RAPID REVISION PROGRAMME

CLASS - 1O th
PRASHANT KIRAD
MAHA MARATHON

LIGHT
Reflection and Refraction
Reflection of Light:
The phenomenon of bouncing back of light into the same
medium by the smooth surface is called reflection.
Incident Ray: The incoming ray of light that strikes the surface
is called the incident ray.
Reflected Ray: The ray that bounces off the surface is called
the reflected ray.
Normal: The imaginary line perpendicular to the surface at the
point of incidence is called the normal.
Laws of Reflection :
The laws of reflection describe how light behaves when it encounters a surface and reflects.
Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection
Incident ray, normal at the point of incidence and the
reflected ray all lie in the same plane
These laws are collectively known as the laws of reflection.

Characteristics of a image formed by a Plane mirror

1. The image obtained is virtual.
2. The image is laterally inverted.
3. The image is erect.
4. The size of the image is the same as the size of the object.
5. The distance between the image obtained from the mirror is the same as the distance
between the object from the mirror.
Uses : Solar cookers, periscope used in submarine, and kaleidoscope.
SPHERICAL MIRROR:
Spherical mirrors are mirrors whose reflecting surfaces are part of a sphere. These mirrors
can be either concave or convex, depending on the shape of the reflecting surface.
Types of Spherical Mirrors: Spherical Mirror
Concave Mirror (converging mirror): The reflecting surface of a concave mirror is curved
inward, like the inner surface of a sphere.
Convex mirror (diverging mirror) : The reflecting surface of a convex mirror is curved
outward, like the outer surface of a sphere

IMPORTANT TERMS:
Principal Axis: The imaginary line passing through the center of the mirror, the focal
point, and the object.
Aperture: An aperture of a mirror or lens is a point from which the reflection of light
actually happens
Pole (P): The point of intersection of the aperture
of the mirror and the principal axis is called as the
pole of the mirror.
Center of Curvature (C): The center of the
imaginary sphere of which the mirror is a part.
Radius of curvature (R) : The distance between
the center of curvature and pole of the mirror, is
called as the radius of the curvature.
Focal Point (F): The point where parallel rays of light either converge (concave mirror)
or appear to diverge from (convex mirror).
Focal Length (f): The distance between the mirror's surface and its focal point OR half
of the radius of curvature distance.

focal length = Radius of curvature / 2

RULES TO OBTAIN A IMAGE IN SPHERICAL MIRROR :

A ray passing through the centre of curvature of a

concave mirror or directed in the direction of the
centre of curvature of a convex mirror, after
reflection, is reflected back along the same path.

A ray incident obliquely to the principal axis, towards

a point P (pole of the mirror), on the concave mirror
or a convex mirror, is reflected obliquely. The
incident and reflected rays follow the laws of
reflection at the point of incidence (point P), making
equal angles with the principal axis
IMAGE FORMATION BY CONCAVE MIRROR

1. Position : At Infinity 2. Position : Beyond C

IMAGE FORMATION BY CONCAVE MIRROR

3. Position : At C 4. Position : between C and F

IMAGE FORMATION BY CONCAVE MIRROR
5. Position : At F 6. Position : between F and P
IMAGE FORMATION BY CONCAVE MIRROR

Concave Mirror : The reflecting surface of a concave mirror is curved inward,

like the inner surface of a sphere.
Uses: Shaving mirror, torch, search-lights, in solar furnace and dentists, etc
IMAGE FORMATION BY CONVEX MIRROR

1. Position : Between infinity and

the pole of the mirror

2. Position : Between infinity

and the pole of the mirror
IMAGE FORMATION BY CONVEX MIRROR

Convex mirror : The reflecting surface of a convex mirror is curved outward, like
the outer surface of a sphere.
Uses: Rear-view mirror, torch, as security mirror, etc. Convex mirror gives wider
field of view
SIGN CONVENTION:
SIGN CONVENTION CONCAVE MIRROR CONVEX MIRROR

Positive if on the same side Positive if on the same

as incident light (usually left side as incident light
side) (usually left side)
Object distance (u)
Negative if on the opposite Negative if on the opposite
side of the incident light side of the incident light
(usually right side) (usually right side)

Positive for real images Positive for virtual images

Image distance (v)

Negative for images on the Negative for images on the
opposite side of the incident opposite side of the
light incident light

Negative (focal point on

Positive (focal point on the
Focal length (f) the opposite side of
same side as incident light)
incident light)
MIRROR FORMULA:
The mirror formula is a formula used to calculate the focal length of a spherical
mirror.
f = focal length of the mirror
v = image distance (distance from the mirror to the image)
u = object distance (distance from the mirror to the object)

MAGNIFICATION FORMULA:
It is the ratio of the height of the image produced by the mirror to the height of the
object produced by the mirror

If m>1, the Image size is greater than that of the object and
If m<1, the image size is less than the object size.
If magnification is negative, the image formed is real and inverted.
If magnification is positive, the image formed is virtual and erect
Q. An object is placed at a distance of 8cm from a convex mirror of focal length
12cm. Find nature and position of image.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT:
The phenomenon of bending of ray of light when it enters from
one medium to another.
Incident Ray: The incoming ray of light in the first medium
is called the incident ray.
Refracted Ray: The ray that bends as it enters the second
medium is called the refracted ray.
Normal: As with reflection, the normal is an imaginary line
perpendicular to the surface at the point of incidence.

CAUSE OF REFRACTION: The cause of the refraction of light is that light travels at
different speeds in different media. This change in the speed of light when it moves
from one medium to another causes it to bend.
Laws of Refraction:
The incident ray refracted ray, and the normal to the interface of two
media at the point of incidence all lie on the same plane.
The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is constant. This is also known as Snell’s law of refraction.

Refractive index: is a measure of how much light is bent or refracted when it

enters a new medium. It is denoted by the symbol "n."
When taken with respect to a vacuum, it’s known as an absolute refractive index.

The refractive index of

medium 1 w.r.t. medium 2
REFRACTION THROUGH A GLASS SLAB:

Glass is a denser medium while the

surrounding medium usually air is lighter.
When the light passes through the 1 interface
of air-glass it bends towards the normal.
The angle of refraction for 1 st interface is
equal to the angle of incidence for the second
interface since both sides are parallel.
Using Snell's law the final angle of emergence
becomes equal to the angle of incidence.
Hence the emergent ray is parallel to the
incident ray.
There is a lateral displacement in the path of
light.
SPHERICAL LENSES:
Lenses are transparent objects with curved surfaces that refract light, causing it
to converge or diverge.
Two types of Spherical Lens are there: Convex lens and Concave lens.

IMPORTANT TERMS:
Principal Axis: An imaginary line passing through the center of the lens,
perpendicular to its surface.
Aperture: The diameter of the circular outline of a lens is called aperture.
Optical Center (O): The center point of the lens through which the principal axis
passes.
Focus: The point where the rays of light converge or appear to diverge after passing
through the lens
A lens has two principal foci represented by
F1 and F2.
The distance of the optical centre from F1
or F2 represents the focal length (f) of the
lens.
The distance of the optical center from C1
or C2 represents the radius of curvature (R)
of the lens.
The radius of curvature of a spherical lens is
twice the focal length of the lens. That is,
R = 2f
RULES TO OBTAIN A IMAGE IN SPHERICAL LENS
For a convex lens:
A ray of light parallel to the principal axis, after refraction, passes
through the principal focus on the opposite side of the lens.
A ray of light passing through the principal focus, after refraction,
emerges parallel to the principal axis.
A ray of light passing through the optical center of the lens
emerges without any deviation.

For a concave lens:

A ray of light parallel to the principal axis, after refraction, appears
to diverge from the principal focus located on the same side of the
lens.
A ray of light appearing to meet at the principal focus, after
refraction, emerges parallel to the principal axis.
A ray of light passing through the optical center of the lens
emerges without any deviation.
IMAGE FORMATION BY CONVEX LENS
1. Position : At Infinity 2. Position : Beyond 2F1
IMAGE FORMATION BY CONVEX LENS
3. Position : : At 2F1 4. Position : Between F1 and 2F1
IMAGE FORMATION BY CONVEX LENS
5. Position : : At F1 6. Position : Between F1 and O
IMAGE FORMATION BY CONVEX LENS

Convex Lens :A convex lens is thicker in the center than at the edges. Convex
lenses are also known as converging lens.
Uses: cameras, eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, projectors,
microscopes, spotlights, flashlights, and laser systems.
IMAGE FORMATION BY CONCAVE LENS

1. Position :At infinity 2. Position : Between infinity

and optical centre O of the lens
IMAGE FORMATION BY CONCAVE LENS

Concave Lens :A concave lens is thinner in the center than at the edges.
Concave lenses are also known as diverging lense
Uses: diverging light, correcting nearsightedness in eyeglasses, telescopes
SIGN CONVENTION:
PARAMETER DESCRIPTION SIGN CONVENTION

Positive for object on same

Object Measured from
side as incident light, Negative
distance (u) object to lens
for object on opposite side

Positive for image formed on

Image Measured from opposite side of lens, Negative
distance (v) image to lens for image formed on same side
as incident light Distances along the incident light
direction: Positive
Height of the Position relative Positive if above principal axis, Distances opposite to the incident light
object (h) to principal axis Negative if below direction: Negative
Heights measured upward (in the
incident light direction): Positive
Height of the Position relative Positive if above principal axis,
Heights measured downward: Negative
image (h') to principal axis Negative if below
LENS FORMULA:
f = focal length of the mirror
v = image distance (distance from the mirror to the image)
u = object distance (distance from the mirror to the object)

MAGNIFICATION FORMULA:
Ratio of image height to object height.
Interpretation:
m>1: Image enlarged.
0<m<1: Image diminished.
m=1: Image size equals object size.
Negative m: Real and inverted image.
Q. An object is placed at a distance of 10cm from a converging lens of focal length
5cm, find the nature and position of the image
Q. Calculate angle of incidence of light ray incident on surface of a plastic slab of
refractive index V3, if angle of refraction is 30 degree
POWER:
Ability of a lens to converge or diverge light rays is called
power (P).

Power for convex lens : Positive as focal length for convex lens is also
positive.
Power for concave lens : Negative as focal length for concave lens is also
negative.
Q. A concave lens produces an image 20cm from the lens of an object placed 30cm
from the lens. Calculate the power of the lens
1.State the two laws of reflection of light.
(CBSE 2011, 2013 2014)

Laws of reflection of light states that:

(i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
(ii) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the mirror
at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
2.The absolute refractive indices of glass and water are 1.5 and 1.33 respectively. In which
medium does light travel faster? Calculate the ratio of speeds of light in the two media.
(CBSE 2013, 2019, 2020)

Refractive index (RI) if glass is 1.5

Refractive index (RI) of water is 1.33
Now, RI of glass with respect to water = RI of glass/RI of water
= 1.5/1.33 = 1.127
RI of water with respect to glass = RI of water/RI of glass
= 1.33/1.5 = 0.89
Since velocity of light in medium is inversely proportional to its refractive index, the light will
travel faster in optically rarer Medium i.e. water.
3.The image of a candle flame placed at a distance of 30 cm from a mirror is formed on a
screen placed in front of the mirror at a distance of 60 cm from it pole. What is the nature of
the mirror? Find its focal length. If the height of the flame is 2.4 cm, find the height of its
image. State whether the image formed is erect or inverted. (CBSE 2014, 2015, 2017)

Here, u = 30, v = -60

As 1/f = 1/u + 1/v = 1/(-60) + 1/(-30) = -1/20
f = 20, The mirror is concave.
As the image is formed on the screen, it is real and inverted.
From h2/h1 = -v/u = +60/-30 = -2
h2 = -2xh1 = -2 x 2.4 = -4.8 cm
This is the size of inverted image.
4. Draw ray diagram to show the path of the refracted ray in each of the following cases. A
ray of light incident on a concave lens (i) is parallel to its principal axis, (ii) is passing through
its optical centre and (iii) is directed towards its principal focus.(Delhi 2013, CBSE 2015, 2016)

(i) A ray of light incident on a concave lens is parallel to its principal axis, the diagram can be
drawn as follows:

The refracted ray appears to pass through focus on the same side of the lens.
(ii) If a ray of light incident on a concave lens is passing through its optical centre then the
refracted ray will go without deviation.
(iii) If a ray of light incident on a concave lens is directed towards its principal axis then it will
go parallel to principal axis.
5.An object is placed at a distance of 50 cm from a concave lens of focal length 30 cm.
(i) Use lens formula to find the distance of the image from the lens.
(ii) List four characteristics of the image(nature, position, size, erect/inverted) formed by the lens in this
case.
(iii) Draw a ray diagram to justify your answer of pair (ii).(CBSE 2016, 2019)
Object distance, u = -60 cm
Focal length of the lens, f = -30 cm
Step 2: Finding the image distance using the lens formula:
Using the lens formula, we get
1/f = 1/v -1/u
1/v = 1/f + 1/u
1/v = 1/(-30) + 11/(-60)
1/v = 1/-20
v = -20cm
Thus, the distance of the image from the lens is 20 cm.
5.An object is placed at a distance of 50 cm from a concave lens of focal length 30 cm.
(i) Use lens formula to find the distance of the image from the lens.
(ii) List four characteristics of the image(nature, position, size, erect/inverted) formed by the lens in this
case.
(iii) Draw a ray diagram to justify your answer of pair (ii).(CBSE 2016, 2019)

ii) The four characteristics of the image formed by the lens in this case
are:
The image formed is virtual as the given lens is a concave lens.
The image is erect as it formed above the principal axis.
3. Image is diminished (smaller than the object).
4. Image is formed at a distance of 20 cm from the optical centre
of the concave lens on the same side of the object.
HUMAN EYE
and the colourful world
PARTS DESCRIPTION

Cornea It is the front bulged out transparent portion of the eyeball. Light enters this thin membrane of the eye.

It is a watery liquid filled in the space between the cornea and lens of the eye, its function maintaining pressure and providing
Aqueous Humour
nutrients to the cornea and lens.

Iris The colored part of the eye that controls the size of the pupil and, therefore, the amount of light that enters.

Pupil The black circular opening in the center of the iris that allows light to enter the eye.

Retina The inner lining at the back of the eye containing photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) that convert light into electrical signals.

Optic Nerve The bundle of nerve fibers that carries visual information from the retina to the brain.

Eye Lens A transparent structure behind the iris that focuses light onto the retina.

Sclera The tough, white outer covering of the eye that helps maintain its shape.

Vitreous Humour The gel-like substance that fills the space between the lens and the retina, providing structural support to the eye.

Ciliary Muscles Adjust the focal length of the lens.

POWER OF ACCOMMODATION
The power of accommodation of the eye is the maximum variation of this power for
focusing on near and far(distant) objects. This is done by changing the curvature of
the eye lens. Eyes loses its power of accommodation at old age.

Near point: The minimum distance at which

objects can be seen most distinctly without strain
is called near point of the eye. It is 25 cm for a
normal human eye.

Far point: The farthest point up to which the eye

can see object clearly is called the far point of the
eye. It is infinity for a normal eye
Q. Why do we have two eyes for vision and not just one?

A human being has a horizontal field of view of about 150° with one eye and of
about 180° with two eyes. So, two eyes give a wider field of view. The ability to
detect faint objects is enhanced with two eyes. Our eyes are separated by a few
centimetres and each eye sees a slightly different image. Our brain combines the
two images into one tells us how close or far away things are. Keeping both the
eyes open provides the third dimension of depth
MYOPIA Defects of vision and their correction
It is also known as nearsightedness.
A person with myopia can see nearby objects clearly but cannot see distant objects
distinctly.
Its far point is nearer than infinity.
Image is formed before retina in a myopic eye

Causes:
Excessive curvature of the eye lens.
Elongation of the eyeball.

Remedy:
It can be correct by using a concave lens of suitable power. It will bring back image on retina.
Defects of vision and their correction
HYPERMETROPIA
It is also known as farsightedness.
A person with this can see distant objects clearly but cannot see
nearby distinctly.
It’s near point more than 25 cm. Image is formed behind retina

Causes:
It is also known as farsightedness.
A person with this can see distant objects clearly but cannot see
nearby distinctly.
It’s near point more than 25 cm. Image is formed behind retina
Remedy:
It can be correct by using a convex lens of suitable power. It will bring back image on retina
MAHA MARATHON
PRESBYOPIA Defects of vision and their correction
The power of accommodation of the eye usually decreases with
ageing. It is also known as old age hypermetropia.
It is the eye defect due to which an aged person fails to see
nearby objects clearly due to shifting of his distance of distinct
vision more than 25 cm.

Causes:
Weakening of ciliary muscles with age.
Lack of flexibility of the eye lens.
Remedy:
This defect can be corrected by using bifocal or varifocal lenses which consist of both convex
and concave lenses. The upper portion consists of a concave lens (for myopia) and lower
portion consists of convex lens (for hypermetropia).
PRASHANT KIRAD

Defects of vision and their correction

ASTIGMATISM
In this defect, a person cannot focus on both horizontal as well as vertical lines at the same
time so the person can see objects clearly only in one plane.
Causes:
Irregularly shaped cornea or distorted lens
Remedy:
Using cylindrical lens.

CATARACT
It is a condition in which crystalline lens of eye becomes milky and cloudy due to growth of
membrane over it. It generally occurs among people at old age. This causes partial or
complete loss of vision. It is possible to restore vision through a cataract surger
PRISM
IA transparent refracting medium bounded by at least two surfaces inclined to each other at
a certain angle.
DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT BY A GLASS PRISM
Dispersion occurs when white light passes through a prism, splitting it into its constituent
colors, forming a spectrum known as VIBGYOR. In mediums other than vacuum or air, light
of different colors travels at different speeds, leading to their divergence. Dispersion can be
reversed by recombining the seven colors of the spectrum using two prisms in opposite
orientations, resulting in white light reformation.
RAINBOW

A natural spectrum produced by the dispersion of sunlight by raindrops in the

atmosphere.
Water droplets acts as a small prisms.
Water droplets refract and disperse the incident sunlight then refract internally and
finally refract it again when it comes out of the raindrop.

ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION

When refraction takes place between two mediums and if

one of the medium is earth's atmospheric then the
process is known as atmospheric refraction.
EFFECTS OF ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION
Twinkling of Stars
The twinkling effect of stars is due to the atmospheric refraction of starlight. The starlight
undergoes continuous refraction as it passes through the atmosphere before it reaches
Earth. As the path of rays of light coming from the star goes on varying slightly, the
apparent position of the star fluctuates, and the amount of starlight entering the eye
flickers.
Stars seem higher than they actually appear
As the light from a star enters the earth's atmosphere it undergoes refraction and bends
towards the normal each time due to the atmospheric refraction. Therefore, the apparent
position of the star is slightly different from its actual position. The star appears to be
slightly higher than its actual position when viewed near the horizon.
EFFECTS OF ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION
Planets do not twinkle
The planets are much closer to the earth and are considered a collection of a large number
of sized sources of light, the total amount of light entering from all the individual point
sized sources will average out to zero thereby nullifying the twinkling effect.

Advanced sunrise and delayed sunset:

The sun is visible to us two minutes before the actual sunrise and about two minutes after
the actual sunset. This is due to the atmospheric refraction.
SCATTERING OF LIGHT:
Scattering of light, known as the Tyndall effect, occurs when light interacts with
particles in the atmosphere.
1. Blue Sky: The Earth's atmosphere contains small particles like air molecules
and dust. These particles scatter shorter blue wavelengths of light more
effectively than longer wavelengths like red. As a result, when sunlight
passes through the atmosphere, the scattered blue light dominates, giving
the sky its blue color.
2. Sky Appearance: Without atmospheric scattering, the sky would appear
dark, as there would be no dispersed light reaching our eyes. Passengers
flying at high altitudes experience this dark sky effect.
PRASHANT KIRAD

3. Danger Signals: Red is chosen for danger signal lights because it is least
scattered by fog or smoke. This ensures that the signals remain visible
from a distance, even in adverse weather conditions.

4. Sun's Color at Sunrise/Sunset: During sunrise or sunset, sunlight

travels through thicker layers of the atmosphere. Here, shorter blue
wavelengths are scattered away, leaving behind longer wavelengths like
red and orange. This results in the characteristic reddish appearance of
the sun during these times.
A person cannot clearly see objects at a distance more than 40 cm. He is advised
to use lens of what power?
1. What is ‘dispersion of white light’? State its cause. Draw a ray diagram to show the
dispersion of white light by a glass prism.
(CBSE 2011, 2013, 2016, 2017)

Splitting of white light into its seven constituent colors

due to refraction is known as dispersion of white light.
Cause of dispersion: When a beam of white light enters a
prism, it gets refracted and splits into seven constituent
colors. The splitting of the light ray occurs due to the
different bending angle for each color. Thus, each color
ray when passing through the prism bends at different
angles with respect to the incident beam, thus giving rise
to a spectrum.
2. How will you use two identical glass prisms so that a narrow beam of white light incident
on one prism emerges out of the second prism as white light? Draw and label the ray
diagram.
(CBSE 2016, 2017, 2019, 2020)
Newton was the first to use a glass prism to obtain the spectrum of a white light. He
then placed a second identical prism in an inverted position with respect to the first
prism. This allowed all the colors of the white light to pass through the second prism
combining to form a white light emerging
from the other side of the second prism.
This made him believe that white light was
composed of different colors.
3.Draw a ray diagram to show the refraction of light through a glass prism. Mark on it (a) the
incident ray, (b) the emergent ray and (c) the angle of deviation. (CBSE 2011, 2013, 2017)
4. State the function of each of the following parts of human eye:
(i) Cornea
(ii) Iris
iii) Pupil
(CBSE 2013, 2016, 2018)

(i) Cornea: It is a transparent bulge on the front surface of eyeball which refracts most of the
light rays entering the eye.
(ii) Iris : A thin, pigmented structure found in the eye that can regulate the amount of light
that can enter the retina.
(iii) Pupil: Black hole in the centre of the iris of the eye which permits light towards retina.
5.A student is unable to see clearly the words written on the black board placed at a
distance of approximately 3 m from him. Name the defect of vision the boy is suffering
from. State the possible causes of this defect and explain the method of correcting it.
(CBSE 2017, 2018)

The student is suffering from myopia.

The two possible reasons due to which the defect of vision arises are: excessive
curvature of the eye lens and elongation of the eye ball.
A student with myopia has the far point nearer than infinity, thus, the image of a
distant object is formed in front of the retina.
Correction of myopia: This defect can be corrected by using a concave lens of
suitable power as it brings the image back on to the retina, thus the defect is
corrected.
ELECTRICITY
Electric Charge
Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force
when placed in an electromagnetic field. SI Unit : Coulomb (C)

Quantisation of Charge
The smallest charge that can exist in nature is the charge on an electron.
According to charge quantization, any charged particle can have a charge equal to
some integral number of e, i.e.,
Q=ne, where n=1, 2, 3,….
Electrical Substances:

Conductors Semiconductors Insulators

Conductors are those

Semiconductors are materials
substances through which Insulators are those substances
which have a conductivity
electricity can flow are called through which electricity cannot
between conductors (generally
conductors. Some common flow are called insulators. Ex -
metals) and non-conductors or
conductors are copper, Glass, Plastic, Rubber and Wood.
insulators (such as ceramics).
aluminum, gold, and silver

Conductors have free electrons Semiconductors can be Due to very low number of free
on its surface which allow compounds, such as gallium electrons in insulators, they
current to pass through easily. arsenide, or pure elements, such cannot conduct electric current
as germanium or silicon. very easily.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of charge through a cross-section of a
conductor per unit time. It is denoted by I. Electric Current.

SI Unit : ampere (A) or coulomb per second

Electric Potential and Potential Difference

Electric potential is the work done per unit charge to bring the charge from infinity to a
point in an electric field. Potential Difference : The amount of work done required on a
unit positive charge to move it from one potential point to another potential point.

SI Unit : Voltage (V)

Q. A current of 1A is drawn by a filament of an electric bulb . Find the number
of electrons passing through a cross-section of the filament in 16 seconds

Q. How much work is done in moving a charge of 2C from a point of 118V to a

point at 128V?
1 Volt : When 1 Joule of work is done on a unit positive charge to move it from one point
to another point, then potential difference is said to be 1 Volt.

Electric Circuit
An electrical circuit is a closed path of wires and electrical components which allows a
current through it on the application of potential difference between two points in the path.
An electric circuit consists of electric devices, a source of electricity and wires that are
connected with the help of a switch
Circuit Elements
AMMETER AND VOLTMETER

Property Ammeter Voltmeter

Definition Instrument to measure current in a circuit Instrument to measure voltage in a circuit

Connection Connected in series with the circuit Connected in parallel with the circuit

Measurement Measures current Measures voltage

OHM’S LAW:
Ohm's law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to the current
flowing through it, provided all physical conditions and temperatures remain constant.
V ∝I
V = IR
In the equation, the constant of proportionality R, is called Resistance represented by the
symbol Ω.
RESISTANCE:
Resistance is a property of conductor due to which it resists the flow of electric current through it.
By Ohm’s law,

A component that is used to resist the flow of electric current in a circuit is called a resistor.

FACTORS
AFFECTING
RESISTANCE
Q. The potential difference between the terminals of an electric heater is 60V when it
draws a current of 4A from the source. What current will the heater draw if potential
difference is increased to 120V.
Series Circuit:
The current is same in all the resistors.
The net voltage gets divided among
individual resistors
Parallel Circuit
The voltage is same across all resistors.
The net current gets divided among
individual resistors
Q. Find
(i) Reading of Ampere
(ii) Reading of Voltmeter
(iii) Current across 1Ω resistor
JOULE’S LAW OF HEATING
Joule's law of heating states that, when a current 'I ' passes through a conductor of resistance
'R' for the time 't' , then the heat developed in the conductor is directly proportional to the
product of the square of the current, the resistance and time
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF HEATING EFFECT:
Electric Fuse: Utilizing a lead-tin alloy wire (37% lead, 63% tin), with high resistance and
low melting point, it's installed in series within circuits. When excessive current, such as
during a short circuit, passes through, the fuse wire melts, disrupting the circuit and
safeguarding appliances from damage.

Electric Bulb: Featuring a tungsten filament with a notably high resistance, the bulb
produces substantial heat, leading to incandescence and light emission. Housed within a
glass bulb containing inert gas at low pressure, it operates at temperatures conducive to
light emission.

Electric Heating Device: Appliances like irons and toasters employ Nichrome, an alloy of
nickel and chromium. Nichrome is chosen for its high specific resistance, elevated melting
point, and resistance to oxidation, ensuring efficient heat generation without degradation.
Electrical Power:
Electric power measures the rate of electrical energy transfer by an electric circuit
per unit of time. It is denoted by P.

The formula for electric power is given by

Pxt =E
P is the power
V is the potential difference in the circuit.
I is the electric current
R is the resistance in the circuit.
E is Electrical Power
Q. An electric bulb runs from the 220V mains. The current flowing through it is
0.6 A. At what rate is the electrical energy transformed by the bulb? How much
energy is transformed in 2 min

Q. An electric refrigerator rated 500W operates 6 hours/day. What is the cost of

energy to operate it for 30 days at ₹4.5 per kWh?
1. (a) Prove that the equivalent resistance of three resistors R1, R2 and R3 in series is R1 + R2 + R3.
(b) You have four resistors of 8 each. Show how would you connect these resistors to have effective
resistance of 8Ω ?(2013, 2015, 2016)
The total potential difference across a combination of resistors in series is equal to the sum of a
potential difference across the individual resistors. V=V1+V2+V3
Let I be the current in the circuit. The current through each resistor is also I. It is possible to replace the
three resistors joined in series by an equivalent resistor of resistance R.
Applying Ohm's law, V=IR
V1= IR1
V2= IR2
V3= IR3
V=V1+V2 + V3
IR= IR1+ IR2 + IR3 Two parallel combinations must be connected in series with each other to get the
effective resistance of 8Ω. The effective resistance of each of the parallel
R=R1+ R2+R3
combination is 4Ω resistors are added together to get 8Ω effective resistance.
2. State Ohm's law. Draw a labelled circuit diagram to verify this law in the laboratory. If you
draw a graph between the potential difference and current flowing through a metallic
conductor, what kind of curve will you get? Explain how would you use this graph to
determine the resistance of the conductor. (2014, 2015, 2016)

It states that the potential difference V, across the ends of a given metallic wire in an electric
circuit is directly proportional to the current flowing through it, provided its temperature
remains the same. Mathematically,
V ∝I
V = RI
where R is resistance of the conductor.
or R = V/I
So the slope of V-I graph at any point represents the resistance of the given conductor.
3.(i)State one difference between kilowatt and kilowatt hour. Express 1 kWh in joules.
(ii) A bulb is rated 5V; 500 mA. Calculate the rated power and resistance of the bulb when it
glows.
(2013, 2016)

Kilowatt (kW) - a large unit of electric power Kilowatt hour (kWh) - a commercial unit of
energy.
1 kWh = -3.6 x 10^6 Joules.
Potential difference = 5V, Current = 500 mA = 500 x 10^(-3) A
P = VI
= 5V x 500 x 10^(-3) = 2.5W
R = = 5/500 x 10^(-3) x 10Ω
= 100Ω
4. Two lamps, one rated 100 W; 220 V, and the other 60 W; 220 V, are connected in parallel
to electric mains supply. Find the current drawn by two bulbs from the line, if the supply
voltage is 220 V.
(2018. 2014)

Since both the bulbs are connected in parallel and to a 220 V supply, the voltage across each
bulb is 220 V. Then
Current drawn by 100 W bulb,
I1 = power/voltage = 100W/220V = 0.454A
Current drawn by 60 W bulb,
I2 = 60W/220V = 0.273 A
Total current drawn from the supply line,
I = I1 + I2 = 0.454 A + 0.273 A = 0.727 A = 0.73 A
5.Draw a schematic diagram of a circuit consisting of a battery of 3 cells of 2 V each, a combination of three resistors of
10Ω, 20Ω and 30Ω connected in parallel, a plug key and an ammeter, all connected in series. Use this circuit to find the
value of the following:
(a) Current through each resistor
(b) Total current in the circuit
(c) Total effective resistance of the circuit. (2020)

(a) Given, voltage = 2V + 2V + 2V = 6V

Current through 10Ω resistance,
I(10) = V/R=6/10 = 0.6 A
Current through 20Ω resistance,
I(20) = V/R =6/20 = 0.3 A
Current through 30Ω resistance,
I(30) = V/R=6/30 = 0.2 A
(b) Total current in the circuit, I = I(10) + I(20) + I(30)
= 0.6+0.3 +0.2 = 1.1 A
(c) Total resistance of the circuit,
1/Rp=1/10+1/20+1/30=11/60
Magnetic Effects
of Electric Current
MAGNET
A magnet is an object that possesses the property of magnetism, enabling it to attract or
repel other materials. It is capable of generating a magnetic field, attracting opposite
poles, and repelling similar poles

Oersted’s Experiment
In 1820, physicist Hans Christian Oersted found
that an electric current passing through a wire
could create a magnetic field. He observed this
when a magnetic compass needle near the wire
deflected, suggesting a connection between
electricity and magnetism.
MAGENTIC FIELD : is a region around a magnetic material
or a moving electric charge within which the force of
magnetism acts.

MAGENTIC FIELD LINES: are imaginary lines, which depict

the strength and direction of the magnetic field.
Surrounding a magnet, iron
Properties of Magnetic Field Lines:
filings form concentric circles,
Conventional Direction: Lines emerge from the north pole and
indicating the magnetic field's
converge at the south pole.
presence and strength. Near the
Inside Magnet: Lines run from the south pole to the north pole. magnet, where the magnetic
Characteristics: They form closed loops. force is strongest, the filings cling
They never intersect. most tightly, visually illustrating
Density: Dense near poles, sparse the magnetic field's intensity.
in weaker areas.
BAR MAGNET
A bar magnet is a rectangular piece of an object, made up of iron,
steel or any other ferromagnetic substance or ferromagnetic
composite, that shows permanent magnetic properties.

Properties of Bar Magnet:

A bar magnet possesses a north pole and a south pole at its two ends. Even if the
magnet is broken into pieces, each piece retains its own north and south poles.
The magnet attracts all ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, and cobalt.
When two bar magnets are brought close, unlike poles attract and like poles repel.
The magnetic force is strongest at the poles.
When suspended freely, a bar magnet aligns itself in a north-south position,
coming to rest only when its poles are aligned.
MAXWELL’S RIGHT HAND THUMB RULE:
If a straight conductor is held in the right hand in such a way that
the thumb points along the direction of the current, then the tips
of the fingers or the curl of the fingers show the direction of the
magnetic field around it. a.

M.F. lines around a

straight conductor
M.F. lines around a straight
conductor/Moving Conductor

Magnetic Field due to Current

through a Circular Loop
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO CURRENT THROUGH A CIRCULAR LOOP

The right-hand thumb rule can be used for a circular

conducting wire as well as it comprises of small straight
segments. Every point on the wire carrying current gives rise
to a magnetic field that appears as straight lines at the centre.

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO CURRENT IN A SOLENOID

A solenoid is a coil of many circular windings wrapped in the

shape of a cylinder. When current is passed through it, it
behaves similarly to a bar magnet, producing a very similar field
pattern as that of a bar magnet. To increase the strength, a soft
iron core is used.
FACTORS ON WHICH M.F. DEPENDS IN A SOLENOID:
Number of turns in the solenoid - More number of turns,
greater the magnetic field
Strength of current in the solenoid - More current, more the
magnetic field
Nature of Core Material used inside the solenoid - If we ises
soft iron inside the solenoid, it produces the strongest
magnetism.
Solenoid is used as an electromagnet
Solenoids serve as electromagnets by inducing a strong magnetic field
when an electric current passes through them. Placing a soft iron core
inside enhances the magnetic effect. This combination creates an
electromagnet, where the iron core becomes magnetized due to the
solenoid's magnetic field.
FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE
According to Fleming’s right-hand rule, the thumb, forefinger
and middle finger of the right hand are stretched to be
perpendicular to each other. If the thumb indicates the
direction of the movement of the conductor, the forefinger
indicates the direction of the magnetic field, then the middle
finger indicates the direction of the induced current.

Left hand Rule: Straight Conductor

Left hand Rule: Moving Charges
DOMESTIC ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
The power supplied to
homes through
distribution lines are
received at the mains.

Electricity is supplied
through two types of
cables; Over head cables
or underground cables.

The potential difference

between live and neutral
wire is 220 volts.
3 types of wires are involved in the domestic electric circuits, they are:

Earth wire is green in colour. It is connected to metal plates placed in the

earth near the house for safety purposes. It provides safety for all the
appliances and devices connected at home which have a metallic body.
This is done to prevent shock when leakage of charges happens in the
metallic body.

Live wire is red in colour. It is a positive conductor that helps to break the
circuit when excess current flows through the circuit.

Neutral wire is black in colour. It is a negative conductor

OVERLOADING
Overloading of an electrical circuit occurs when the combined power draw from appliances
surpasses the wiring's capacity, typically in parallel circuits found in domestic setups. This
excess current can cause wires to heat up, posing a risk of fire or damage to the circuit.
Overloading often stems from connecting too many devices to a single socket, straining the
circuit beyond its limits.

SHORT-CIRCUITING
Short-circuiting poses another hazard, where a naked live wire makes direct contact with a
naked neutral wire, allowing for an unimpeded flow of current. Electric fuses serve as a crucial
safeguard, interrupting high currents to prevent damage to the circuit and appliances.
Substandard wiring increases the likelihood of short-circuiting, as worn-out wires are prone to
failure, exacerbating the risk of electrical faults.
1. State whether an alpha particle will experience any force in a magnetic field if (alpha
particles are positively charged particles) (i) it is placed in the field at rest.
(ii) it moves in the magnetic field parallel to field lines.
(iii) it moves in the magnetic field perpendicular to field lines. Justify your your answer in
each case. (CBSE 2016, 2022, 2023)

(i) No, alpha particle will not experience any force if it is at rest, because only moving charge
particle can experience force when placed in a magnetic field.
(ii) No, alpha particle will not experience any force if it moves in the magnetic field parallel to
field lines because charge particle experiences force only when it moves at an angle other
than 0° with magnetic field.
(iii) Alpha particle will experience a force in the direction perpendicular to the direction of
magnetic field and direction of motion of alpha particle.
2. Mention and explain the function of an earth wire. Why it is necessary to earth metallic
appliances? (CBSE 2014, 2016, 2020)

Many electric appliances of daily use like electric press, heater, toaster, refrigerator,
table fan etc. have a metallic body. If the insulation of any of these appliances melts
and makes contact with the metallic casing, the person touching it is likely to receive a
severe electric shock. This is due to the reason that the metallic casing will be at the
same potential as the applied one. Obviously, the electric current will flow through the
body of the person who touches the appliance. To avoid such serious accidents, the
metal casing of the electric appliance is earthed. Since the earth does not offer any
resistance, the current flows to the earth through the earth wire instead of flowing
through the body of the person.
3. Name and state the rule which is used to determine the direction of force on a current
carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field. (CBSE 2020, 2022, 2023)

Fleming’s left hand rule: Stretch the forefinger, middle finger and the thumb of your left
hand mutually perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger indicates the direction of
magnetic field and the middle finger indicates the direction of current, then the thumb will
indicate the direction of motion of conductor
4. What are magnetic field lines? Justify the following statements:
(a) Two magnetic field lines never intersect each other.
(b) Magnetic field are closed curves. (CBSE 2013, 2015, 2016)

Magnetic field lines are imaginary curves representing the magnetic field's direction. They
flow from a magnet's north pole to its south pole externally and from south to north
internally. The direction of the magnetic field at any point is determined by drawing a
tangent to the field line. It's conventionally assumed that field lines don't intersect, ensuring
a unique direction at each point.
5. What is solenoid? Draw the pattern of magnetic field lines of
(i) a current carrying solenoid and
(ii) a bar magnet.
List two distinguishing features between the two fields. (Delhi 2019, 2020)

Solenoid: A coil of many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped in the shape
of cylinder is called solenoid.
(i) Magnetic field lines of a current-carrying solenoid.
(ii) Magnetic field lines around a bar magnet.

Following are the distinguishing features between the two fields.

(a) A bar magnet is a permanent magnet whereas solenoid is an electromagnet,
therefore field produced by solenoid is temporary and stay till current flows through it.
(b) Magnetic field produced by solenoid is more stronger than magnetic field of a bar
magnet.