, the writer returns to the
present tense in telling readers the importance (to their reading) of
the visual to the subject matter of the discourse. This example is

125
Rhetorical—grammatical relationships

suitable for students at intermediate levels and above. Although the

subject matter and vocabulary are not too difficult for advanced
elementary groups, in our experience this area of EST rhetoric is best
reserved for students who have reached intermediate level.]

8.5.3 Reference to previous research®

This area of tense choice occurs almost exclusively in the types of
discourse that require reporting on earlier, related work done by the
writer and, more frequently, by others working in the same field.
Discourse of this nature is found almost exclusively at the left end of our
‘Spectrum’, p. 6, in reports of research done in universities and by govern-
ment and private research and development groups.
From our research we are able to draw the following conclusions: if
writers use the past tense in reporting research done previously by them-
selves or by others then that research is of secondary importance to the
current work being reported on. If, on the other hand, the writer uses the
present perfect or the present tense, then the research is of more direct and
primary importance to the writer’s current work. Also, the present tense
is often chosen when a discussion follows the initial citing of a reference
to their own or the others’ research and/or when important generaliz-
ations are being expressed. Example 8.8 illustrates the three tenses func-
tioning as noted above.

EXAMPLE 8.8 TENSE SHIFTS IN THE RHETORIC OF

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Among the many statistical studies of data from the IGY

[International Geophysical Year] are some analyses by Davis
(1962) of the distributions and motions of auroras in Alaska during
the last sunspot maximum. ... From these studies Davis deduced
that auroral display was essentially a fixed pattern. ...In contrast to
the statistical methods used by Davis are the detailed studies by
Akosofu and collaborators (1961-1964) of individual auroral
displays. ..they conclude that there is a basic stable system of
auroral arcs. ... The smallest disturbance is represented by the
formation of rays which Akosofu has shown to be waves or folds in
a thin sheet of aurora. ... On the other hand Elvey (1957) has
observed the formation of rayed arcs....
(Source: ‘Aural Phenomena, Experiments and Theory’, First Lockheed Research
Symposium on Space Science (Stanford University Press; Oxford University
Press,
1965), p.95.]

[We have the past tense ‘deduced’ in relation to the year, 1962, the
Present tense ‘conclude’ and the present perfect ‘has shown to be’
with the span of years 1961-1964, and the present perfect again with

126
8.5 Non-temporal use oftense

the earliest date given, 1957. According to our conclusions given

above, the work of Davis is less directly related to the research being
reported on than is the work of Akosofu and his colleagues, and
neither is it as important as the work of Elvey, reported some years
previously. The use of the present tense (‘conclude’) with the initial
citing of the work of Akosofu and others is followed in the text by a
lengthy discussion only part of which is given in the example. |

8.5.4 Application
For the majority of non-native learners working in science or technology
or learning to be technicians (at whatever level) it is important that they
be made aware of the tense choice factors in the description of apparatus
and in the text discussions of visuals, as the phenomenon occurs
frequently in both these areas. On the other hand, while we have used
material like that in example 8.8 with intermediate-level students, we
find it best reserved for advanced students (usually postgraduates) who
must read (and must possibly write) discourse of that nature.
The rhetorical-grammatical relationships illustrated and discussed in
this chapter are taken up again in chapter 10, with suggestions for hand-
ling these topics in the classroom, including a sample individualized
assignment relating to the grammatical problems we have found to be
most troublesome to the non-native reader of EST discourse. Preceding
this, in chapter 9 the two major lexical problems facing the non-native
EST student are discussed and exemplified: the problems of sub-technical
vocabulary and noun compounds.

127
9 Lexical problems in EST discourse

9.1. Introduction
The dictionary definition of the term ‘lexis’! is ‘all the words in a lan-
guage’ or ‘all the words (in a language) that a person knows’. Our
meaning is somewhat more restricted, referring only to the following
three lexical areas: 1. technical vocabulary, 2. sub-technical vocabulary,
and 3. noun compounds (sometimes called ‘noun strings’). Technical
vocabulary by itself does not pose enough of a problem for the majority of
non-native students to need special attention in the classroom. (It seems
rather pointless for a teacher not trained in science to ‘teach’ technical
vocabulary to students who have already learned or are learning this
highly specialized lexis in their subject-matter courses.)
Unfortunately, in the past many EST teachers unwittingly applied the
Same argument to sub-technical vocabulary and to noun compounds. Asa
result, the problems created by these two lexical areas were often over-
looked. Too many early textbooks (before the mid-1970s) labelled them-
selves ‘English for Science and Technology’ because along with whatever
grammatical approach was in vogue at the time, they included lists of
presumably scientific or technical words under a heading such as
“Technical vocabulary’. Non-native students faced with a confusing sub-
technical vocabulary or with unfamiliar noun strings naturally went to
their bilingual and/or ‘standard’ English dictionaries, neither of which
were designed to give them much help with these particular problems.
Once EST teachers and others in the field realized that even advanced
students were having lexical problems that did not stem from their
technical vocabularies nor from weaknesses in ‘general English’, there
began some useful directed research. Our own work turned up three
problem areas: 1. weaknesses in memorizing (which we were not pre-
pared to cope with), 2. the — at that time — newly named field of sub-tech-
nical vocabulary, and 3. the less technical noun compounds. These last
two problems are treated in some detail below.

9.2 Sub-technical vocabulary

As far as I have been able to determine this term was coined by Dr
Ronayne Cowan of the University of Illinois (Urbana) some years ago. He

128
9.2 Sub-technical vocabulary

defines sub-technical vocabulary as ‘context-independent words which

occur with high frequency across disciplines’. This definition applies
to those words that have the same meaning in several scientific or
technical disciplines. To these words we have added ‘those “‘common”’
words that occur with special meanings in specific scientific and
technical fields’. Together, the two sets of words make up the English
sub-technical vocabulary.
Another way of defining ‘sub-technical’ is to say that it refers to
those words that have one or more ‘general’ English meanings and
which in technical contexts take on extended meanings (technical, or
specialized in some fashion).
While the more technical of these extended meanings are usually
learned quickly (often in technical courses), the majority are seen in
reading before they are heard or discussed either in the language or
subject-matter classroom. Again, the result too often is that the
students go to the dictionary and find no definitions that make sense in
the context containing the word in question. (For some unexplained
reason, few non-native science or technology students seem to have
specialized dictionaries or, in many cases, even to be aware of their
existence.) Whatever the reason, when students find that they have no
definition to work with, they usually follow one of two procedures:
those few with more confidence in both their language and subject-
matter ability will try to create a meaningful definition from their own
knowledge of the subject matter while the many less confident will
ignore the particular piece of text and so lose the information the uni-
dentified term and its surrounding context can give them.
A good example of problems with sub-technical vocabulary is one
brought to us by a pre-medical student. He had found the phrase ‘an
arsenic-fast virus’ in his medical reading. As the dictionaries he consul-
ted were no help, he finally came to us. (Typically, he did not want to
‘show his ignorance’ to his subject-matter teacher by asking him.) He
wanted to know if the word ‘fast’ in this context meant ‘quick’ or
‘motionless’ or even that a virus did not eat arsenic. The medical dic-
tionary we consulted (and which he was not aware of) told us that in
this usage ‘fast’ has the meaning of ‘resistant to’. His phrase, therefore,
had the meaning of ‘a virus resistant to arsenic’.
We have always found ‘fast’ the most useful word to define in begin-
ning a discussion of sub-technical vocabulary. Most students have been
taught the several general meanings as well as the semi-technical use
found most often on ships, ‘to make something fast’. With this back-
ground available, it is usually quite easy to make students see very
quickly that familiar words may have very unfamiliar meanings and,
therefore, that a reputable dictionary in their subject-matter field (if
one is available) would be a worthwhile (and long-term) investment.
Ia)
Lexical problems in EST discourse

Other words with extended meanings are given in chart 9.1 which has
been designed as a handout to accompany a class discussion on sub-
technical vocabulary.

CHART 9.1 SAMPLE SUB-TECHNICAL TERMS

ile Base
Botany: ‘The end ofaplant member nearest the point of
attachment to another member, usually of a different
type.’
Chemistry: ‘A substance which tends to gain a proton.’ ‘A
substance which reacts with acids to form salts.’
Electronics: ‘Partofavalve [US “tube”] where the pins that fit into
holes in another electronic part are located.’ ‘The
middle region of a transistor.’
Navigation: ‘In anavigation chain, the line which joins two of the
stations.’
Dog
Construction: ‘A steel securing piece for fastening together two
timbers.’
Machining: ‘Alathe carrier.’
Mechanical engineering: ‘An adjustable stop used in gears.’
Petroleum engineering: ‘Aclutching attachment for withdrawing
well-digging tools.’
Railroading: ‘A spike for securing rails to sleepers [US “ties’]’
Fascia
Architecture: ‘A board decorating a gutter arounda building.’
Automobile: ‘The instrument panel.’
Zoology: ‘The connective tissue bands that join the fasciculi of a
muscle.’

. Fast
Medicine: ‘Resistant to.’
Mining: ‘Ahard stratum under poorly consolidated ground.’
Paint: ‘Said of colours not affected by light, heat, damp.’

Transport
Business: ‘Any mechanical means of moving goods.’
Literary: ‘Enrapture’ (archaic).
Nuclear: ‘The rate at which desired material is carried througha
section of the processing cycle.’

9.3 Nouncompounds
Noun compounds (also called noun strings) can be defined as two or more
nouns plus necessary adjectives (and less often verbs and
adverbs) that
together make up a single concept; that is, the total expresses a
‘single
130
9.3 Noun compounds

noun’ idea. Noun compounding, while a characteristic of Germanic lan-

guages, is not one shared by all languages. It is a kind of shorthand:
attempts to translate a complex compound into a language that does not
compound usually result in long and unwieldy phrasing. That com-
pounding is a natural process in so few languages makes it a special
problem for the majority of non-native students.
Since compounding is frequently given time in intermediate and
advanced ESL/EFL classes, the majority of students coming into a
tertiary-level EST class can handle most two-word compounds, even
those that may have a technical meaning. However, no matter how well
students learn to analyze compounds into their component parts and, if
necessary, translate them into their native languages, there are a great
many compounds that refuse to yield to these procedures: while a travel
book is most likely to be a book about travel, a telephone book is not a
book about telephones. Copper wire and steel wire are wire made, respec-
tively, of copper and steel. We cannot say the same about piano wire.
When we look at the often complex compounds in scientific and technical
discourse, we can see that the problem is magnified to the point where
many are impossible of translation even by a native speaker unless that
speaker knows the subject well.
Chart 9.2 summarizes the ‘rules’ for both understanding and producing
compounds, whether technical or ‘general’. While this summary has been
found helpful to students, it can also be misleading as it suggests that
most compounds can be understood by simply applying the ‘rules’. But as
we will see from chart 9.3 and the discussion following, the longer and
more technical the compound, the less chance any but the most
knowledgeable reader has of ‘deciphering’ it.

CHART9.2 ‘RULES’ FOR UNDERSTANDING AND PRODUCING

COMPOUNDS
‘General English’ examples
1. Acompoundis a group of two or more nouns, plus such other parts
of speech as are necessary, which expresses a ‘single noun’ idea.
Compounds are usually formed from prepositional phrases or
relative clauses and many can be back-formed into one or the other
of these. However, many other compounds do not yield, either to
back-formation or to translation into any ‘logical’ phrasing.
2. The simplest type of compounds are those formed from
prepositional phrases with ‘of’: adesk drawer = a drawer of a desk;
atable top = atop ofa table.
3. Informing a compound from a phrase, the nouns in the phrase are
put in reverse order: an advertisement (1)inamagazine (2) =a
magazine (2) advertisement (1).
4. Inacompound, if the noun (or nouns) that becomes the modifier is
in the plural in the original phrase, it becomes singular in the

ioe
Lexical problems in EST discourse

compound: a shelf for books = a bookshelf (not a booksshelf as

many non-native speakers would have it).
. Prepositional phrases with ‘for’ also are often the basis for
compounds. When these relate to activities either the compound or
the base form —or both—usually contains a gerund: a device for
opening tins = a tin opener; a program for building roads = a
road-building program.
. Some compounds come from relative clauses: a book binder = a
person (or machine) that binds books; a shoe store = astore in
which shoes are sold.
. Some compounds cannot be logically back-formed, nor can they
always be simply translated: a department store = astore
containing several different departments for selling different
types of merchandise. Back-forming this would give us ‘A store of
departments’, which is not a useful back-formation (nor a logical
one), in that it fails to provide much information. The translation is
obviously awkward and certainly not ‘simple’. In the compound
‘symphony music’ we also have a problem with either back-
formation ortranslation: if we try to back-form it, we get ‘Music
of /from a symphony’, which is inaccurate; if we translate, we can
get ‘Music which is of the type called ““symphonic”’, but then we
need to define ‘symphonic’!
Compounds that lend themselves to translation can be translated in
several ways. Some common ways are: a boat trip = atrip by/ina
boat; laboratory equipment = equipment used in a laboratory;
mathematics problem = a problem in mathematics (not of
mathematics); physics laboratory = a laboratory where/in which
experiments in physics are performed. (Even non-native students
whose performance is well above average may need to be
reminded that both ‘mathematics’ and ‘physics’ are singular
nouns
and so keep their ‘s’ when acting as modifiers in compounds.)

Scientific and technical English examples

Compounds usually represent shorthand versions of the
following:
1. Prepositional phrases: a differential time domain equatio
n =
the time domain ofa differential equation.
2. Strings of prepositional phrases: momentum transfer
experiments = experiments ofthe transfer ofmomentum.
3. Nouns modified by relative clauses: automatic controller
action
= controller action which is automatic.
4. Nouns modified by gerund phrases: a fluid bed reacto
r=a
reactor containing a fluid bed.
5. Combinations of the above: an air pressure
device = adevice
which signals the pressure ofair; a quiescent state fluid
bed
reactor = a reactor containinga fluid bed which/thatis
ina state
of quiescence.

132
9.3 Noun compounds

Notes:
1. The most commonly used prepositions in scientific and
technical compounds are of, for, in, on, and with.
2. In addition to the relatives in their base forms (who, which, that)
translations (or back-formations) of compounds use relatives
as prepositional objects: in which, for which, on which, etc.
3. Insome cases EST compound elements are joined by
conjunctions when translated; this conjunction is usually ‘and’:
a self-contained automatic controller device = a device which
controls (something) and which is automatic and self-
contained.

In chart 9.3 the compounds are divided into four categories based on their
length and the complexity of paraphrasing them or of returning them to
their original form.

CHART 9.3 COMPOUNDS CATEGORIZED BY LENGTH AND

DIFFICULTY OF PARAPHRASING

Simple
1. Metalshaft = a shaft made of metal.
2. Metal spring = aspring made of metal.
3. Metal cutter = not a cutter made of metal but an instrument
used to cut metal.

Complex
1. Liquid storage vessel = a vessel for storage of liquids/for
storing liquids (notas some non-native students would have it,
aliquid vessel used for storage!).
2. Transport sector investment = investment in that sector of the
economy which concerns transport — the movement of goods
and people.
3. Automated nozzle brick grinder = a grinder of nozzle bricks (a
type of brick) (nota grinder of bricks, the grinder having a
nozzle which is automated).
More complex (See below for a discussion of these examples.)
1. Aisle seat speech interference level.
2. Long-term surveillance test planning.
3. Swine salted viscera.
Very complex (See below for a discussion of these examples.)
1. Fullswivel steerable non-retracting tail wheel overhaul.
2. Heterogeneous graphite moderated natural uranium fueled
nuclear reactor.
3. Split damper inertially coupled passive gravity gradient
satellite attitude control system.

[The above ‘more complex’ and ‘very complex’ compounds present

difficulties even to native speakers. Even ‘complex’ compounds can

133
Lexical problems in EST discourse

create problems for the reader without a knowledge of the field.

‘Automated nozzle brick grinder’ is a good example ofthis: most
readers’ initial response (including our own) is to assume that ‘nozzle’
is part of the grinding machinery, not a type of brick.
The three examples under ‘more complex’ compounds all require
explanation, sometimes even to experts in fields other than those
represented by the compounds. ‘Aisle-seat speech-interference level’
is taken from an airplane manufacturing company report and refers
to acoustic tests made to determine the level of interference with
speech between an attendant and a passenger who is sitting in an aisle
seat (on a medium sized jet airplane). As is so often the case with
compounds of this type, the problem here is one of ambiguity. On
first reading one wonders if there is ‘interference with speech taking
place at an aisle seat’ or ‘interference from speech issuing from an
aisle seat’. ‘Long term surveillance test planning’ refers to plans for
educational tests, these to be subject to surveillance over a long
period of time. ‘Swine salted viscera’ are not, as the order of the
elements suggests, ‘viscera salted with swine’ but the viscera of swine,
the swine themselves having been salted.
Each of the ‘very complex’ compounds illustrates a different
construction and the discussion here presents different ways of
solving the paraphrase problem. Each compound requires a thorough
knowledge of the subject matter to be understood and even then
numbers 2 and 3 had to be ‘translated’ by their writers before their
colleagues could understand. ‘Full swivel steerable non-retracting
tail wheel overhaul’ is from an airplane maintenance manual. All of
the modifiers of ‘overhaul’ form a unit with the headword of this
compound within a compound being ‘tail wheel’; thus we have the
overhaul of an airplane tail wheel (or of a wheel which retracts into
the tail of the airplane), this tail wheel having the characteristics of
being non-retractable, steerable, and capable of making a complete
swivel. The involved appearing compound ‘A heterogeneous graphite
moderated natural uranium fueled nuclear reactor’ becomes
somewhat easier to read if a few punctuation symbols are used to
clarify the problem of which word modifies which other word (or
words): ‘A heterogeneous, graphite-moderated, natural-uranium-
fueled nuclear reactor’. The last example, ‘A split damper inertially
coupled passive gravity gradient satellite attitude control system’
may hold the record for length, containing as it does eleven elements
plus the indefinite article. This can also be improved by punctuation:
‘A split damper, inertially coupled, passive-gravity-gradient,
satellite attitude control system’. However, this amount of
clarification was still not enough for the writer’s colleagues, one of
whom finally suggested the following translation: ‘A system for
controlling the attitude (degree of angle from the perpendicular) ofa
satellite, this system operating with the following characteristics: it
has a split damper and is coupled (joined) by inertia and has its
gradient determined by allowing gravity to take control (with no

134
9.4 Application

effort to overcome gravity).’ While the aerospace engineers who

accepted this translation may have felt comfortable with it, I find the
translation only a little less puzzling than the original. It is, of course,
the type of compound that technical writers should be discouraged to
write, whatever the provocation. ]

While such compounds as these last examples are seldom written by

anyone but the professional scientist or engineer, we find quite daunting
examples in material designed for technicians and technical trainees. For
example, this compound comes from a manual for training welders:
‘Conventional resistance lap seam welding method’! An almost classic
example of this type of writing is example 9.1, an excerpt from a
troubleshooting manual written for airline technicians, many of whom
are non-native speakers. The compounds are shown in italics.

EXAMPLE9.I NOUN COMPOUNDS IN A TECHNICAL MANUAL

If the EGT [Exhaust gas temperature] reaches the trip pointof the
overload temperature switch (704 to 718°) the sensing circuitin the
overtemperature control switch will de-energize the thermostat
selector solenoid valve and the bleed air solenoid. This causes the
load control valve to close (removes the load) and switches the
thermostat to the acceleration mode. When the EGT drops toa
nominal 205° below the switch trip point, the overtemperature
control switch will reset, energizing the thermostat selector
solenoid valve and the bleed air solenoid. This will cause the load
control valve to open and switch the thermostat to the load control
mode.
[Source: 737 APU Troubleshooting Guide, p. 51.]

[This brief paragraph contains fifteen compounds, three of which are

two-word compounds, ten are three-word compounds, and two are
four-word compounds. Three of the three-word compounds are used
twice as is the four-word compound. If we eliminate the duplicates
we still have eleven separate, mostly complex compounds in a
paragraph of 102 words. ]

9.4 Application
For purposes of classroom discussion it is convenient to divide com-
pounds into the four categories illustrated above. However, we find that
spending much time on the more complex and very complex compounds
is a futile pursuit, as it is difficult, if not impossible, for someone not
versed in the subject to translate most of them. Whether students are
native or non-native speakers seems to make little difference in this
52)
Lexical problems in EST discourse

respect; learning the ‘rules’ of translating compounds does not make

understanding the technical ones easier. Finally, those difficult com-
pounds that are relevant to the students’ work will, as in the case of
technical terms, be explained to them in the appropriate subject-matter
classes. In our experience it is more useful to the student to work with
simple and perhaps complex compounds and to give assignments that
relate these to improving both reading and writing skills. Using the indi-
vidualized assignment approach — first discussed in chapter 4—we ask the
students to bring from their subject-matter reading samples of various
types of compounds. Many of these can be used as bases for class discus-
sions with stress on translating and paraphrasing.
For those compounds too technical or too difficult to use in the
classroom, we have devised two approaches. The first is to have the
student ask his or her teachers to explain them. As many non-native
students are hesitant to show their ignorance before subject-matter
teachers (but not before English teachers!), our second procedure is to
make lists of the more complex and very complex compounds brought to
us and go ourselves to the appropriate teachers for the necessary informa-
tion. This method has the advantage of creating a file that can be used
with future classes. (Unfortunately, none of the above advice copes with
the problem of our students becoming professional scientists and
en-
gineers and being faced with impossible compounds in their professional
reading.)
The procedure described above for having students bring difficult com-
pounds to their English class also works with troublesome sub-technical
terms. With either compounds or sub-technical terms the individualiz-
ation process works well as a springboard for writing exercises.
The most
successful procedure that we have found is to collect lists of compou
nds
and sub-technical terms from the students (in separate assignm
ents) and
to hold these for several days. During this interval several
of the terms
that seem most useful can be marked — circled or underlined, for
example.
The lists are then returned to students with instructions
to choose, let us
say, two of the marked terms and use each in a paragraph whose
context
helps explain their meanings. Depending on the time availab
le to the
teacher and the nature of the class, this type of exercise can
be done in
class or given as an outside assignment. It can also be tied in
later with
review work; for example, have the students write paragraphs
that use
certain rhetorical techniques and/or rhetorical functions and,
at the same
time, use some of the compounds or sub-technical terms
marked by the
teacher. A composite individualized assignment for lexical
work is given
in chapter 10.

136
10 Teaching the rhetorical process

10.1 Introduction

This final chapter has two functions: the first is a kind of mini-course that
takes the reader through a complete presentation of the rhetorical process
as given in an academic classroom, the second examines the more difficult
problems that in our experience are most likely to appear in teaching EST
students and suggests classroom oriented solutions. The two functions
are not treated separately; rather, the problems are taken up at that point
in the ‘mini-course’ where they would occur naturally in a classroom
situation.
Taking our course will be a class made up as follows: twenty students,
ranging from undergraduates (the majority) to a small number working
for advanced degrees in one of the sciences or in engineering. The fields of
study represented include all of engineering, the physical and natural
sciences, pre-medicine and dentistry, nursing, nutrition, and home
economics. Eight of the students are women, six of them evenly divided
between nursing, nutrition, and home economics and the remaining two
in pre-medicine. Of the twelve men, one is in pre-dentistry, two are in
nutrition (also known as food chemistry), and the remainder in en-
gineering and the sciences. Their abilities in English are as varying as their
ages and interests, although all are considered capable of handling the
language at upper-intermediate level and capable of handling the rheto-
rical concepts as well.
As I pointed out in section 2.2, chapter 2, we need not think only in
terms of academic students and academically oriented classrooms while
reading through the chapters detailing the steps in the rhetorical process.
This is equally true of the presentation of the mini-course in this chapter.
Although I use a hypothetical academically oriented EST class as the basis
for the presentation, this does not mean that the course could not be
modified to fit the circumstances of another type of EST class. For
example, we can tailor the process to fit, let us say, a more vocationally
oriented class by shifting emphasis from definition and classification to
instructions and visual—verbal relationships but leaving description
much the same.

437,
Teaching the rhetorical process

10.2 Course pattern

Over the years we have experimented with several ways of presenting the
rhetorical process, with the pattern given below being the most success-
ful. The time shown for each part of the process is an average based on
several years of teaching the course and is not intended to represent an
ideal figure but only to provide guidelines.

Suggested course pattern

I. Introductory
The overall procedure for the course is explained. Types of reading
and writing assignments are discussed briefly. A loose-leaf file is
shown and its use and value explained (see 8 below). Several
technical and general dictionaries are named and discussed (and, if
possible, shown).
Time. One class hour. (Class hours vary from 45 to 55 minutes.
Ours are 50 minutes.)
II. The rhetorical process
1. The rhetorical point to be studied (paragraph, rhetorical tech-
nique, rhetorical function, or grammatical or lexical element) is
presented and briefly explained. Examples labeled with the rele-
vant rhetorical feature(s) are handed out and discussed in detail,
with the given rhetorical point stressed. Once the students parti-
cipate in the discussions, these become what we call workshops.
(In the first discussion/workshop there will, of course, be only the
one rhetorical point. However, as the rhetorical process is
cumulative, each point already discussed will be seen to relate to
the subsequent points. As a result, the time required for each
rhetorical feature may increase.)
Time. For the paragraph, one hour for each of the two elements
(correspondences and cores) is adequate. For the rhetorical tech-
niques (during which some of the information on the paragraph
must be presented again), two hours on the natural orders and one
hour on the logical orders is usually sufficient. The rhetorical
functions require more time as each is best treated separately.
Also it is necessary to bring into the discussion the previously
taught rhetorical features (for example, physical description
cannot be thoroughly understood without an understanding of its
relation to space order). The time required for description and
visual_verbal relationships is normally one class period for each;
definition and classification can take three hours together; and
instructions need one class hour for the average academic group.
(If the grammatical features relating to the rhetorical functions

138
10.2 Course pattern

are taught at this time, then more time per function is needed. See
6 below.)
. In workshops, unlabeled examples are handed out and analyzed
orally for the relevant rhetorical feature(s). After sufficient
discussion, if the ‘correct’ analysis to the examples has not come
from the students, this is either written on the blackboard, shown
on an overhead projector, or dictated. The students are expected
to note the answers on their unlabeled handouts, these to be
stored in their loose-leaf files.
Time. While all workshops but the first should include the
rhetorical points made in previous workshops, the amount of
time spent on each need not necessarily increase by much the total
time spent on any of the steps in the rhetorical process as the
workshop times are included into the times given above. How-
ever, if more time is required (for example, to make certain that a
difficult point has been understood), we suggest two hours held
‘in reserve’. Should these extra hours not be needed for work-
shops, we can use them for brief tests or save them for problem
periods later. (See 5 below.)
. If the rhetorical feature has not been grasped by the majority of
the class, part or all of the above procedure can be repeated with
other examples.
Time. At the most, one half hour is devoted to each of the
rhetorical points not clearly understood. We find that setting
aside one hour of extra time is usually more than sufficient.
. The next step is to make individualized assignments based on the
reading the students are doing for their technical courses. Some of
the examples submitted to fulfil the assignments will be found
useful either as models, bases for discussion, or selections to be
used in revision for examinations. With permission of the
students who handed them in, copies of these can be kept and used
either with the current class or with future classes. It is useful to
put some of the ‘best’ examples (both the best ‘good’ and the best
‘bad’ examples) on transparencies, with, of course, identification
removed.
Time. We find that short, fairly frequent assignments produce
better results than do long ones given less often, as receiving
assignments more frequently allows the teacher to follow the
students’ progress more closely. (Longer assignments can be given
periodically as a kind of ‘test’.) We usually expect an assignment
to be turned in either two class periods after it has been made (for
example, an assignment made on a Monday would be turned in
Friday) or if made on a Friday, it could easily be handed in the
following Monday.
139
Teaching the rhetorical process

5. The results of the individualized assignments make clear whether

a) more workshops are needed; b) brief tests should be given; or c)
the next step in the process should be begun.
Time. How much time should be given to additional work-
shops is a function of how much time is available. If more time
than already set aside is taken, we may have to curtail our writing
program.
. During presentation of some of the rhetorical features, grammati-
cal and lexical problems can appear quite naturally. When this
happens, our procedure is to set aside temporarily the discussion
on the rhetorical feature and work instead on the grammatical
or lexical element and its relationship to the rhetorical feature.
Once this relationship is understood, the discussion is shifted
back to the rhetoric. If this procedure is followed, later work on
the grammatical points seldom needs to be more than a brief
mention.
Time. | suggest the following average additional time for
discussing each grammatical point with its relevant rhetorical
function:
Description: a) passive—stative distinctions, one class hour; b)
specialized uses of the definite article, one class hour; c) non-
temporal choice of tense, half class hour.
Definition and classification: relative clauses, half class hour
together.
Instructions: a) inconsistent use of the definite article, one class
hour; b) non-standard meanings of the modals ‘should’, ‘can’, and
‘may’, half class hour.
Visual—verbal relationships: non-temporal choice of tense in
text accompanying a visual, half class hour.
. If writing is to be emphasized in later stages of the course,
assignments for any lengthy work should be given far enough in
advance for the procedure in section 10.9 to be followed. The
basic factor in this procedure is the amount of in-class supervision
teachers either feel that they can give or wish to give to student
writing. This supervision can vary from almost zero (merely
giving and receiving assignments) to complete control by having
all the writing done in the class.
. One of the features of the course that students feel is most helpful
is the requirement that they keep their examples and analyses of
the various rhetorical, grammatical, and lexical features in order
in a loose-leaf file and that this be handed in with each new
assignment. The advantage to the students is that they then have
an organized record of the work they have done along with evalu-
ations of each assignment. The advantage to the teachers is that

140
10.3 The rhetorical approach: preliminary remarks

they can determine improvement of each student at any stage

during the course.

10.3. Therhetorical approach: preliminary remarks

After trying several orders of presentation of the rhetorical material, we

found the one given below the most successful. Our course to teach
non-native students to read (and secondarily to write) EST discourse was
originally developed to fit into a ten-week term, the class meeting three
days per week, with each meeting lasting a ‘class’ hour (that is, 50
minutes) for a total of 30 contact hours per term. Teachers who have used
the rhetorical process in courses divided differently have told us that they
had little difficulty in tailoring the material by spending extra time on the
more difficult points. This works especially with upper-elementary or
lower-intermediate groups where it is often possible to leave out those
points that may be too advanced for their levels of reading and instead
concentrating on those more useful to the students (for example, a class of
vocational trainees needs more time on the rhetoric of instructions and
visual—verbal relationships than on, let us say, the more esoteric forms of
definition.)
The following discussion treats the rhetorical features in the same
order as they are treated in the preceding chapters. I have not shown any
of the various brief tests we injected at intervals as this part of any course
is always governed by time and by the individual teacher’s way of
working. However, in section 10.9 I have added suggestions on how to
exercise maximum control over a major writing project designed as a test
of the students’ abilities to find and use the rhetorical features stressed
during the course.

Introductory presentation
We make the following points in a handout to the students in the early
sessions:
1. The class will be conducted through explanations and discussions of
the rhetorical process and through workshops designed to give prac-
tice in applying the process.
2. The course covers five major areas of scientific and technical English.
For each of these areas the procedure is as follows:
a) We begin with an introductory explanation of the rhetorical
point(s) to be studied and of the assignments that will grow out of
the discussion.
b) Following the introductory explanations, you will receive hand-
outs that have examples of the rhetorical features of the point
141
Teaching the rhetorical process

being studied. These handouts are labeled so that each main rheto-
rical feature is identified. This material should be put in a loose-
leaf file and kept for reference. You are expected to bring this file to
each class meeting.
c) A second set of handouts will be given out once the discussion of
the first set is finished. This second set will be unlabeled and will be
used as the basis for further discussion in workshops. From the
previous discussions and from your labeled handouts, you should
be able to find the main rhetorical features on the unlabeled hand-
outs. Once the concepts are clear in your mind you should transfer
the information to the margins of your unlabeled examples and
put these in your loose-leaf reference file.
d) Assignments: you will be asked to go to the books you read for
your subject-matter courses (both textbooks and supplementary
reading) and find examples of the rhetorical point just discussed. If
possible, these are to be photocopied (if not, copied carefully by
hand) and the copy trimmed and pasted on the size of paper that
fits your file. Instructions for labeling and writing an analysis of
your material will be given out with the assignment.
e) Your final assignment will be a research paper that contains
examples of all of the rhetorical elements discussed during the
course. Details will be given out later.
(To the teacher: The ‘Rhetorical process chart’, p. 11 above, should be
handed out as soon as it can be used as a basis for discussion. If it is
referred to frequently during the introductory sessions, the students
should (might) get in the habit of bringing it to class to be used as a
reference tool in conjunction with the material in their loose-leaf files.)
Comments on the rhetorical points and on assignments made for each
major step in the rhetorical process along with suggested solutions to
problems that arise in the EST classroom are given in sections 10.4
through 10.8. Section 10.9 discusses procedure for exercising various
amounts of control over writing assignments. It also suggests a way of
completely controlling a lengthy end-of-term writing assignment de-
signed to test the students’ grasp of the course content.

10.4 Teaching the paragraph

A sample individualized assignment on the paragraph is given in
chart
4.1, p. 42 above. In this assignment the students are asked to go to their
subject-matter reading and find six different types of paragraphs.
As
noted earlier, this is a composite assignment and is clearly
too long,
especially for a first attempt at a type of exercise that few if any
of the
students have done before. An adequate beginning assignment might
be
to require any two of the first four types of paragraph, while for
a class
142
10.4 Teaching the paragraph
that shows a strong grasp of the concepts, an assignment can be made
from either the first four or the last two types.
The instructions for assignments such as these — and for any others in
which the students are asked to bring samples of printed material —
should stress that each example is to be accompanied by a complete
source reference: we find it useful to give the students a handout con-
taining standard bibliographic forms to use as guides. (Unfortunately, we
realized a bit late the need to insist on full references; as a result many of
our ‘best’ examples brought by students are quoted without sources.)
Because few, if any, students will have dealt with this type of assign-
ment before, detailed comments on the first assignment in each rhetorical
area can be helpful, especially if they indicate the place and type of error
and suggest corrections.
The following checklist, developed by trial and error over the years,
offers guidelines for evaluating these early assignments:
1. Have all of the requirements of the assignment been fulfilled? (For
example, is the correspondence exemplified the one wanted?) Are the
paragraphs correctly labeled as to type? Are the core statements
underlined, if this has been requested?)
2. Have all the rhetorical, grammatical, and lexical elements called for
been marked (circled or otherwise indicated)?
3. Have ‘non-native’ errors been copied into the sample texts?
4. Are the sources of the sample texts as complete as possible?
To test the students’ knowledge of the basic ideas of the paragraph a
minimum of two assignments is usually necessary: one to check for an
understanding of the concept of cores; the other to check for an under-
standing of the concept of correspondences. Either or both of these can be
tested by handing out unlabeled sample paragraphs and having the
students label and analyze them in the classroom. Since it is impossible to
cover separately all the fields of study represented in the average class in
this way, we resort to the type of exercises discussed in chapter 4, section
4.4 on ‘Parallelism’. Sometimes it is necessary to continue with this
‘general’ approach until the students show that they understand the prin-
ciples of the paragraph sufficiently to be able to move on to the next step
in the rhetorical process.
However, while this type of approach is necessary to provide the
students with a sound grasp of the basics of the paragraph, real under-
standing seems to come only when they actually discover paragraphs
functioning in discourse related to their own subject-matter areas. The
one way that we have found to ensure the students making such
‘discoveries’ is to individualize their major assignments, as outlined in
chapter 4, section 4.6. Also, as noted earlier, this approach has the advan-
tage of giving some feel of ‘genuineness’ to the normally artificial atmos-
phere of the English language classroom.

143
Teaching the rhetorical process

10.5 Teaching the rhetorical techniques

The discussions on the rhetorical techniques are found in chapter 3,
sub-section 3.2.2, and in chapter 6. Chart 6.1, pp. 53—4 above, lists the
most common rhetorical techniques (also called ‘patterns of paragraph
development’) that are found in EST discourse and shows the ‘key’ terms
signalling that a particular rhetorical technique is being used — or is going
to be used — by the writer. This list is useful as a basis for initial discussion
on the rhetorical techniques as well as a reference for the students.
The more ‘advanced’ the discourse (that is, the closer to ‘peer writing’),
the more we find writers leaving out the ‘key’ terms. The rhetorical tech-
nique being used is then normally indicated by context and/or jux-
taposition of statements. Thus we have covertly signalled or ‘implied’
rather than overtly stated rhetorical techniques. While these seldom cause
problems for the native reader, the same is not true of most non-native
readers, since very few ‘feel’ what are often quite subtle relationships. The
solution to this problem that we have found most successful is to have
the students learn virtually by rote the key terms along with the rhetorical
techniques that they indicate and then have them practice recognizing the
more covert signals of context and juxtaposition.
For readers to be able to recognize quickly and accurately that the
writer is going to express a specific relationship between two pieces of
information is a skill invaluable in improving their reading speed and
comprehension. For this reason, we spend as much class time as is neces-
sary to make certain that determining these relationships has become an
(at least partially) automatic process. Our procedure is, again, to follow
the pattern of the other individualized assignments and have the students
find examples in their own subject-matter reading of ‘implied’ rhetorical
techniques and in their analyses to state precisely what the relationships
are and what covert signals gave them this information.
By adding this type of individualized assignment to those given in
chapter 6, we can create assignments much more complex and demanding
than those given for the paragraph alone (chapter 5). We can, for
example, ask for paragraphs that not only illustrate a given rhetorical
technique but have a one-to-one (or one-to-more-than-one) corresp
ond-
ence and, as well, indicate the rhetorical relationships by a ‘key’
term or
by juxtaposition and/or context. We can also ask for paragra
phs that
combine two or more techniques: for example, process time
order and
causality or specific space order and contrast.
Depending on the nature of a given class, preparing the students
for
assignments of the type described above often requires several hours
of
discussion and workshop practice. The examples given
in chapter 6 are
useful both in class discussion and in workshops since they
are carefully
chosen illustrations of the rhetorical techniques as
these are found most
144
10.5 Teaching the rhetorical techniques

commonly in written EST discourse. We have had our best success in

giving these out as unlabeled examples after handing out and discussing
simpler labeled examples of each technique. Our procedure for a ‘typical’
class is as follows:
1. A general discussion of the concept ‘rhetorical technique’, including
the categorization of the techniques into ‘natural orders’ and ‘logical
orders’ (or, if preferred into ‘orders’ and/or ‘patterns’) and of the way
writers have of showing the relationship of an item of information to
another.
2. The presentation of labeled examples of ‘time order’ and as much
discussion as is necessary before proceeding to the next technique.
(That is, the discussion and initial exemplification of time order
should be finished before space order is begun.)
3. A workshop in which the students make written analyses of unlabeled
examples of the technique being studied. If these analyses are
discussed orally we often get a bonus of oral practice when the
students disagree over one another’s analyses.
4. Atthis point, either of two procedures can be followed: individualized
assignments on the technique just covered can be handed out or these
can be postponed until each technique has been presented.
5. Whichever procedure is followed, once each technique has been
discussed and illustrated (and, if desired at this point, tested by
assignments), the problems of a) ‘implied’ relationships and b) combi-
nations of relationships are worked on.
6. Ifthe individualized assignments have not yet been given, they should
be handed out at this point. However, as a rule we find it more satis-
factory to give out short individualized assignments after each tech-
nique has been covered and then to give out a ‘broader’ assignment as a
kind of overall revision.
An example of an individualized assignment that could be made at the
end of the last workshop on the ‘natural’ orders is given in chart 10.1.

CHARTIO.I SAMPLE INDIVIDUALIZED ASSIGNMENT: RHETORICAL

TECHNIQUES
|. From your own subject-matter reading bring examples of the
following types of paragraph development:
1. time chronology;
2. time process;
3. space order;
4. causality and result
a) mixed with time process;
b) containing no time element.
Il. Also bring examples of the following:

145
Teaching the rhetorical process

1. atime order paragraph (chronology or process time) illustrating

a one-to-more-than-one correspondence;
2. atime or space order paragraph with an implied (not stated)
core.
At the top of each example, state the main type of development (for
example, ‘Time process’). Within each paragraph, underline the core
statement and circle any key terms that mark your main type of
development (thatis, ‘time’ words or ‘space’ words, etc.). If the core is
not stated, then beneath the paragraph, write out what you think would
be a good core statement. Beneath the paragraph give its source. Ina
separate paragraph below your example, make as complete a
rhetorical analysis as you can, using the sample analyses given in your
handouts as guides.

[While this is clearly too long to be given out as asingle assignment, it

does suggest the scope possible in individualizing exercises. An
assignment given out after the logical patterns have been presented
could well include the above with additions such as asking for time or
space order paragraphs using comparisonor contrast or _
exemplification, etc. as their secondary patterns of development. In
the instructions given out with assignments such as these, students
can also be asked to indicate the secondary as well as the primary
way(s) in which their example paragraphs are developed. | ,
Once all of the rhetorical techniques are presented and tested, it is fruitful
to review them in the context of the paragraph; that is, stressing the cores
and correspondences in the paragraphs that contain examples of the
rhetorical techniques. As noted above, this allows for a final set of indi-
vidualized assignments that can incorporate both rhetorical features
studied to date.

10.6 Teaching the rhetorical functions

The discussions on the rhetorical functions are found in chapter

3, sub-
section 3.2.3, and chapter 7. Although there is no single summar
y chart
for the rhetorical functions as there is for the rhetorical techniques, each
function has its own chart listing the kinds and amounts of information
the reader should expect to get from that particular functio
n or sub-
function. If possible, these charts should be handed out at the beginni
ng
of the presentation of each function to make them available both
for class
discussion and as references to help the students in their assignm
ents and
during tests and workshops.
As noted earlier in this book, the rhetorical functions are
the core of the
rhetorical approach. Looking back at the ‘Rhetorical proces
s chart’, p. 11
146
10.6 Teaching the rhetorical functions

above, we can see that the rhetorical functions given for Level C are in the
best position to provide basic information: by their very nature the rheto-
rical functions give the reader the types of information most frequently
found in written EST discourse. Also this information is usually carried
by the conceptual paragraph, thus providing the reader with a functional
and flexible organizational unit.
If the concepts of paragraph and rhetorical techniques are already
understood, students usually find the rhetorical functions easy to relate to
the rhetorical process. However, because of their importance to the total
discourse and because of the sometimes difficult grammatical rela-
tionships often best taught concurrently with them, we prefer to ‘over-
present’ the rhetorical functions and end this phase of the course with a
thorough revision of the entire rhetorical process given to this point.
Our most successful pattern of presentation is the following:
1. An initial presentation explains what the term ‘rhetorical functions’
encompasses, with very brief samples of each of the functions pre-
sented in context; each function is then given detailed treatment
before the next is presented; the order of presentation is the same as
that in chapter 7 — description, definition, classification, instructions,
and visual—verbal relationships (but see step 5 below.)
Labeled examples are handed out and discussed in detail.
al Unlabeled examples are handed out and used first in class discussion
ad
and then in a workshop; this latter is followed by a short indi-
vidualized assignment and/or a brief test.
4. Based on the results of the assignment (or test), either review is made
as necessary or the discussion passes on to the next rhetorical function.
5. Atthe end of the presentation of the first three functions — description,
definition, and classification — a larger individualized assignment is
made: this assignment asks the students to find examples of each of the
three functions and also to find examples of paragraphs in which two
or more of the functions work together.
6. The same type of assignment is made after the two remaining func-
tions — instructions and visual—verbal relationships — have been
presented.
7. Depending again on the nature of the class being taught, if necessary a
final assignment can follow further review (also if necessary). A useful
assignment at this point is to have the students try to find in their
reading examples of discourse that include several of the functions. A
variation on this type of assignment is one that asks for combinations
of the three steps in the rhetorical process discussed to date; for
example, definition paragraphs that also include, let us say, physical
description and have a one-to-more-than-one correspondence, or any
similar combinations.
Sample individualized assignments for each of the rhetorical functions
147
Teaching the rhetorical process

are given in the following discussions, in which each function is treated in

a separate sub-section in some detail in order to stress the points that we
have found to be most important for that particular function.

10.6.1 Description
The discussions pertaining to the three types of description are in chapter
3, sub-section 3.2.3, and chapter 7, section 7.2. Chart 7.1, p. 73, is the
basis for an introductory class presentation. Following this, each type of
description is taken up separately: unlabeled and then labeled examples
are handed out and, if needed, a short workshop is held before moving on
to the next type of description.
We find that the discussions are best handled by putting stress on the
kinds of information each type of description should provide the reader.
For example, if the ‘Canal bottom sampler’ (example 7.1, p. 72) is used,
questions can be asked such as ‘What physical points does the writer
consider important — dimension? colour? texture? materials?’ ‘Does the
writer describe the purpose of the device? That is, does he give the func-
tion of the whole, or just the functions of some of the parts?’ “Why did he
choose such and such a part — instead of some others — to describe func-
tionally?’ ‘How many steps are there in the process description given in
this text?’
Once all three types of description have been covered and the students
seem to understand the rhetorical concepts involved, then individualized
assignments can be given. At this stage, these can be simple — limiting
themselves to having the students find paragraphs illustrating the
different types of description (or combinations of these) — or they can be
complex, taking advantage of the work already done with paragraphs and
the rhetorical techniques. Writing assignments, if given, can follow the
same patterns. A sample individualized assignment is shown in chart
10:25

CHARTIO.2 SAMPLEINDIVIDUALIZED ASSIGNMENT:

DESCRIPTION

From your subject-matter reading, find examples of the following

types of paragraphs:

1. Find paragraphs that are mostly (or completely)

a) physical description;
b) function description;
C) process description.
The paragraph of physical description must show Clearly the use of
space order; the paragraph of function description, the use of
Causality and result; and the paragraph of process description,
the use

148
10.6 Teaching the rhetorical functions

of process time and of causality and result. This paragraph should not
be in the form of aset of instructions.
2. Find two paragraphs that mix types of description in different
proportions —
a) amixture of physical and function description;
b) amixture of physical and process description (plus some
function description if it occurs in your example).
There are no restrictions on which rhetorical techniques are used in
these paragraphs.

Once the individualized assignments have been done satisfactorily, there

is a choice of procedure: the grammatical areas that relate to the rhetoric
of description (for example, the passive—stative distinction) can be
brought up for discussion, or the class can continue working with the
rhetorical functions and can give the grammatical—rhetorical rela-
tionships separately later. We find the former the more satisfactory pro-
cedure: to wait until all of the rhetorical functions are presented before
picking up the related grammatical elements at a later date usually re-
quires revision of some of the rhetorical points in order for the students to
see the relationship between a specific point of grammar and a given
rhetorical function. Presenting the related grammatical point (and at
times bringing in pertinent lexis) immediately following work on a given
rhetorical function allows the relationships to be seen more easily and
more quickly.
Chapter 8 is the source for the information on the grammatical
elements that relate to the rhetorical functions. Specifically, the rhetoric
of description is concerned with passive—stative distinctions in the three
types of description (section 8.2), with the specialized use of the definite
article in physical description (section 8.4), and with the non-temporal
use of tense in the physical description of apparatus (sub-section 5.1). In
our experience these grammatical elements are best treated at the end of
the classroom work on description and in the order given above.
An alternative procedure is to divide the discussion of the rhetorical—
grammatical relationships into two parts: the treatment of the rheto-
rical function is followed by a few examples and a short discussion of
the grammatical element (or elements) related to that function. The
subject can then be treated more completely after the full presentation
of the rhetorical functions has ended and that on the rhetorical-gram-
matical relationships has been taken up. This approach has the advan-
tage of allowing the teacher to judge during the initial presentation
how well the students have understood the several sets of relationships
on
discussed and, therefore, how much time they will need to spend
each relationship when the rhetorical-grammatical discussions are
held.
149
Teaching the rhetorical process

10.6.2 Definition
The discussions on definition are in chapter 3, sub-section Desa aie
chapter 7, section 7.3. The summary of information provided by each
type of definition is in chart 7.3, p. 79. This chart is useful both as a basis
for a preliminary discussion of definition and as a reference for the
students.
We find that definition is best presented in the order given in chapter 7,
section 7.3, with each type treated separately for purposes of class discus-
sion and early workshop practice. Once each of the three types of ‘simple’
definition is seen to be understood (again through the use of labeled
handouts, unlabeled handouts, and short workshops), it is usually quite
easy to move into the more difficult area of complex definition.
As most examples of simple definition are in single sentences, it might
seem that we are dealing here with an area that does not make use of
discourse contexts. However, these single-definition sentences are seldom
found in isolation; those that the students bring from their subject-matter
reading are almost invariably the core statements of paragraphs that
function as one or another type of expanded definition. Although it is
necessary for the students to see this relationship between definition and
discourse units fairly early in their study of the rhetoric of definition, we
find that while teaching the basic concepts of definition, we are more
likely to have quicker positive results if we keep our examples at the single
sentence level —but only during this initial period.
In our experience spending too much time on simple definitions as
exemplified in single sentences can be self defeating. Once the students
have clearly grasped 1) the amounts and kinds of information each type of
simple definition should provide the reader and 2) the essential structural
differences between the three types, then it is more useful to move
on to
definitions in their discourse contexts. Each type of simple definition
is, of
course, treated as part of a larger discourse unit in the work on complex
definition, both when the students make analyses of their subject-
matter
reading and when they transfer to production by writing their
own defini-
tions. It is worth noting here that having the students write definitions
is a
much more useful exercise when these are required to be in
some kind of
context. Students benefit very little in terms of practicing organiza
tion, of
achieving syntactic and semantic correctness, etc. by producing
mostly
single-sentence definitions. (We should also point out that
only the most
advanced students usually benefit from being asked to practice
writing
implicit definitions.)
Chart 10.3 illustrates a brief individualized assignment design
ed to
follow the discussions on both simple and complex definition.

150
10.6 Teaching the rhetorical functions

CHARTI0O.3 SAMPLEINDIVIDUALIZED ASSIGNMENT: DEFINITION

From your subject-matter reading, find examples of the following

types of paragraphs:
1. Find a paragraph that has a formal definition as its core
generalization. This paragraph must be expanded by description or
example or operation.
2. Find asecond paragraph that has a formal definition as its core
generalization. This paragraph must be expanded by explication.
3. Find a paragraph that has as its core a semi-formal definition. This
paragraph must be expanded by function description or example.
4. Find a paragraph that has anon-formal definition as its core
statement. This paragraph can be expanded by any of the means
discussed in class.

(Note: If experience means anything, the teacher will find that

assignments 2 and 4 are the most difficult for the students to fulfil:
assignment 2 because a) explication is not always easy to find and b)
because the students do not always recognize explication when they
see it; and assignment 4 because not many EST sentences have non-
formal definitions as their cores. When it proved too difficult for
some of the students to find examples of sentences with non-formal
definitions as cores (the discourse in some fields contains very few
examples of non-formal definitions), we would have the students
substitute either a second paragraph having a semi-formal definition
as the core or a paragraph containing a non-formal definition and
another statement as the core. |

The grammatical element that relates to the rhetoric of definition is not

treated in the same way as are the passive—stative distinctions and the
specialized use of the definite article with the rhetoric of description since
here we are concerned only with relative clauses and their substitute
structure. As the relative or its equivalent is found in all formal defini-
tions, the students need to work with these early in the discussions on
definition. However, as most EST students are assumed to be adequate in
the basics of English when they enter the course, it is usually necessary to
plan only for a brief review of the relative and its substitute as found in
formal definitions (the ‘-ing’ form, usually of ‘to have’, as in ‘An arachnid
is an invertebrate animal having [as a substitute for which/that has] eight
legs ...’). Occasionally, we find other verbs used in present participial
form (such as ‘possessing’, ‘displaying’, ‘showing’, etc.) and these should
be noted.
If the students are expected to produce formal definitions then more
work on the relatives might be necessary, especially with those students
whose languages demand an inserted pronoun after the relative (for
example, ‘An arachnid is an invertebrate animal which it has eight legs

151
Teaching the rhetorical process

...). If this extra work on relatives is needed, useful exercises at the

single-sentence level can be found in many EST texts.
Lexical problems, particularly those discussed in chapter 9, can arise
for non-native students when they work with the kinds of definitions
common in scientific and technical discourse: they frequently find
‘general’ words used with specific technical meanings or, more often, they
run against puzzling (perhaps unsolvable) noun compounds. Exercises on
these lexical problems are given in section 10.8. These exercises are indi-
vidualized to perform a multiple function. First, they make learners
aware of the best ways to get meaning out of terms they may have pre-
viously skipped over in their reading. Second, they give practice in recog-
nizing and creating definitions. Third, the definitions the students create
can be used as bases for practice in writing expanded definition
paragraphs.

10.6.3 Classification
Classification (discussed in chapter 3, sub-section 3.2.3 and chapter 7,
section 7.4) is best taught (like description and definition) by first treating
each of the three types — complete, partial, and implicit classification —
with the majority of time spent on making clear the basic concepts as they
are found in complete classification (see chart 7.4, p. 93). Unless the
students grasp the concepts involved in complete classification they will
have difficulty understanding partial classification and little if any chance
of being able to abstract implicit classifying information from a text.
(Despite classification being an everyday activity on the part of most
humans and especially for those involved in academic work, it is sur-
prising how much difficulty many seem to have in understanding the
concept or even in recognizing or producing a simple complete classifi-
cation.)
Our set of ‘rules’ for classifying, chart 7.5, are reproduced here, slightly
modified, for quick reference.

CHART 7.5 SUMMARY OF RULES FOR CLASSIFYING

1. Writers must be able to define their class and each memberof that
class. They should understand the relation of the class and the
members to one another and the outside world.
2. Aclass must have at least two members. Ifaclass has only one
member, then that member and the class are the same. In implicit
classification some or all members may have to be reconstr
ucted
from ‘logic’ as well as context.
3. In large classes it is not usually necessary nor advisable to state
all
members. With these and ‘infinite’ classes, writers must decide
which members to list for the readers.

£2
10.6 Teaching the rhetorical functions

4. Allmembers of aclass must have at least one characteristic in

common: this commonality is the basis for their all being members
of the same class.
5. Eachmember of aclass must be clearly separated from all other
members by the basis (bases) for classification which functions to
differentiate them from each other.
6. Classification must be made on only one level at a time. Mixing
levels is a sure sign of lack of understanding of the principles of
classification.

In our experience, students have the most difficulty in giving clear

statements of the bases of their classifications. A common error is for the
classifier to mix levels of generality and levels for bases of classification
(as suggested by rule 2). The following example, handed in by a student,
illustrates this type of error.
Classification of houses by types
. Cape Cod
. Victorian
Tudor
. French chateau
Brick
. Price range — $50,000 to $80,000
OarwWD

First, of course, the heading is ambiguous: ‘types’ can mean architectural

types (the first four in the list) or can refer to types of construction
(number 5). Thus, the classifier has mixed two somewhat related bases. In
addition, number 6 gives us a third, quite different basis — that of cost.
Also, the two related types are on different levels of generality since we
can find one governing the other, depending on just where we begin. That
is, the architectural types listed above can be constructed of different
materials, thus giving us a class ‘Types of architecture’ with kinds of
construction materials subsumed under each type (for example, Victorian
architecture built of brick, of stone, etc.). Or we can have a class ‘Mater-
ials’ with types of architecture subsumed under each of these (for
example, stone used for the architectural types Victorian or French
chateau, etc.).
Looking again at the list of ‘Rules for classifying’, we can see that rule 1
poses little problem, especially if the classifier understands the basic con-
cept of formal definition. Rule 3 is an extension of rule 2 and, like rule 2,
implies that statements of bases for classification be clear and precise. The
first part of rule 4 needs little explanation; the second part, however, can
create problems, particularly for those students not trained to reason
froma premise.
A good example of the need to apply this kind of reasoning is in
paragraph 2 of example 7.10B, p. 92, which illustrates implicit classifi-
153
Teaching the rhetorical process

cation. In paragraph 1 both members of the class ‘Water reserves’ are

given, although not in precisely the terms used to name the members of
the class. We have the statement, ‘Underground water reserves are much
larger than those on the surface.’ From this it is not difficult for a reader to
abstract a class ‘Water reserves’ and the two members of that class,
‘Underground and surface water reserves’, by a simple interpretation of
the pronoun ‘those’. In paragraph 2, however, the major class ‘Water’ is
not stated but only implied by the phrase ‘... like the pure water defined
by chemists.’ When this member of the class ‘Water’ becomes a class in its
own right it appears to violate the rule that all classes must have more
than one member. To get around this apparent violation the reader needs
to infer that there can be other types of ‘man-made water’ just as there is
more than one type of natural water. (While it can be useful for academic
students to be able to abstract this kind of implicit information from their
reading, whether the teacher should spend much time on exercises that
deal with it — analyses of paragraphs, for example — is really a function of
the language levels in the class. For those whose ability to read English is,
at this point in their work, still uncertain, the struggle can be far too great
to make analyses worthwhile, while for those whose reading ability is
close to what it should be such work can be profitable.)
As rule 3 is stated in chart 7.5, it is over-simplified. Obviously in
working with open-ended (infinite) classes the classifier could not per-
form the impossible and state all members. The rule really applies to
closed classes that contain more members than those the classifier may
wish to deal with, or more than necessary for transmitting all of the
information required by a reader. For example, if a writer is comparing
and contrasting vertebrate and invertebrate animals classification is an
excellent framework for making the points clearly and concisely. How-
ever, for a writer to try to list all (or even the majority) of the members of
each class would be an exercise in futility as well as unnecessary. Giving a
few representative members of a class is usually sufficient for most
discussions.
Rule 6 has been discussed above in connection with rule 2, to which it is
closely related.
A sample classification assignment is given in chart 10.4. The assign-
ment on implicit classification is best thought of as optional. Whether it
(or one of the same type) is to be used should depend on the level of the
class (for example, lower-intermediate non-native students usually have
difficulty in reading well enough to find implied information).

CHARTIO.4 SAMPLE INDIVIDUALIZED ASSIGNMENT:

CLASSIFICATION
From your subject-matter reading, find examples of the following
types of paragraphs:

154.
10.6 Teaching the rhetorical functions
1. Find a paragraph that has a statement of classification as its core
generalization. This paragraph should be expanded by description
and should use the rhetorical technique of causality and result of or
comparison and/or contrast.
2. Find aparagraph that develops acomplete classification but that
does nothave the statement of classification as its core. This
paragraph should be developed by description but it should not use
the same rhetorical technique as your first example.
3. Find aparagraph that develops a partial classification. The
statement of classification can be, but need not be, the core. The
paragraph can be developed by any means.
4. Find aparagraph that contains an implicit classification. Show what
the classification elements are by putting a classification diagram
beneath your example paragraph.

The grammatical element related to classification that may cause some

problems is the same as that in definition — the relative — and the same
types of exercises can be used. In fact, statements of classification lend
themselves to expansion into paragraphs even more easily than do single-
sentence definitions.

Partition
Although not considered a rhetorical function, partition is so often con-
fused with classification (and not only by the non-native learner) that it is
worth looking at it in some detail. By definition partition is the process of
breaking something into its component parts and naming each. Expanded
partition not only names but it describes. In technical discourse, partition
is usually applied to physical objects, although anything with parts may
be partitioned — a complex concept, a syllogism, etc. While in technical
discourse it is functionally most often a part of physical description,
because of the tendency to confuse it with classification partition is best
discussed by contrasting it with classification rather than introducing it
with physical description. This contrast is best made only after the
students have shown that they understand the basic ideas in the rhetoric
of classification.
The confusion between classification and partition is usually due to an
uninformed reader assuming that to list under a name (class) what seem
to be its parts is breaking it down. However, the ‘parts’ of a classification
(the members/items) are whole units capable of becoming classes them-
selves. Together they do not add up to a single unit of which each member
forms one piece. To state this in other terms, the total number of items
listed under a class does not add up to be that class; rather, each member
of a class is a specific case of that class. (The technical student might
visualize the concept more easily if the teacher equates ‘class’ with ‘set’
and ‘member’ with ‘subset’.)

ey)
Teaching the rhetorical process

Partition, in contrast, takes a whole (a class or a member of a class) and

separates it into its components, many of which cannot function by them-
selves but must be integrated with other ‘parts’ to be able to do so. An
example that shows the confusion of classifying and partitioning can be
seen in the discussion of a chemical compound. A compound is made up
of two or more ‘wholes’ (usually elements) that by uniting become a new
‘whole’. For example, forms of the elements sodium and chlorine come
together to form salt. To list the forms of these two elements under the
heading ‘salt’ or ‘sodium chloride’ is partitioning; to take the term ‘salt’
and list under it the several kinds — underground (mined) salt, sea salt, etc.
—is classifying. In brief, sodium and chlorine are not types of salt; they are
components of salt. Underground salt and sea salt are types of salt; they
are specific examples of the general class we call ‘salt’.
A simple way to demonstrate to the students the basic difference
between partition and classification is to bring to the classroom two (or
three or more) items such as different types of pens (ballpoint, felt tip,
etc.), one of which can be easily taken apart. By pointing out that the pens
are members of the class ‘pens’ and then by taking apart one pen and
showing as well as listing these parts, the teacher can make a clear con-
trast between classification and partition.

10.6.4. Instructions
The discussions of the two types of instructions and of instructional
information are in chapter 3, sub-section 3.2.3 and chapter 7, section 7.5.
Chart 7.6, p. 97, lists the kinds of information given by a set of instruc-
tions and, again, is a useful tool to use as a basis for preliminary discus-
sion and as a reference for the students to put in their files.
In teaching the rhetoric of instructions we find it of major importance
to make clear the difference between instructions per se — both direct and
indirect instructions — and instructional information. Because instruc-
tional information is so often woven into the instructional statements
themselves, students have a tendency to ignore it and to ‘get on with the
activity’ or to misunderstand its function and so skip over it in a kind of
frustration.
Similarly, it is important to have the students recognize an indirect
instruction as an actual imperative even though the grammatical form is
usually passive or modal, or a combination of the two. This problem is
most successfully attacked through a discussion of the specialized mean-
ings (in many indirect instructions) of the modals ‘should’, ‘may’, and
«
can’. >

It is important that in teaching the rhetoric of instructions the two

types of instructions and instructional information are taught together
rather than separately (as suggested for the three rhetorical functions

156
10.6 Teaching the rhetorical functions

already discussed). One reason for using this approach is the need to
distinguish very early the different kinds of information — not always an
easy task since they very frequently occur in the same piece of discourse. A
second reason is that we have few examples of instructions that are
meaningful to academic students. Leaving aside those instructions that
accompany problems and exercises in textbooks (for example, ‘You have
been given an electric light bulb, a socket, some wire, and some insulating
tape. Draw a circuit diagram of the system you would put together’), the
only ‘real world’ sources for sets of instructions in academic situations
are the manuals used in science and engineering laboratories; that is, the
manuals that have been made to accompany the instrumentation pur-
chased for use in such laboratories (for example, oscilloscopes, micro-
scopes, sophisticated measuring devices, etc.). This does not include those
manuals prepared by processors for specific courses. These are usually
edited and so seldom contain the same faults as ‘real world’ manuals.
Since there is a lack of source materials easily available to the students,
it is sometimes necessary to provide them with examples (labeled and
unlabeled) from outside their subject-matter areas and, unfortunately,
also often outside their experience. To help overcome any feeling on the
part of the students that these examples do not represent the ‘real world’
we try to choose material that at least one student can understand and to
hold more in-class workshops in place of some of the individualized
assignments, thus letting all students share the knowledge of the one (or
more) whose field is being exemplified.
When transferring the learning process from reading to writing, we
have the students work back and forth, changing direct into indirect
instructions and vice versa, and separating out instructional information
from the instructions themselves and putting this information into separ-
ate paragraphs by adding language and changing structures as necessary.
Since instructions are often found in conjunction with visuals, exercises
using both rhetorical functions togethér are also practical. These are
discussed in the sub-section on visuals below.
Chart 10.5 shows an individualized assignment on the rhetoric of in-
structions. It is designed to be used after the basic discussion on the types
of instructions but before the related grammatical elements are
introduced.

CHARTI0.5 SAMPLEINDIVIDUALIZED ASSIGNMENT:

INSTRUCTIONS

In your subject-matter reading, find examples of the following sets of

instructions:
1. asetof direct instructions without any accompanying indirect
instructions or instructional information;

E57
Teaching the rhetorical process

2. asetofinstructions containing both direct and indirect instructions

but not containing any instructional information;
3. asetof instructions containing direct and indirect instructions and
instructional information;
4. asetofinstructions made up of indirect instructions and
instructional information but without any direct instructions.

In bringing in the grammatical elements related to the rhetoric of instruc-

tions, as noted above, it is a useful procedure to bring the special mean-
ings of some of the modals.into the general discussion on indirect instruc-
tions. The ways the definite article is used (and abused) in instructions can
either be brought early into the discussion or it can be left until later and
treated separately or, because of its difficulty for the non-native student,
be brought into initial discussions and treated separately as well. How-
ever the teacher chooses to handle the definite article, as much time as can
be spared should be allowed for it.
Sets of instructions bring into focus the two lexical problems of sub-
technical vocabulary and noun compounds. First, as noted in the com-
ment for example 7.1, writers assume that the reader knows the
specialized meanings of the sub-technical words and compounds used;
and second, writers tend to change the function of a word or use a word
(or the words making up a noun compound) with meanings not in any
dictionary (and possibly never to be in a dictionary because only by that
writer and only in that document do we find the word, or words, used in
that particular way).

10.6.5 Visual-verbal relationships

The rhetoric of visual—verbal relationships is discussed briefly in chapter
3, sub-section 3.2.3 and more fully in chapter 7, section 7.6. Chart 7.7,
pp. 103-4, summarizes the information the reader should receive from
the text accompanying a visual, and chart 7.8, p. 104, provides a ‘rule
of
thumb’ for the writer to use when locating a visual in relation to its
text.
These lists are best used at different times during the discussion of the
visual—verbal relationships rather than introduced all at once.
The text
information summarized in chart 7.7 provides a sound basis for begin-
ning the discussion; the ‘Rules for placement of visuals’ can then be
saved
until the discussion dealing with placement is reached. Since this
is a
problem of production rather than of reading, this topic most
often
comes up in relation to assignments in which the students are
asked to
write the text for visuals or to roughly sketch visuals to fit
given texts and,
in both cases, to state where they would place the visuals
in relation to the
texts and to justify their placements.
It is not the purpose of the English teacher to train the non-na
tive (or
158
10.6 Teaching the rhetorical functions

native) reader in understanding the more difficult visuals, such as sche-

matics, flow charts, some types of graphs, etc. That task should be left to
the teachers of the technical courses where such visuals are studied and
sometimes produced. The concern of English teachers, is the information
that a visual plus its text gives the reader and what the physical (loca-
tional) relationships of the visual and text should be. (This helps readers
locate visuals and it helps writers determine where to locate them.) Chart
7.7 provides the first and chart 7.8, the second.
As we can see from the discussion of the examples in section 7.6, a
major value of teaching the rhetoric of visual—verbal relationships is that
a piece of text and its visual between them illustrate many of the rheto-
rical techniques and all of the other rhetorical functions, thus providing a
kind of general revision along with new information. Looking at example
7.15 again, we can see that the text begins with a definition by function
(although not stated precisely in defining terms) and goes on to give us
physical and function description, classification on two levels, and parti-
tion. The visual also gives us partition by illustrating some of the named
parts. Examples 7.16, p. 108, and 7.17, p. 109, illustrate one way in
which sets of instructions (indirect in example 7.16; direct in example
7.17) can be clarified by a related visual. Such texts and their visuals also
use causality and result, time order (especially in a set of instructions),
and space order (with stress on spatial relationships). In addition, visuals
are, by the nature of their function in the discourse, examples of what is
being described in their accompanying texts.
Chart 10.6 illustrates an apparently simple individualized assignment
for visual—verbal relationships. However, the assignment can be difficult
for those students whose fields of study contain few visuals. We usually
suggest that these students go to a related field or to a ‘hobby’, if the
discourse for either should contain more visuals than their own subject-
matter areas. If this approach fails, the students can be given several
sample paragraphs with instructions to choose the required examples
from them and then to make detailed analyses.

CHARTIO.6 SAMPLEINDIVIDUALIZED ASSIGNMENT:

VISUAL—VERBAL RELATIONSHIPS

Find examples of the following types of visuals and their texts:

1. avisual with a text that explains the development of the visual (that
is, discusses the gathering and use of the data the visual is based
on);
_ avisual that has its text in the caption that is part of the visual;
. avisual with its text incorporated in it;
_ atext
WP that contains all four pieces of ‘text information’. Identify
each clearly in your analysis.

159
Teaching the rhetorical process

The grammatical problems found with description and instructions are

also present in the texts that accompany visuals as these texts are simply
discourse units expressing one or more of the rhetorical functions. A brief
example is the text of example 7.18, pp. 110-11, which illustrates incon-
sistent use of the definite article along with unwieldly strings of noun
compounds.
In addition to discussion of these particular problems, the shifts in
tense that occur in the texts of visuals should be pointed out and com-
mented on. As noted in chapter 8, sub-section 8.5.2, there is more of the
‘temporal’ element in tense shift in texts accompanying visuals than there
is in such shifts in passages of description: gathering data and creating the
visual are described in the past tense because these operations are over
and done with. The reference to the visual itself, telling the reader when to
look at it, is in the present tense as is the discussion that tells the reader
what to look for and why this particular information is important. From
the readers’ point of view it is ‘time now’ when they are asked to look at
and read about the visual, thus the temporal factor is definitely involved
in the writer’s choice of tense.
Visual_verbal relationships are a very useful tool to exploit when
teaching reading or when transferring the teaching emphasis to writing.
For reading, modified individualized assignments work very well: the
students are asked to bring examples of texts and visuals that illustrate
the various rhetorical features — perhaps those that need to be studied
further — these are examples accompanied by analyses focusing on para-
graph structure, rhetorical techniques used, and rhetorical functions
chosen, along with a discussion of how well the sample text fulfills the
conditions laid down in charts 7.7 and 7.8. (The difficulty with this type
of assignment is that complex visuals are troublesome to reproduce unless
photocopying equipment is available and affordable. In cases where it is
not, students can be asked to bring either a) a rough sketch indicating the
main points of the visual or b) a description of the visual.)
When the students are ready for writing, the number of possible exer-
cises is limited only by the time available. In addition to the exercises
relating to the placement of visuals discussed above, students can be
asked to make the texts accompanying their visuals define or classify or
describe, etc., or they can be asked to design a visual that would require a
text to perform one or more of the rhetorical functions and/or rhetorical
techniques. In asking for a visual to be designed, the teacher can expect a
good deal of rough work (although engineering students on the whole
seem quite capable artists). The quality of a visual obviously should not
be our concern; but however rough, the visual should give us the informa-
tion we need so that it plus the accompanying text add up to a meaningful
unit of discourse.
At this stage very useful — and often interesting — exercises can be

160
10.7 Teaching the rhetorical-grammatical relationships

developed around having the students work in pairs or, if the situation is
favorable, having them work in larger groups. Whether we are dealing
with pairs of students or groups of three or four, we try to avoid having
any two students who share the same native language work together, thus
requiring them to discuss their work in English. In those cases where the
students are all from the same country (or if we are teaching in a non-
English-speaking country) we try to group the students according to their
ability in English; that is, where possible we avoid putting together
students whose levels of English vary too greatly. (The result of having a
‘good’ student in with less qualified students is usually that the ‘good’
student does most of the work!)
Once we have pairs, or groups, we can assign several exercises. For
example, we ask one student to prepare (or choose from a printed source)
a visual. The other student (or other members of the group) then writes a
caption and a text to go with the visual. The first student then determines
the placement of the visual in relation to the text. If we are working with
pairs, we have the students reverse their roles; if we are working with
groups, we have each member in turn choose a visual and, once the text is
written, determine placement. Work of this type can be done in work-
shops or, with residential students, as outside assignments. The latter,
however, can carry the danger of having assistance provided by a native
speaker.

10.7 Teaching the rhetorical—-grammatical relationships

The rhetorical-grammatical relationships are discussed in detail in

chapter 8 and are also noted above in the pertinent sub-sections on
teaching the rhetorical functions. If we have treated the related grammar
when we presented each rhetorical function as suggested above in sub-
section 10.6.1, then at this stage we need bring in only those grammatical
points the students did not fully understand. If we have followed the
alternative procedure suggested (also in sub-section 10.6.1), then we
should devote some time to each of the grammatical elements discussed
briefly with the discussions of the rhetorical functions. How much time
should be spent on each grammatical point is, of course, determined by
how well the students seemed to understand the point when it was made
in conjunction with its related rhetorical function. As a generalization, |
can say that the passive-stative distinction is usually grasped quite
quickly, as is the non-temporal use of tense in description and in visual-
—-verbal relationships. The definite article, on the other hand, remains a
problem that many students never seem to solve, and we have often given
it more than one extra class hour.
Chart 10.7 is a composite sample individualized assignment for the
161
Teaching the rhetorical process

rhetorical-grammatical relationships. Depending on when the discussion

of a given grammatical element takes place, this assignment may be
broken into several parts and used during the study of a particular func-
tion. (The reason for the assignment being so long is given in the com-
ments in square brackets at the end of the chart.)

CHARTIO.7 SAMPLE INDIVIDUALIZED ASSIGNMENT:

RHETORICAL— GRAMMATICAL RELATIONSHIPS

In your subject-matter reading find examples of the following:

1. Find a paragraph of description that uses mostly stative verb
forms.
2. Find aparagraph of description that uses mostly passive verb
forms.
3. Find a set of instructions which ‘misuses’ the definite article either
by omitting it when it should be used or by using it when the ‘rules’
Say that another form of the article (the indefinite article or zero
article) should be used.
4. Find aset of instructions that illustrates the ‘special’ uses of
the
modal ‘should’. If possible, your paragraph should also contain
the
special uses of ‘can’ and/or ‘may’.
(Suggestion: For sets of instructions look at some of the manuals in
engineering or science laboratories, especially those written to
accompany purchased laboratory equipment.)
5. Find a paragraph of description that uses mostly the present
tense.
6. Find a paragraph of description that uses mostly the past
tense.
7. Find a text that uses the past tense to explain how the data was
gathered for the visual that the text relates to and also how the
data
was used to make the visual.
8. Find a text that uses the present tense when telling the reade
rto look
at the visual and when discussing its relationship to the subject
being illustrated by the visual. (Your texts can be attached to
or
separate from their visuals.)

[Because we are working here with the relationships between the

grammatical elements and the rhetorical functions, there is overlap
with some of the previous individualized assignments. This suggest
s
that if we introduce the grammatical element(s) relating toa
particular function during the discussion of that function we
can also
use some of the individualized grammatical assignments with
(or
immediately after) we give out the assignment for the functio
n being
studied. For that reason we have made the above sample assign
ment
fairly inclusive so that the separate parts can be used
with the
rhetorical function assignments if so desired. ]

Following the final presentation of the grammatica

l elements we find it
fruitful to pause and check to make certain that
not only have the various
162
10.8 Teaching the lexical elements

parts of the process been understood but that their integration is under-
stood as well: that the students see, let us say, the relationships between
definition and classification; that they grasp the relationship between
instructional information and instructions themselves, and that they see
how text and visual work together.

10.8 Teaching the lexical elements

Above I suggested that we stop and check the students’ grasp of the
rhetorical process even though it has not been completely presented.
Although we find the lexical problems discussed in chapter 9 tied in with
the several rhetorical techniques and functions, they were not included
above primarily because they are sufficiently different to need a separate
discussion.
The sub-technical vocabulary can be covered fairly quickly, especially
if students have access to specialist dictionaries (that is, scientific and
technical dictionaries, both mono- and bilingual). Once learners realize
that many ‘common’ words in general English have specialized meanings
in their particular scientific or technical field, they usually have a
minimum of trouble with the sub-technical lexis.
Compounds, however, are a more difficult problem. It is often useful to
cull the students’ individualized assignments for compounds that can be
presented to the class as a whole for analysis and discussion. As noted in
chapter 9, the more complex and very complex types of compounds are
best left out of teaching plans, except, perhaps, for a few demonstrations
of their difficulty, leaving the translations of these to the technical course
teacher. Practice in making analyses of simple and complex compounds is
useful as a basis both for understanding and for producing compounds at
these levels.
A compounding exercise that helps students improve their reading is to
have them create compounds of varying levels of complexity. To prepare
exercises of this type may require the aid of a technical colleague as it
consists of giving the students lists of words from their own fields and
having them make, for example, several two-word and several three-word
compounds. This we find to be an excellent way of making clear to the
students the difference between headword (or head group) and modifiers.
l
The compounds thus made can also be used as bases for an additiona
to take their most complex com-
writing exercise: the students are asked
of defini-
pounds and put them in discourse contexts, writing paragraphs
tion and/or descripti on),
tion (and, if feasible, paragraphs of classifica
using the compounds as the focal points of these paragraphs.
The time
Chart 10.8 illustrates an individualized lexical assignment.
y as it has two section s which
required for this assignment is rather length
163
Teaching the rhetorical process

are usually handed out about a week apart. While the first section could
be given by itself, without the follow-up second assignment the students
would gain little more than practice in using a dictionary. It is our experi-
ence that both parts are necessary if the assignment is to be of much help
to the students.

CHARTIO.8 SAMPLEINDIVIDUALIZED ASSIGNMENT:

LEXICAL WORK

Assignment |
From your subject-matter reading find the following terms:
1. Find five nouns whose meanings you either do not know or are
uncertain of.
2. Find three sub-technical terms; that is, terms whose common
meanings (usuallthe
y first meaning given ina general English
dictionary) do not fit the context in which you find the term.
3. Find six noun compounds, at least two of which are three-word
compounds and the remainder are two-word compounds. .
4. Note: This part of the assignment is not required. Find up to five
four-word (or longer) compounds.
Instructions. Do the following for each term that you find:
1. Find the general dictionary definition of the term, choosing the
meaning closest to your field of study (for example, if your field is
biology but the dictionary does not give a ‘biology’ but does give
a
‘botany’ meaning, then choose this).
2. Ifthere is a technical dictionary (an all-English, not a bilingual
,
dictionary) in your field, copy from it the definition of your term that
seems best to fit the context you found the word in.
3. Write the context in which you found the word. Write
atleast one
sentence; write more than one sentence if that is necessary
to
clarify the meaning of your term.

[Note to the teacher: Assume that the students have turned

in their
lists of terms and that these have been gone through and that two
terms from each of the first three categories have been marked
. The
assignments are then returned to the students with the follow
ing
instructions. ]

Assignment II
1. Choose one of the underlined terms from each of the
first three
categories. Using the definitions you have copied from
dictionaries,
write the following:
a) aparagraph that uses your definition as the core
statement in the
form of a formal definition and that is expanded by
explication;
b) aparagraph that uses your definition as the core
statement
(again in the form of a formal definition) and is expan
ded by
description or Classification;

164
10.9 Controlling writing assignments

c) aparagraph with your defined term as the core statement in the

form of a semi-formal definition and with the type of expansion
the one that you feel to be best.
2. Using the other underlined term from each of the three categories,
repeat the assignment given above but with the following changes:
a) one of your definitions is to be semi-formal and the other two
non-formal;
b) your definitions can be the core statements of your paragraphs
but need not be;
c) eachofthe paragraphs can be expanded by whichever way you
think best.

10.9 Controlling writing assignments

If writing beyond the level of practice paragraphs is a goal of the course,

we need to take into consideration the way in which we can direct and
control writing assignments. In fact, even if we are limiting writing to the
paragraph, certain problems need to be looked at.
In a class in which the students are given marks, they are sometimes
tempted to improve these by having native speakers (if available) write
(or help write) out-of-class assignments. As a rule teachers can tell
whether the assignment written out of class is the work of non-native or
native students since each tends to make different types of errors. If, on
the other hand, assignments are to be done in the class then too high a
proportion of time that might well be used in discussion is being taken up
by workshops. One solution to this problem is for the teacher to decide
how much time can be given to workshops and then either tailor the
writing assignments to fit this amount of time or save the time for in-class
revision of outside assignments. For example, if students are bringing in
work that has obviously received outside help, they can be asked to write
similar paragraphs in class.
We put writing assignments into the three general categories of con-
trolled, semi-controlled, and uncontrolled, depending on how much time
the teacher spends with the students while they are writing. Here, | am
referring to writing assignments beyond the paragraph in length:
assignments, for instance, such as the term paper or the end-of-term essay.
The primary purpose of these assignments is not to determine the depth of
the students’ knowledge on certain topics but to determine how well they
can integrate the rhetorical, grammatical, and lexical concepts that they
have learned. Hopefully, they can put this knowledge into a coherent
their
piece of prose that also manages to say something in relation to
subject-matter interests.
165
Teaching the rhetorical process

The uncontrolled assignment

An uncontrolled assignment is exactly what it sounds like: the students
are turned loose and told to write a paper and to hand this paper in at a
given time. This procedure is related to the individualization concept
only in that the students have to choose topics within the limits of their
fields of study or of interest. Papers of this type are usually judged only on
the final result; thus the obvious danger that someone with a greater
knowledge of English may help write, or may edit, the paper.

The semi-controlled assignment

A semi-controlled assignment is individualized in that the students
choose their own topics (often from a list prepared by the teacher) and
they choose their sources and select data from these sources with little, if
any, outside assistance. Using this data, the students write their own
initial drafts. Control is exercised by the teacher vetting the topics once
they are chosen and by requiring information in advance: an outline or an
abstract or both at different times during the writing process. By vetting
the topics chosen and by requiring an outline and/or an abstract, teachers
can avoid situations such as being given papers from postgraduates (or
even advanced undergraduates) written originally for their technical
classes. While such papers may contain as many non-native errors as
those written on a lower technical level (or even more errors than usual as
the students wrestle with involved concepts), for the majority of English
teachers, trying to correct them can (and usually does) mean that numer-
ous errors will be missed. [This may sound nonsensical, but not having a
‘deep’ enough background in a subject can cause a teacher to overlook a
‘misused’ preposition — ‘to’ may sound as logical in a given place as, say,
‘for’; a non-defining relative may appear perfectly acceptable when
a
defining relative is required, etc.]
Some students may be qualified in terms of subject-matter knowledge
to write about highly technical topics (even though they may not be so
qualified in terms of writing acceptable English), but the majority
of
students in the undergraduate classroom will hardly have the same
subject-matter knowledge to draw on. By vetting the topic and requiri
ng
an outline or abstract (even if it is only a preliminary one), teachers
can
keep the students from trying to write papers too ambitious in terms
of
topic. They can also control to a degree the length of the papers,
thus
avoiding the all too common problem of students working in areas
that
require far more writing than they have been assigned or, for
that matter,
have the time for.
Assuming that the topic and its length are under control and
that
checking the outline and abstract have resulted in guidance in
organiz-
ation and content, the teacher may still find it expedient to have
a draft of
166
10.9 Controlling writing assignments

the paper written under supervision and corrected before the final paper is
attempted. Despite the precautions listed above, many teachers will find
themselves faced with papers that are beyond their knowledge of a
subject, as even teachers with some science background cannot be ex-
pected to have an in-depth knowledge of all the subject areas represented
by their students. The solution to this problem is to ask a colleague in
science or technology for help whenever there is a suspicion that an error
might have been overlooked because of the reader’s lack of comprehen-
sion of the subject matter. (We have more than once been surprised to find
how pleased many Engineering College colleagues are to parade their
knowledge before a teacher of English, especially when that knowledge
relates to bits of ‘grammar’.)

The controlled assignment

The completely controlled assignment allows the students minimal
freedom to work on their own by monitoring virtually every step in the
writing process. Unfortunately it uses a good deal of class time. It does
not, as might seem the case, take away the element of individualization of
the assignment as the students are still working in their own subject-
matter areas and at their own levels of language ability. Among the
advantages are those of control of topic, of organization and of the actual
use of the data gathered, along with guidance of the writing itself, from
the preliminary through the final draft. Every step taken by the student in
the writing process is under supervision except that of actually gathering
the data (in addition to libraries, sources for technical papers are most
often laboratories, field studies, and information from ‘experts’). A step-
by-step procedure for controlling writing assignments to the extent given
here is in chart 10.9. This is a combination of a suggested handout for the
students and a set of comments for the guidance of the teacher. These
comments have been put in square brackets.’

CHARTIO.9 PROCEDURE FOR WRITING ASSIGNMENTS

1. Submit your topic for approval; include a brief statement as to the

depth of coverage planned and the probable length of the work. If
feasible at this stage, you should also submit some possible
sources.

[The topics can come either directly from the student or can be froma
list developed by the teacher. For lower-level classes (lower in the
sense of subject-matter training and/or of ability in English), the
second procedure is recommended. Should there be difficulty in
preparing a list, a useful technique is to have the students suggest
titles; another is to go to those teachers who represent the subject-

167
Teaching the rhetorical process

matter areas of the students and ask for topics. (The danger here is
that this list may end up containing topics beyond the students’
abilities.)]

2. Once your topic is approved, find your main sources for data (if you
have not already done so) and do some preliminary reading. (An
encyclopedia is often useful at this stage in your research.)
From this preliminary reading, make an outline that shows your
main topics, main sub-topics, and such detail as you may have in
mind at this point. Be sure that the outline reveals your
organizational pattern and shows that you plan to use as many of
the rhetorical functions as your topic allows, and where in the paper
you plan to put these. (Unless your paper calls for instructions, this
function will probably not be represented. However, all of the other
functions we have studied should be used as often as possible
within the logic of the paper.) When this outline is returned to you,
revise it on the basis of suggestions and corrections made and
resubmit it.
Include with the outline the sources you used to prepare it. Be
sure that the information on your sources is complete. Add any
possible additional sources you plan to use (or that you think you
might use).

[The outline is the first real control point. Although checking it

(sometimes two and three times) is time consuming, making sure that
the students have sound outlines to work from can save time later.
This is also a good place to check the submitted list of sources — for
completeness and to determine if some students have chosen sources
too difficult to comprehend. ]

3. Once the outline is approved, go to the sources you have listed

and
get your data down on paper. You may use any form you wish (note
form, outline form, etc.) to record the data. But please make
sure
that your handwriting is legible! (If your original notes have
been
scribbled or written in a hurry, copy them before handing them in.)
The source for each piece of data must be shown with that data.
If
you are asked to make additions (such as getting more informat
ion
on agivenarea), do so as quickly as possible so that your work
will
not be outof step with the rest of the group.

[The data, like the outline and the sources, may need modifying
before the students can use it in papers written at the levels we are
concerned with here. In our experience, the greatest problem
s with
data gathered by students are: 1. They gather much more data
than
they can use. 2. They do not differentiate between
generalizations and
the specific supporting information for the generalizations.
This
leads to uneven organization as well as overloads of data
in their
168
10.9 Controlling writing assignments

papers. 3. Despite all of the teacher’s efforts, students will gather data
far too technical for the level of their paper. ]

4. When your data is returned, you will be asked to use it to write a

preliminary draft of your paper. This writing will be done in the
classroom under supervision. If the drafts cannot be finished in one
class session, the papers will be collected and returned to be
finished at the next meeting. No work done outside and brought to
the class will be accepted.

[It is possible, of course, for the students to take their drafts away —
once these have been gone over and marked for errors and other
weaknesses — and revise them. However, this defeats the purpose of
the controlled assignment — total supervision. To be sure of complete
control, the teacher should make certain that step 5 is followed. ]

5. Youwill continue to write in class, under supervision, until your

paper is acceptable in terms of your use of English as well as of
organization and content. When you submit the final version, it must
also include your sources put in formal bibliographic form. You
should also include your preliminary draft(s), outline(s) and the data
you worked from.

[If step 5 is not followed and revisions are made outside the
classroom, then all data, drafts, etc. should be submitted with the
final version. There are two advantages to this compromise: 1. It
leaves more time in class for other matters. 2. It may reach you ina
much more readable condition than it would if written wholly in the
class — it may even be typewritten! It is also possible to accept a final
paper and then have the student take it away and recopy it so that it
will be more legible.
Whichever procedure is followed, the teacher should always keep
as many drafts, notes, etc. as possible. Only that maferial the student
needs to do a final draft and that the teacher wants in ‘readable’ form
shoud be taken out of the classroom. |

The advantages to be gained from exercising as much control over writing

assignments as time permits can be summarized as follows:
1. It teaches the students research techniques and stresses the importance
of logical organization of data.
ye It helps students learn to select from a mass of data and it helps them
understand the difference between a generalization and its specific
support (which, of course, carries them directly back to the rhetoric of
the paragraph and core statements).
3. It is, in a sense, a review of the entire rhetorical process since under
supervision the students can be directed in using the appropriate

169
Teaching the rhetorical process

rhetorical techniques and rhetorical functions as they develop their

papers.
For those teachers working in an English-speaking environment
completely controlling a writing assignment provides an additional
advantage: it prevents students having their papers revised (or edited — or
even written) by a native speaker of English. I have heard teachers say that
their students would never do such a thing! Perhaps not, but our experi-
ence (along with that of a good many other EST teachers we have spoken
to) is that some students can be tempted to improve their class standing by
having native-speaker assistance with outside writing assignments. (This
is especially true in those classes in which term marks are given.) Asa rule,
experienced teachers can tell whether assignments written outside class
are the work of non-native or native students since each tends to make
different types of errors. If there is a suspicion that some students are
bringing in work that has received outside help (and this can often occur
with early assignments as well as with the later ones), having similar
paragraphs written in class quickly shows up tell-tale differences.

10.10 Conclusion

As we learned early in our work, the most valuable element in teaching

the rhetorical process is the example. Both labeled and unlabeled
examples not only provide a basis for discussion and for checking student
progress, they also give the students something concrete to take from the
class; something that they can study in their own time and can use when
they are reviewing for examinations or use when preparing papers,
whether for the English class or for other courses at a later date.
In this book, as many examples have been included as space has
allowed. Most have been classroom tested and can still be used whether
they are ‘timely’ or not. As pointed out in chapter 2, section 2.2, not all of
the examples chosen are ‘current’, nor are there many designed strictly for
use with students in one particular field of science or technology; thus,
most of them can be used when applying the teaching procedure we have
called ‘parallelism’ (chapter 4, section 4.4).

170
Notes

Chapter1 Introduction

L: When our program started, Larry Selinker was a member of the University of
Washington Department of Linguistics and Director of the English as a
Second Language program. Until recently he was Director of the English
Language Institute and Professor of Linguistics at the University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor. Recently he has given up the post of Director in order to devote his
time and energy to teaching and research in linguistics.
. At the time referred to, John Lackstrom was a graduate student in linguistics
at the University of Washington. Formerly Director of The Intensive English
Institute, and Associate Professor in the Department of Linguistics, Utah State
University, Logan, Utah, he is currently Professor of Linguistics at the same
institution.
. Robert Bley-Vroman, also a graduate student in linguistics at the University of
Washington, has been Director of Studies at the English Language Institute of
the University of Michigan and is presently a member of the Department of
Linguistics at the University of Texas, Austin. He and Larry Selinker are
currently working together on language research.
. While Thomas Huckin came somewhat later into the program (also as a
graduate student in Linguistics at the University of Washington), he con-
tributed equally to its development. Although taking his postgraduate degrees
in linguistics, Dr Huckin turned his efforts to research in scientific and
technical English and to teaching it to both native and foreign engineering
students. Until recently at the University of Michigan, he is now Associate
Professor at Carnegie—Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

Chapter3 Therhetoric of EST discourse

L. The best source for information on organization of technical material and for
information on headings and sub-headings is a good technical writing book.
Those we have found most helpful are listed in ‘Further reading’.
. For the term ‘core’ we are indebted to Emeritus Professors J. W. Souther and
M. L. White of the Humanistic-Social Studies Department of the College of
Engineering, University of Washington (Seattle). As far as we have been able
to determine, they introduced the term in the 1950s while lecturing on
technical writing to a group of professional engineers.
_ The basic work on this way of categorizing the rhetorical techniques was also
done by Professors Souther and White. This concept of patterns — natural and
wal
Notes

logical — as applied to the relating and developing of ideas in written EST

discourse was first published in J. W. Souther, Technical Report Writing (New
York, Wylie, 1957), pp. 33-5, and refined in J. W. Souther and M. L. White,
Technical Report Writing, second edition (New York, Wylie, 1977), pp.
39-40.
4. When the term ‘paragraph’ is used without qualification (such as ‘physical’ or
‘conceptual’ paragraph), conceptual paragraph is to be understood.

Chapter4 The individualizing process

1. For a somewhat different approach to ‘parallelism’ see Henry Widdowson on

‘gradual approximation’: in ‘The Communicative Approach and its Applica-
tion’, English for Specific Purposes: An International Seminar (The British
Council, Bogota, Colombia, 17-22 April 1977), pp. 23-33; and in ‘Gradual
Approximation’, Explorations in Applied Linguistics (Oxford University
Press, 1979), pp. 75-88.
2. Although the subject may seem a quite different one, the techniques used in the
‘simulation’ approach to this type of teaching are often quite closely related.
The relationships between simulation and the use of ‘genuine’ materials (and,
to a lesser extent, the other types of materials discussed) can be seen in Ken
Jones’s discussion of ‘simulation’: particularly pp. 4-15 in Ken Jones, Simul-
ations in Language Teaching (New Directions in Language Teaching, Cam-
bridge University Press, 1982), where he provides this definition ‘A simulation
is reality of function in a simulated and structured environment’, and then
goes on to relate simulations to language, communication skills, motivation,
and realism. We might point out here that the individualized approach is in
large part a simulation technique in that it provides a simulated, structured
environment for an approach whose essence is ‘reality’.
3. The copyright law allows a reader to make a single copy of part of a book (or
other publication) for purposes of private study. We can say, then, that
in
general the students may make single copies of short excerpts from their
subject-matter reading; however, it is always safest to check the local position
on copyright before allowing the students to photocopy any copyrighted
materials. Further, the law does not allow the making of multiple copies
of
extracts. When the law is scrupulously followed in this regard, ‘genuine’
materials cannot be made in quantity and handed out but must be copied
individually by each student. Thoroughly adapted and synthesized materials
should not come under the same restrictions; however, again it is important
to
check before proceeding.

Chapter7 Therhetorical functions

1. This analysis was first made by R. Mary Todd Trimble and

presented by her in
a paper entitled ‘Literary Training and the Teaching of EST
to Non-Native
Speakers’ at the Fourth International Congress of Applied Linguist
ics (AILA),
Stuttgart, August 1975. A revised version of the paper
was published in
172
Notes

English Teaching Forum, 15 (1977), 11-15, under the title ‘Literary Training
and the Teaching of Scientific and Technical English’. The original version has
been distributed since 1976 by the ESL Newsletter published by the English
Language Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon.
2. This approach to visuals was first suggested by Professor J. W. Souther in his
text, Technical Report Writing (see note 3, chapter 3), pp. 39-42. The concept
was expanded in the second edition: J. W. Souther and M. L. White, Technical
Report Writing (see note 3, chapter 3), pp. 42-9.

Chapter8 Rhetorical-grammatical relationships

1. These modals are discussed in all general reference grammars of English. The
following list includes those we have found to be among the most interesting.
The order does not indicate priority of any kind; it is alphabetic: L. G.
Alexander, W. Stannard Allen, R. A. Close and R. J. O’Neill, English Gram-
matical Structure (London: Longman, 1975), pp. 94ff; P. Christopherson and
A. O. Sandved, An English Grammar (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1969), pp.
200ff; R. A. Close, A Reference Grammar for Students (London: Longman,
1975), pp. 267ff; R. A. Close, English as a Foreign Language (Boston, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1962), pp. 118-19, revised 1981 and published by
Allen and Unwin, London, pp. 118ff; Norman Coe, A Learner’s Grammar of
English (London: Nelson, 1980), pp. 108ff; Sandra McKay and Lisa
Rosenthal, Writing for a Specific Purpose (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall, 1980), pp. 102ff; Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum,
Geoffrey Leech and Jan Svartvik, A Grammar of Contemporary English
(London: Longman, 1972), pp. 100ff.
2. Two EST books that deal with the subject of modals are: J. R. Ewer and G.
Latorre, A Course in Basic Scientific English (London: Longman, 1969), pp.
73-74 and 91, and John Swales, Writing Scientific English (London: Nelson,
1971), pp. 47ff. A useful article covering the use of the modals ‘can’ and ‘may’
in EST is by John Lackstrom, “Teaching Modals in EST Discourse’ in English
for Specific Purposes: Science and Technology, ed. Mary Todd Trimble, Louis
Trimble and Karl Drobnic (Corvallis, Oregon: English Language Institute,
Oregon State University, 1978), pp. 53-73.
3. Thomas N. Huckin and Leslie A. Olsen, English for Science and Technology:
A Handbook for Non-Native Speakers (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983), pp.
429-40.
4. Geoffrey Leech and Jan Svartvik, A Communicative Grammar of English
(London: Longman, 1975), pp. 131ff.
5. There has not been a great deal of research into the problems non-native
speakers have with the English articles, especially the definite article. The
most useful recent work has been done by Thomas N. Huckin and Leslie A.
Olsen, who devised a new (and successful) method of teaching the articles to
non-native students. This is presented in English for Science and Technology:
A Handbook for Non-Native Speakers (see note 3 above), chapter 18, pp.
367-88. (This chapter was also published in Lary Selinker, Elaine Tarone and
Victor Hanzeli, eds, English for Academic and Technical Purposes (Rowley,

173
Notes

Mass.: Newbury House, 1981), pp. 165—92. For recent research findings on
the definite article (and their application) see, Mary Todd Trimble and Louis
Trimble, ‘Article Use in Reading Scientific and Technical English Discourse’ in
J. M. Ulijn and A. K. Pugh, eds., Reading for Professional Purposes: Methods
and Materials in Teaching Languages (Leuwen: ACCO, 1985). (Note at the
end of the paper the section ‘References’ for additional sources on the definite
article and related topics.)
. This topic appears to have been subjected to even less research than the
definite article: to our knowledge, only two articles have appeared since the
publication of the initial suggestion in John Lackstrom, Larry Selinker and
Louis Trimble, “Technical Rhetorical Principles and Grammatical Choice’,
TESOL Quarterly, 7 (1973), 127-36. The first of these articles is concerned
with the non-temporal use of tense in respect to reference to past research (this
is dealt with in chapter 8, sub-section 8.5.3): see Sandra Oster, ‘The Uses of
Tense in Reporting Past Literature in EST’, in Selinker et al. (see note 5 above),
pp. 76—90. The second is more general and is really a follow-up of the 1973
article by Lackstrom et al., noted above, and of other, later articles dealing
with the same topic. See Mary Todd Trimble and Louis Trimble, ‘Rhetorical—
Grammatical Features of Scientific and Technical Texts as a Major Factor in
Written ESP Communication’ in Proceedings of the Third European Sym-
posium on LSP, ed. Jorgen Hoedt et al. (Copenhagen: The LSP Centre, Copen-
hagen School of Economics, 1982), pp. 199-216.

Chapter9 Lexical problems in EST discourse

it Many dictionaries do not list the word ‘lexis’, although they do give ‘lexical’,
‘lexicographer’, etc. Our definition comes from the Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English (1978).
2. J. Ronayne Cowan, ‘Lexical and Syntactic Research for the Design of EFL
Reading Materials’, TESOL Quarterly, 8 1974, p. 391.
3: An interesting and useful treatment of noun compounds in EST discourse is in
Ljerka Bartolic, ‘Nominal Compounds in Technical English’, English for
Specific Purposes: Science and Technology, Mary Todd Trimble et al., eds. (see
note 2 for chapter 8), pp. 257-77.

Chapter10 Teaching the rhetorical process

i€ Much of the credit for devising this approach to controlling student writing
assignments belongs to Dr Elaine Tarone of the Department of Linguistics,
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota. She developed her
approach while head of the English as a Second Language program at the
University of Washington, Seattle.

174
Further reading

Books

Altman, Howard B. and C. Vaughan James, Foreign Language Teaching: Meeting

Individual Needs, Pergamon Institute of English, Oxford, Pergamon Press,
1980
British Council, English for Academic Purposes: An International Seminar,
Bogota, Colombia, 1977
Close, R., The Language We Use for Science, London, Longman, 1975
Davies, Florence and Terry Greene, Reading for Learning in the Sciences, Edin-
burgh, Schools Council/Oliver and Boyd, 1984
Grellet, Francoise, Developing Reading Skills: A Practical Guide to Reading and
Comprehension Exercises, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1981
Hoedt, Jorgen and Robin Turner, eds., The World of LSP, Copenhagen, The LSP
Centre, Copenhagen School of Economics, 1981
Hoedt, Jorgen and Robin Turner, eds., New Bearings in LSP, Copenhagen, The
LSP Centre, Copenhagen School of Economics, 1981
Hoedt, Jorgen, Lita Lundquist, Heribert Picht and Jacques Qvistgaard, eds.,
Pragmatics and LSP, Proceedings of the Third European Symposium on LSP
(Copenhagen, 1981), Copenhagen, The LSP Centre, Copenhagen School of
Economics, 1982
Holden, Susan, ed., English for Specific Purposes, Modern English Publications,
1977
James, Gregory, ed., The ESP Classroom—Methodology, Materials, Expecta-
tions, SELMOUS Conference Papers, Exeter, University of Exeter Linguistic
Studies, 1984
Kennedy, Chris and Rod Bolitho, English for Specific Purposes, Essential Lan-
guage Teaching Series, London, Macmillan, 1984
Littlewood, William, Communicative Language Teaching: An Introduction,
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1981
Mackay, Ronald and Alan Mountford, eds., English for Specific Purposes,
London, Longman, 1978
Mackay, Ronald and Joe D. Palmer, eds., Languages for Specific Purposes: pro-
gram design and evaluation, Rowley, Mass., Newbury House, 1981
Mackay, Ronald, Bruce Barkman and R. R. Jordan, eds., Reading in a Second
Language, Rowley, Mass., Newbury House, 1979
McDonough, Jo, ESP in Perspective, A Practical Guide, London, Collins ELT,
1984
Pugh, A. K. and J. M. Ulijn, Reading for Professional Purposes, Studies and
Practices in Native and Foreign Languages, London, Heinemann Educational
Books, 1984

175
Further reading

Pugh, A. K. andJ.M. Ulijn, eds., Reading for Professional Purposes: Methods and
Materials in Teaching Languages, Leuven, Belgium, ACCO, 1985
Robinson, Pauline, E.S.P.: The Current Situation, Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1980
Selinker, Larry, Louis Trimble and Robert Vroman, Working Papers in English
for Science and Technology, Seattle, Washington, College of Engineering,
University of Washington, 1972
Selinker, L., Elaine Tarone and Victor Hanzel, eds., English for Academic and
Technical Purposes: Studies in Honor of Louis Trimble, Rowley, Mass., New-
bury House, 1981
Swales, John and Hassan Mustafa, eds., English for Specific Purposes in the Arab
World, Birmingham, University of Aston Language Studies Unit, 1984
Todd Trimble, Mary, Louis Trimble and Karl Drobnic, eds., English for Specific
Purposes: Science and Technology, Corvallis, Oregon, Oregon State University
Press, 1978
Widdowson, H. G., Teaching Language as Communication, London, Oxford
University Press, 1978
Widdowson, H. G., Explorations in Applied Linguistics, London, Oxford
University Press, 1979

Journals and series containing articles on EST

CILT Reports and Papers, The British Council, London
ELT Documents, The British Council, London
English Language Teaching Journal, Oxford University Press
English Teaching Forum, United States Information Agency, Washington, D.C.
The ESP Journal, American University, Washington, D.C.
ESP Newsletter, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon
ETIC Occasional Papers, The British Council, London
Fachsprache, Wilhelm Braumueller, Vienna
Language Teaching and Linguistics: Abstracts, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge
Reading in a Foreign Language, University of Aston, Birmingham
TESOL Quarterly, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.
World English, Pergamon Press, Oxford

Journal articles based on the University of Washington EST

Program

Larry Selinker, John Lackstrom and Louis Trimble, ‘Grammar and Technical
English’, English as a Second Language: Current Issues, ed. Robert C. Lugton,
The Center for Curriculum Development, Chilton, 1970, pp. 101-33; reprin-
ted in English Teaching Forum, September—October 1972, pp. 3-14; reprinted
in The Art of TESOL, part 2, English Teaching Forum, xi: 3 and 4 (1975),
250-60
Larry Selinker, John Lackstrom and Louis Trimble ‘Technical Rhetorica
l Prin-
ciples and Grammatical Choice’, TESOL Quarterly, vii: 2 (June
1973) ’

176
Further reading

127-36; reprinted in English Teaching Forum, September 1973, pp. 1-7;

reprinted in A TEFL Anthology, United States Information Agency, n.d., pp.
258-63; originally presented as a paper read at the 3rd International Con-
gress of Applied Linguistics [AILA], Copenhagen, Denmark, August 1972
Louis Trimble, ‘Sociolinguistics in the ESL Classroom’ [in Croatian as ‘Sociol-
ingvistika U Razredu’], Strani Jezici, University of Zagreb, Yugoslavia,
Autumn 1974, pp. 166—73 (translated by Vera Andrassy, Institute of Linguis-
tics, University of Zagreb); originally presented as two lectures at a seminar
for Yugoslav teachers of English, Brela, Yugoslavia, October 1973
Larry Selinker, Louis Trimble and Thomas Huckin, ‘An Annotated Biblio-
graphy of Research in Scientific and Technical Language’, Reports 9, The
Yugoslav Serbo-Croatian English Contrastive Project, Institute of Linguistics,
University of Zagreb, Yugoslavia, 1974, pp. 108-18
Larry Selinker and Louis Trimble. ‘Formal Written Communication and ESL’,
Journal of Technical Writing and Communication, iv: 2 (Spring 1974),
81-91; reprinted in English Teaching Forum, xiv: 4 (1976), 22-6 as
‘Scientific and Technical Writing: The Choice of Tense’; this latter version
reprinted in A TEFL Anthology, United States Information Agency, n.d., pp.
269-73; originally presented as a paper read at the Annual Conference of the
TESOL Organization, San Juan, Puerto Rico, May 1973
Larry Selinker, Louis Trimble and Robert Bley-Vroman, ‘Presupposition and
Technical Rhetoric’, English Language Teaching Journal (U.K.), October
1974, pp. 61-5; an earlier draft published in The Trend in Engineering
(University of Washington, Seattle), xxv:2 (April 1973), 22-5
Larry Selinker, Mary Todd Trimble and Louis Trimble, ‘Presuppositional
Rhetorical Information in EST Discourse’, TESOL Quarterly, x:3 (September
1976), 281-90; originally presented as a paper read at the 4th International
Congress of Applied Linguistics [ALIA], Stuttgart, West Germany, August
1975
Louis Trimble, ‘An Approach to Reading Scientific and Technical English’ [in
Croatian as ‘Primjena Znanstveno-Strucne Komunikacye U_ Nastavi
Citanja’], Strano Jezici, 1v:3 (1975), 183-7 (translator not known); revised
and reprinted in Lenguas para Objetivos Especificos, Cuaderno 4 (1977): in
English, pp. 1-15, in Spanish, pp. 16-30 (a special volume of the journal
EDUTEC, Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana, Mexico City, Mexico);
revised version reprinted in English Teaching Forum, xvu1:4 (October 1979),
2-5, 21; originally a paper presented at a joint meeting of the International
Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (IATEFL) and the
Hungarian Academy of Sciences (TIT) Budapest, Hungary, April 1974
Mary Todd Trimble and Louis Trimble, ‘Literary Training and the Teaching of
Scientific and Technical English to Non-Native Speakers’, English Teaching
Forum, xv:2 (April 1977), 11-17 (a revised version of a paper written by
Mary Todd Trimble and presented by her at the 4th International Congress of
Applied Linguistics, Stuttgart, West Germany, August 1975); the published
version was originally a lecture given by Louis Trimble at Sarajevo and at
Skofja Loka, Yugoslavia, September 1975
Mary Todd Trimble and Louis Trimble, ‘The Development of EFL Materials for
Occupational English’; initially published in a shortened version in English for

yy
Further reading

Specific Purposes: An International Seminar, The British Council (Bogota,

Colombia), 1978, pp. 52-70; published in a complete version in English for
Specific Purposes: English for Science and Technology, ed. Mary Todd
Trimble, Louis Trimble and Karl Drobnic, Oregon State University Press,
1979, pp. 74-132; originally presented as a paper read at the British Council
International Latin American Seminar on English for Specific Purposes, Paipa
and Bogota, Colombia, 17—22 April 1977
Larry Selinker, Mary Todd Trimble and Louis Trimble, ‘Rhetorical Function
Shifts in EST Discourse’, TESOL Quarterly, September 1978, pp. 311-20
Mary Todd Trimble and Louis Trimble, ‘The Properties of English for Specific
Purposes’, Proceedings of the Primer Curso Introductorio Sobre Lenguas
para
Objetivos Especificos, CILOE 1, Universidad Autonima Metropolitana
(Xo-
chimilco, Mexico), 1980, pp. 77-112; originally a joint presenta
tion as a
two-day lecture-workshop series at CILOE 1, 11-12 July 1979
Mary Todd Trimble and Louis Trimble, ‘The Rhetoric of Languag
e for Specific
Purposes as a Model for a Description of Communication’,
Fachsprache
(Vienna), Sonderheft 1, Proceedings of the Second European
Symposium on
Languages for Special Purposes, Bielefeld, West Germany, 1981,
pp. 219-235;
originally presented as a paper read at the Second Europea
n Symposium on
LSP, Bielefeld, West Germany, 24-6 September 1979
Mary Todd Trimble and Louis Trimble, ‘Rhetorical-Gramma
tical Features of
Scientific and Technical Texts as a Major Factor in Written
ESP Communi-
cation’, Proceedings of the Third European Symposium
on Languages for
Special Purposes: ‘Pragmatics and LSP”, The LSP Centre,
UNESCO, ALSED
LSP Network and Newsletter, The Copenhagen School
of Economics,
Copehagen, Denmark, 1982, pp. 199-216; originally present
ed as a paper read
at the Third European Symposium on Languages for
Special Purposes, Copen-
hagen, Denmark, 17-19 August 1981
Mary Todd Trimble and Louis Trimble, ‘Article Use
in Written EST Discourse’,
Reading for Professional Purposes: Methods and Materi
als in Teaching Lan-
guages, ed. A. K. Pugh and J. M. Ulijn, ACCO, Leuven
, Belgium, 1985; origin-
ally presented as a paper read at the International Sympo
sium on Reading for
Professional Purposes in Native and Foreign Langua
ges, 2-4 August 1982,
Eindhoven University, Eindhoven, The Netherlands

178
index

academic classes: characteristics 22 ininstructions 121-2

analysis of classes 24 definition 20,75—84
analysis of paragraphs 66—7 typesof 75-84
approach 6-7, 8,22 complex/expanded 81-4;by
exemplification 84;by
Bley-Vroman, Robert 1 explication 83;by
breakdown of ESL fields (chart) 6 operation 82; by
stipulation 81
classification 20,85—95 single sentence/simple 75—80;
basis for 86 formal 75—7;non-
complete 86-9 formal 78—9; semi-
implicit 90-2 formal 77-8
partial 89 determining class make-up 24—5
as process 92—5 discourse see rhetoric
rules for classifying 94 approach see rhetorical approach
types of classes: finite 86; definition 2
infinite 88 discovery procedure 69-70
compounds 130-6
categorized by length and EST (English for Science and
difficulty 133-5 Technology)
rules for analyzing and definition 2,5—6
producing 131-3 early research 1-3
conceptual paragraph 15—16, 45—6 originofterm 2
controlling writing writing, definition 14
assignments 165—70 paragraph see paragraph
core 15—18,45—50
concept 15-18 grammatical—rhetorical relationships
defined 15-16 see rhetorical—-grammatical
placement 47—50 relationships
sub-cores 16,46
correspondence (paragraph) 15,45 Huckin, Thomas 1, 121
one-to-more-than-one 16,46 heterogeneous classes 8, 24—S
one-to-one 17 homogeneous classes 8,24—5

description 20,71—4 individualizing 21,22—43

types 71-2: function 71; definition 23-4
physical 71; process 72 determining class make-up
definite article 121-3 for 24-5
indescription 122-3 process 41-3

179,
Index

individualizing (contd.) EST paragraph, definition 15

types of texts for 27-41; ‘standard’ paragraph, definition 15
adapted 33-8;created 38-41; typesof 47-50; deductive 47-8;
‘genuine’ 27-32; hybrid 50; implicit 50;
synthesized 38—41 inductive 49
instructions 20—1, 95-102 Passives and statives in
grammatical and lexical problems description 115-18
in 100-2 peer writing 5
stylein 98-—9 presupposition 114

Lackstrom, John 1 rhetoric, definition 4, 10

lexis 128, 163-5 rhetorical
categories 133 analysis see discovery procedure
compounds 130-6 approach 3,6, 13,139—42
sub-technical vocabulary 128-9 approach to reading 14
logical patterns/orders 59-65 functions 12, 19-21, 146-61
analogy 63 process 10
causality andresult 58-9 process chart 11
comparison and contrast 62 techniques 13-18, 19,52, 143-6
exemplification 60-3 rhetorical—grammatical
order ofimportance 60 relationships 114, 161-3
visual illustration 64—5
Selinker, Larry 1
modals in instructions 119-20 Spectrum (chart) 6
sub-technical vocabulary 128—9
natural patterns/orders 53-9
causality and result 58—9 teaching the rhetorical
spaceorder 56-8 process 137—70
timeorder 53-6 course pattern for 138—40
non-temporal use of tense 123-7 Todd Trimble, Mary 1
in description 124-5
in reference to previous visual—verbal relationships 102—13
research 126—7 integration of text and
in text for visualaid 125-6 visual 104—5
informal requirements of text for
occupational English 5—6 visual 103-4
organization placement ofvisuals, rules 104
ofinformation 10 and rhetorical process 105-13
of text 8-9
writing 14, 165-70
pairwork 160-1 process (transfer from reading)
parallelism 25-7 14
types of assignments:
application 26-7 controlled 167—70; semi-
definition 25
controlled 166-7;
Paragraph 15,44—51, 142-3
uncontrolled 166

180
CAMBRIDGE LANGUAGE TEACHING LIBRARY
A series of authoritative books on subjects of central importance
to all language teachers.

English for Science and Technology

A discourse approach

This book describes the approach to teaching English for

Science and Technology (EST) developed in extensive teaching
and research by Louis Trimble and his colleagues. The approach
starts from the premise that in order to understand the written
EST found in technical manuals, textbooks, papers, etc., it is
first necessary to have an understanding of the discourse
structure of such texts.
A major feature of the book is the very full description, with
many examples, of the various significant features of EST
discourse, such as types of classification, definition, instruction,
etc. It also covers the problems of dealing with specialized lexis.
The book ends with a chapter describing how a particular
course can be organized and structured.
Teachers will be able to use this book both as a guide to the
whole field of written EST discourse, and as a practical aid to
constructing their own courses, whether for students studying
science and technology in English or for professionals working
in these fields.

Louis Trimble is Professor Emeritus of the University of

NETal late] ColaMmet-r-lil(-WmOhya m (eMar-to oa <-YoMamlalMilel oho};
English for Science and Technology for some 20 years, in
which time he has become an authoritative figure and
published numerous articles and papers. He now lives in
England but still travels extensively as a consultant.

Cambridge University Press

ZLL-9P
ISBN O-S21-27519-4