UNIT III

ON

PREPARED BY
PRANEETHA TUMMALA
DMS SVH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
MACHILIPATNAM

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UNIT III: Wireless LAN: Infrared Vs Radio Transmission, differences between Infrastructure mode and Ad-
hoc Network mode, IEEE 802.11 WLAN- System Architecture, services, HIPERLAN Protocol Architecture,
Bluetooth architecture.

WIRELESS LOCAL AREA NETWORK (WLAN’s)

➢ WLAN, a wireless local area network it is used to establish a wireless connection between two or
more devices.
➢ We can use a wireless distributed method within a limited area such as school or office etc.
➢ Popular standard organization support WLAN are IEEE and ETST.
➢ IEEE standards 2.4GHz and 5GHz ETST standards 5GHz.

FEATURES/ADVANTAGES

✓ Flexibility Easy to add more devices.

✓ No problem with external conditions like Floods, Rains Etc.
✓ Increased mobility and collaboration.
✓ Users can move within the environment without losing connection.
✓ No wiring difficulties.

DISADVANTAGES:

✓ Transmission quality is low.

✓ Wireless equipment is costly.

Infrared Transmission

Infrared technology uses diffuse light reflected at walls, furniture etc. or a directed light if a line of sight (LOS) exists
between sender and receiver.

Infrared light is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum, and is an electromagnetic form of radiation. It comes from the
heat and thermal radiation, and it is not visible to the naked eyes.

In infrared transmission, senders can be simple light emitting diodes (LEDs) or laser diodes. Photodiodes act as
receivers. Infrared is used in wireless technology devices or systems that convey data through infrared radiation. Infrared
is electromagnetic energy at a wave length or wave lengths somewhat longer than those of red light.

Infrared wireless is used for medium and short-range communications and control. Infrared technology is used in
instruction detectors; robot control system, medium range line of sight laser communication, cordless microphone,
headsets, modems, and other peripheral devices.

Infrared radiation is used in scientific, industrial, and medical application. Night vision devices using active near infrared
illumination allow people and animals to be observed without the observer being detected. Infrared transmission
technology refers to energy in the region of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum at wavelength longer than those of
visible light but shorter than those of radio waves.

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Infrared technology allows computing devices to communicate via short range wireless signals. With
infrared transmission, computers can transfer files and other digital data bidirectional.

Advantages of infrared:

The main advantage of infrared technology is its simple and extremely cheap senders and receivers which are
integrated into nearly all mobile devices available today.

No licenses are required for infrared and shielding is very simple.

PDAs, laptops, notebooks, mobile phones etc. have an infrared data association (IrDA) interface.

Electrical devices cannot interfere with infrared transmission.

Disadvantages of Infrared

Disadvantages of infrared transmission are its low bandwidth compared to other LAN technologies.

Limited transfer rates to 115 Kbit/s and we know that even 4 Mbit/s is not a particular high data rate.

Their main disadvantage is that infrared is quite easily shielded.

Infrared transmission cannot penetrate walls or other obstacles.

Typically, for good transmission quality and high data rates a LOS (Line of site), i.e. direct connection is
needed.

Radio Transmission

Almost all networks use radio waves for data transmission, e.g., GSM at 900, 1800, and 1900 MHz, DECT at
1880 MHz etc.

Radio transmission technologies can be used to set up ad-hoc connections for work groups, to connect, e.g., a
desktop with a printer without a wire, or to support mobility within a small area.

The two main types of radio transmission are AM (Amplitude Modulation) and (FM) Frequency Modulation.

FM minimizes noise and provides greater reliability. Both AM and FM process sounds in patterns that are
always varying of electrical signals.

In an AM transmission the carrier wave has a constant frequency, but the strength of the wave varies. The FM
transmission is just the opposite; the wave has constant amplitude but a varying frequency.

Usually, the radio transmission is used in the transmission of sounds and pictures. Such as, voice, music and
television.

The images and sounds are converted into electrical signals by a microphone or video camera. The signals are
amplified, and transmitted. If the carrier is amplified it can be applied to an antenna.

The antenna converts the electrical signals into electromagnetic waves and sends them out or they can be
received. The antenna consists commonly of a wire or set of wires.

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Advantages of Radio Transmission

Advantages of radio transmission include the long-term experiences made with radio transmission for wide
area networks (e.g. microwave links) and mobile cellular phones.

Radio transmission can cover larger areas and can penetrate (thinner) walls, plants, furniture etc. o Additional
coverage is gained by reflection.

Radio typically does not need a LOS (Line of Site) if the frequencies are not too high.

Higher transmission rates (e.g. 54 Mbit/s) than infrared (directed laser links, which offer data rates well above
100 Mbit/s).

Disadvantages of Radio Transmission

Radio transmission can be interfered with other senders, or electrical devices can destroy data transmitted via
radio.

Bluetooth is simple than infrared.

Radio is only permitted in certain frequency bands.

Shielding is not so simple.

Very limited ranges of license free bands are available worldwide and those that are available are not the same
in all countries.

A lot harmonization is going on due to market pressure.

COMPARISION INFRARED VS RADIO TRANSMISSION:

INFRARED RADIO TRANSMISSION

Uses IR diodes, diffuse light, multiple Typically using the license free ISM band
reflections (Walls, Furniture’s Etc) at 2.4GHz

Advantages: Simple, cheap, available in Advantages: Experience from wireless

many mobile devices. WAN and mobile phones can be used.

• No licenses Needed Coverage of larger areas possible (Radio

can penetrate walls, Furniture’s Etc.
• Simple shielding possible.

Disadvantages: Interference by sunlight, Disadvantages: Very limited license free

heat sources Etc. frequency bands.

▪ Many things shield or absorb IR ▪ Shielding more difficult,

light. interference with other Electrical
devices.
▪ Low Bandwidth.

EXAMPLES: IRDA (Infrared data EXAMPLES: Wave length, HIPERLAN,

association). Interface available Bluetooth.
everywhere.

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802.11 architecture: It uses two types of modes, which are as follows –

Infrastructure Mode

The most popular mode used to connect clients like laptops and smart-phones to another network such as
company intranet or internet. This mode is shown below.

In infrastructure mode every client is associated with an Access point which is in turn connected to another
network. The client sends and receives its packet via Access Point.

Ad-Hoc Mode: Collections of computers are associated so that they can directly send frames to each other.
There is no Access Point in Ad hoc, because Internet access is the killer application for wireless. Ad hoc
networks are not very popular.

Infrastructure mode Ad hoc mode

In this mode, the transmitter and receivers are In the ad hoc mode transmitter and receivers
in direct range of the access point (AP). can communicate directly with each other.

In this mode AP handles all wireless nodes In ad hoc mode there is no need for an access
within the range. point in the range.

In this mode each client's security setting must Since in ad hoc mode there is no AP, the
be configured to match the security setting of network users have to configure what are the
the access point (AP) correct security settings and it must have to
match with each client’s security settings in
the network.

In this mode, a client or a system can only Since ad hoc is peer to peer mode with no
communicate with connected clients in central access point, it also allows internet
managed mode. between any two connected clients.

More widely used. Generally used at airport Most of the IEEE 802.11 transmitter and
lounge, hotel lobby, railway station etc. receivers support the ad hoc mode. Generally
used in the Military arena (for sharing
information among soldiers), local area
networks for communication among a fixed
group of people etc.

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IEEE 802.11 Architecture

The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are as follows −

• Stations (STA) − Stations comprises of all devices and equipment that are connected to the wireless
LAN. A station can be of two types−

o Wireless Access Point (WAP) − WAPs or simply access points (AP) are generally wireless
routers that form the base stations or access.

o Client. Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers, smartphones, etc.

• Each station has a wireless network interface controller.

• Basic Service Set (BSS) − A basic service set is a group of stations communicating at the physical
layer level. BSS can be of two categories depending upon the mode of operation−

o Infrastructure BSS − Here, the devices communicate with other devices through access points.

o Independent BSS − Here, the devices communicate in a peer-to-peer basis in an ad hoc manner.
• Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.

• Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.

Frame Format of IEEE 802.11

The main fields of a frame of wireless LANs as laid down by IEEE 802.11 are −

• Frame Control − It is a 2 bytes starting field composed of 11 subfields. It contains control information of the
frame.

• Duration − It is a 2-byte field that specifies the time period for which the frame and its acknowledgment
occupy the channel.

• Address fields − There are three 6-byte address fields containing addresses of source, immediate destination, and
final endpoint respectively.
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Sequence − It a 2 bytes field that stores the frame numbers.

• Data − This is a variable-sized field that carries the data from the upper layers. The maximum size of
the data field is 2312 bytes.

• Check Sequence − It is a 4-byte field containing error detection information.

IEEE 802.11 SERVICES:

It is defines nine services that need to be provided by the wireless LAN to provide functionality
equivalent to that which is inherent to wired LAN’s

SERVICE PROVIDER USED TO SUPPORT

Association Distribution system MSDU (MAC service data

unit) Delivery
Authentication Station LAN Access and security

Deauthentication Station LAN Access and security

Disassociation Distribution system MSDU Delivery

Distribution Distribution system MSDU Delivery

Integration Distribution system MSDU Delivery

MSDU Delivery Station MSDU Delivery

Privacy Station LAN Access and security

Reassociation Distribution system MSDU Delivery

Association: Establishing initial association between station and access point.

Reassociation: Enable transfer of association from one access point to another.
Disassociation: Association termination notice from station or access point.
Authentication: Establisher LAN access and security connection.
Deauthentication: Terminates LAN access and security connection.
Privacy: Prevents message contents from being read by unintended recipient
Distribution: A station uses the distribution service every time it sends MAC frames across a distribution
system.
Integration: The integration services enables the delivery of MAC frames through a portal between
distribution systems and 802.11.

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IEEE 802.11a standards:

• Released in September 1999 as an amendment to the 802.11 original standards.

• Supports error correction coding.
• Defines requirements for OFDM communication (Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing).
• OFDM usage increased the data rate up to 54Mbps.
• Inter operable in the 5GHz ISM band.

IEEE 802.11b standards:

• Released in September 1999

• Direct extension of the original standard in the aspect of modulation techniques.
• Uses HR-DSSS and CCK Modulation.
• HR- DSSS: High rate direct sequence spread spectrum.
• CCK- Complementary code keying
• Data rate increased to 11Mbps.
• Operates in the 2.4GHz ISM band.

Protocol architecture of IEEE 802.11

1. Fig shows the most common scenario: an IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN connected to a switched IEEE
802.3 Ethernet via a bridge.

2. The WLAN behaves like a slow wired LAN. The higher layers (application, TCP,IP) look the same for
wireless nodes as for wired nodes. The upper part of the data link control layer, the logical link control
(LLC), covers the differences of the medium access control layer needed for the different media.

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3.The IEEE 802.11 standard only covers the physical layer PHY and medium access layer MAC.

4 The physical layer is subdivided into the physical layer convergence protocol(PLCP) and the
physical medium dependent sub-layer PMD
5. The basic tasks of the MAC layer comprise medium access, fragmentation of user data, and
encryption.
6. The PLCP sub-layer provides a carrier sense signal, called clear channel assessment (CCA) and
provides a common PHY service access point (SAP) independent of the transmission technology.
7. Finally, the PMD sub-layer handles modulation and encoding/decoding of signals.
8. The MAC management supports the association and re-association of a station to an access point,
and roaming between different access points. It also controls authentication, mechanisms, encryption,
synchronization of a station with regard to an access point, and power management to save battery
power. It also maintains the MAC management information base (MIB).
9. The main tasks of the PHY management include channel tuning and PHY MIB maintenance.
10. Finally, station management interacts with both management layers and is responsible for
additional higher layer functions (eg. , control of bridging and interaction with the distribution system
in the case of an access point).

HIPERLAN

HIPERLAN stands for High Performance Radio Local Area Networks. In 1996, the ETSI
standardized HIPERLAN 1 as a WLAN allowing for node mobility and supporting ad-hoc and infrastructure-
based topologies. HIPERLAN 1 was the original one. Over time, names have changed and the former
HIPERLANs 2, 3, and 4 are now called HiperLAN2, HIPERACCESS, and HIPERLINK.

HIPERLAN Family of Standards

HIPERLAN 1: HIPERLAN/1 is aligned with the IEEE 802 family of standards and is very much like a
modern wireless Ethernet. HIPERLAN/1, a standard completed and ratified in 1996, defines the operation of
the lower portion of the OSI reference model, namely the data link layer and physical layer. The data link
layer is further divided into two parts,the channel access control (CAC) sub-layer and media access control
(MAC) sub-layer.

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Physical Layer: It has three following functions i)Encoding,decoding of signal ii)Adding preamble
for synchronization iii) Bit transmission and receiving.
Channel Access control(CAC): The sub-layer deals with the access request to the channels.
Accomplishing of the request is dependent on the usage of the channel and the priority request.

MAC:Medium access sub-layer/ Medium access control: It is used in assemble and

disassemble of data and also for error control.

An innovative feature of HIPERLAN 1, which many other wireless networks do not offer, is its ability to
forward data packets using several relays.

• For power conservation, a node may set up a specific wake-up pattern. These nodes are called p-
savers and need so-called p-supporters that contain information about the wake-up patterns of all the p-
savers they are responsible for.
• Developed by ETSI during 1991 to 1996
• Goal: to achieve higher data rate than IEEE 802.11 data rates: 1~2 Mbps, and to be used in ad hoc
networking of portable devices
• Support asynchronous data transfer, carrier-sense multiple access multiple access with collision
avoidance (CSMA/CA), no QoS guaranteed.
• Data transfer at 23.5 Mbit/s, including forwarding mechanisms, topology discovery, user data
encryption, network identification and power conservation mechanisms.
Operate at 5.1–5.3 GHz with a range of 50 m in buildings at 1 W transmit power.

• Service offered by a HIPERLAN 1 is compatible with the standard MAC services known from
IEEE 802.x LANs.
• Addressing is based on standard 48 bit MAC addresses.

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HIPERLAN 2

Introduction:

Next generation of HiperLAN family: Proposed by ETSI BRAN (Broadband Radio Access Networks)
in 1999, and is still under development This is also written as HIPERLAN/2, HiperLAN/2, H/2;
official name: HIPERLAN Type 2.This wireless network works at 5 GHz.Offers data rates of up to 54
Mbit/s including QoS support and enhanced security features.

Features of HiperLAN2:

The following are main features of HiperLAN2:

High-throughput transmission:
HiperLAN2 not only offers up to 54 Mbit/s at the physical layer but also about 35 Mbit/s at
the network layer.
The overheads introduced by the layers (medium access, packet headers etc.) remain almost
constant over a wide range of user packet sizes and Data rates.
• Connection-oriented:
Prior to data transmission HiperLAN2 networks establish logical connections between a
sender and a receiver
• Quality of service support:
With the help of connections, support of QoS is much simpler. Each connection has its own
set of QoS parameters.
• Dynamic frequency selection:
HiperLAN2 does not require frequency planning.

All access points have built-in support which automatically selects an appropriate frequency
within their coverage area.
• Security support:
o Authentication as well as encryption is supported by HiperLAN2.
• Mobility support:
o Mobile terminals can move around while transmission always takes place between the
terminal and the access point with the best radio signal.
o Handover between access points is performed automatically.

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BLUETOOTH
It is a Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) technology and is used for exchanging
data over smaller distances. This technology was invented by Ericson in 1994. It
operates in the unlicensed, industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) band at 2.4 GHz to
2.485 GHz. Maximum devices that can be connected at the same time are 7. Bluetooth
ranges up-to 10 meters. It provides data rates up-to 1 Mbps or 3 Mbps depending upon
the version. The spreading technique which it uses is FHSS (Frequency hopping
spread spectrum). A Bluetooth network is called piconet and a collection of
interconnected piconets is called scatternet.

APPLICATIONS: Speakers,Headphones, Headset,Data transfer APP’S

ADVANTAGES:
✓ Wireless technology
✓ Very simple to form piconet
✓ Cheap technology
✓ Robust
✓ Low Energy consumption.

DISADVANTAGES:
➢ Low in Bandwidth
➢ Data transmission range is constant as it is very less.

Bluetooth Architecture:
The architecture of bluetooth defines two types of networks: 1Piconet 2.Scatternet

Piconet: Piconet is a type of bluetooth network that contains one primary

node called master node and seven active secondary nodes called slave nodes.
Thus, we can say that there are total of 8 active nodes which are present at a
distance of 10 metres. The communication between the primary and secondary
node can be one-to-one or one-to-many.

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Possible communication is only between the master and slave; Slave- slave
communication is not possible. It also have 255 parked nodes, these are
secondary nodes and cannot take participation in communication unless it get
converted to the active state.

• Within a Piconet, the timing of various devices and the frequency hopping sequence of
individual devices is determined by the clock and unique 48-bit address of master.

• Each device can communicate simultaneously with up to seven other devices within a
single Piconet.

• Each device can communicate with several piconets simultaneously.

• Piconets are established dynamically and automatically as Bluetooth enabled devices enter
and leave piconets.

• There is no direct connection between the slaves and all the connections are essentially
master-to-slave or slave-to-master.

Slaves are allowed to transmit once these have been polled by the master.
Scatternet:
It is formed by using various piconets. A slave that is present in one piconet
can be act as master or we can say primary in other piconet. This kind of node
can receive message from master in one piconet and deliver the message to its
slave into the other piconet where it is acting as a slave. This type of node is refer
as bridge node. A station cannot be master in two piconets.

Bluetooth protocol stack:

Radio (RF) layer: It performs modulation/demodulation of the data into RF signals.It
defines the physical characteristics of blue-tooth transceiver. It defines two types of
physical link: connection-less and connection-oriented.

Base-band Link layer: It performs the connection establishment within a piconet.

Link Manager protocol layer: It performs the management of the already

established links. It also includes authentication and encryption processes
Logical Link Control and Adaption protocol layer: It is also known as the heart
of the bluetooth protocol stack. It allows the communication between upper and lower
layers of the bluetooth protocol stack. It packages the data packets received from upper
layers into the form expected by lower layers. It also performs the segmentation and
multiplexing.

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SDP layer: It is short for Service Discovery Protocol. It allows to discover the services
available on another bluetooth enabled device.
RF comm layer: It is short for Radio Front-end Component. It provides serial interface
with WAP and OBEX.

OBEX: It is short for Object Exchange. It is a communication protocol to exchange

objects between 2 devices.

WAP: It is short for Wireless Access Protocol. It is used for internet access.

TCS: It is short for Telephony Control Protocol. It provides telephony service.

Application layer:It enables the user to interact with the application.

Bluetooth Technology takes away the need for several problematic cable attachments for connecting cellular
phones, hand-held devices, and computers.It is easy,convenient simple, and inexpensive.

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BLUETOOTH SECURITY: It has four modes

MODE 1:
✓ Non secure (No security at all)
✓ By passes authentication and encryption (Easy Hacking)
✓ Doesn't prevent any other bluetooth devices from establishing connection.
✓ Connection is open and many security challenges.

MODE 2:

✓ Centralized security manager controls access to certain device and services.

✓ Maintains access control policies and interfaces protocols to other devices. (policies/ permissions)
✓ Supports all bluetooth devices.

MODE 3:
✓ Initiates security procedures before physical link is established.
✓ Authentication and Encryption is done.
✓ Uses a separate secrete key link shared by paired devices.

MODE 4:

✓ Security procedures are done port link setup

✓ Secure simple pairing done by “ECDH” (Elliptic Curve Diffie Hellman) for key exchange and link key
generation

SECURITY ISSUES:

Blue jacking:
➢ Attempts to eject data into someone phone.
➢ Sends message to other bluetooth users within 1o meters.

Blue Bugging:
➢ Hackers remotely accessing other phone.
➢ Places calls and sends text message.

Car Whispering:

➢ Uses a software allowing hackers to send and receive audio to and from a bluetooth enable car stereo system.

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