Bonding – Notes

An element is a pure substance that’s made up of only one kind of atom. It can’t be
separated into simpler substances.

A compound is a pure substance that’s made up of 2 or more different elements chemically

A mixture is an impure substance made up of 2 or more pure substances. Homogenous

 Decantation:

Decantation is the pouring off of a liquid from a settled solid. It can be used to separate
liquid from undissolved solid. Separation is possible due to low solubility and density.

Examples: Sand from water, heavy (dense) precipitate from solution and mercury from nitric
acid solution.

 Filtration:

Filtration is the separation of undissolved solids from a liquid or solution using filters. It can
be used to separate insoluble solids from soluble ones. Separation is possible due to
differences in solubility.

Examples: Sand from sea water, charcoal from salt and calcium carbonate from sodium
carbonate.

 Evaporation:

Evaporation is the recovery of a dissolved solid from a solution. By evaporating the solvent,
we can recover the solute. Separation is possible because the solute can’t evaporate.

 Crystallisation:
Crystallisation is the recovery of dissolved solids as pure crystals from a saturated solution.
It’s very useful for separating different soluble salts from solutions. Separation is possible
due to differences in solubility.

Examples: Pure copper (II) sulfate crystals from solution, rpotassium nitrate from sodium
chloride and table salt from baking soda.

 Simple distillation:

Simple distillation is the recovery of a liquid from solution by means of evaporation and
condensation. Separation is possible since dissolved solids can’t evaporate.

Examples: Pure water from sea water and pure water from ink.

 Fractional distillation:

Fractional distillation is the separation of 2 or more liquids from a mixture. A fractionating

Examples: Alcohol from water and alcohol from wine.

Nanoparticles have very high surface area to volume ratios. This markedly increases the
interaction and bonding which occurs between the atoms and particles in the material.

Metallic bonds:

Metallic bonds form between metal atoms. The delocalised valence electrons of these
atoms are very mobile. Metallic bonds result from the electrostatic attraction between
these delocalised valence electrons and the positively charged metallic ions.

Ionic bonds:
Ionic bonds form between metal and non-metal atoms. A transfer of electrons between
these atoms creates positive and negative ions, each having an inert gas electron
configuration. Ionic bonds result from the strong electrostatic attraction between these
oppositely charged ions.

Covalent bonds:

Covalent bonds form between non-metal atoms. Electrons are shared in a common bond
so that each atom can achieve an inert gas electron configuration. Covalent bonds result
from the strong electrostatic attraction between the shared electrons and the protons of
adjacent atoms.

Properties of ionic substances:

 High melting and boiling points:

Large amounts of energy are required to melt ionic solids. This energy is required to
overcome the strong electrostatic forces between the oppositely charged ions.

 Brittleness:

Ionic solids are very hard, brittle and difficult to scratch due to the strong electrostatic
forces. They aren’t malleable because if layers of ions are forced to slide over each other,
repulsion occurs between like charges.

 Good conductivity when molten or in aqueous solution:

Ionic solids can’t conduct electricity since all the ions are in fixed positions and aren’t free to
move. When molten, however, the ions are mobile and will conduct a current.

Properties of metals:

 High electrical conductivity:

Since the valence electrons in metals are highly mobile, any applied voltage will cause a
flow of charge.
 High thermal conductivity:

When a substance is heated, the particles vibrate more rapidly. In a metal lattice, the
delocalised valence electrons readily transfer this energy as they move through the lattice.

 Malleable and ductile:

This is possible since metallic bonds are non-directional and layers of positive ions can
simply slip over each other. The electrostatic forces between the positive metal ions and
valence electrons still operate.

 High melting and boiling points:

The strong electrostatic attraction between the positive metal nuclei and the delocalised
valence electrons means that a lot of energy is required to overcome these bonds.

Properties of covalent molecular substances:

 Can’t conduct electricity:

This is because the valence electrons in covalent molecular substances aren’t mobile and
hence are unable to carry charge.

 Low melting and boiling points:

This is due to the relatively weak intermolecular forces between the molecules which don’t
require a lot of energy to overcome.

Properties of covalent network substances:

 Can’t conduct electricity:

This is because the valence electrons in covalent network substances aren’t mobile and
hence are unable to carry charge.
 High melting and boiling points:

This is due to the strong electrostatic attraction between the positive nuclei and the shared
electrons in multiple bonds which requires a lot of energy to overcome.

Graphite is made up of carbon atoms which are strongly covalently bonded in 2-dimensional
layers. Within each layer there are delocalised valence electrons which are able to conduct
electricity.