Transformer Phasor Diagram

To determine the voltage regulation of a transformer, it is necessary

understand the voltage drops within it.

1
1
Transformer Phasor Diagram
Ignoring the excitation of the branch (since the current flow through the
branch is considered to be small), more consideration is given to the series
impedances (Req +jXeq).
Voltage Regulation depends on magnitude of the series impedance and the
phase angle of the current flowing through the transformer.
Phasor diagrams will determine the effects of these factors on the voltage
regulation. A phasor diagram consist of current and voltage vectors.

Assume that the reference phasor is the secondary voltage, VS. Therefore the
reference phasor will have 0 degrees in terms of angle.
Based upon the equivalent circuit, apply Kirchoff Voltage Law,
VP
= VS + Req I S + jX eq I S
k
2
2
Transformer Phasor Diagram
For lagging loads, VP / a > VS so the voltage regulation with lagging loads is > 0.

When the power factor is unity, VS is lower than VP so VR > 0.

3
3
Transformer Phasor Diagram
For lagging loads, the vertical components of Req and Xeq will partially
cancel each other. Due to that, the angle of VP/a will be very small, hence
we can assume that VP/k is horizontal. Therefore the approximation will
be as follows:

4
Transformer Phasor Diagram

With a leading power factor, VS is higher than the referred VP so VR < 0

5
5
Voltage regulation
Lagging P.F. VP/ k > VS V.R. > 0

Unity P.F. VP / k > VS V.R. >0

(smaller)

Leading P.F. VS > VP/ k V.R. < 0

6
Voltage regulation for Lagging Power Factor

7
Voltage Regulation for Leading Power
Factor

8
Formula: voltage regulation
In terms of secondary values
0 V2 − V2 I 2 R02 cos 2  I 2 X 02 sin  2
% regulation = =
0 V2 0 V2

where '+ ' for lagging and '-' for leading

In terms of primary va lues
V1 − V2' I 1 R01 cos1  I 1 X 01 sin 1
% regulation = =
V1 V1
where '+ ' for lagging and '-' for leading

9
Transformer Efficiency
Transformer efficiency is defined as (applies to motors, generators and
transformers):
Pout
 =  100 %
Pin
Pout
=  100%
Pout + Ploss
Types of losses incurred in a transformer:
Copper I2R losses
Hysteresis losses
Eddy current losses
Therefore, for a transformer, efficiency may be calculated using the following:
VS I S cos
= x100%
PCu + Pcore + VS I S cos
10
Losses in a transformer
Core or Iron loss:

Copper loss:

11
Condition for maximum efficiency

The load at which the two losses are equal = 12

AUTO TRANSFORMER

⚫ At some occasions it is desirable to change voltage

level only by a small amount
⚫ i.e. may need to increase voltage from 110 to 120 V
or from 13.2 to 13.8 kV
⚫ This may be due to small increase in voltage drop
that occur in a power system with long lines
⚫ In such cases it is very expensive to hire a two full
winding transformer, however a special transformer
called: ”auto-transformer” can be used

13
AUTO TRANSFORMER

• Diagram of a step-up auto-transformer shown in

figure below:
• C: common, SE: series

14
AUTO TRANSFORMER

• A step-down auto-transformer :

• IH=ISE
• IL=ISE+IC

15
AUTO TRANSFORMER

• In step-up autotransformer:
⚫ VC / VSE = NC / NSE (1)
⚫ NC IC = NSE ISE (2)
⚫ voltages in coils are related to terminal voltages as

follows:
⚫ VL=VC (3)
⚫ VH=VC+VSE (4)
⚫ current in coils are related to terminal currents:

⚫ IL=IC+ISE (5)
⚫ IH=ISE (6) 16
AUTO TRANSFORMER
• Voltage & Current Relations in Autotransformer
• VH=VC+VSE
• since VC/VSE=NC/NSE ➔ VH=VC+ NSE/NC . VC
• Noting that: VL=VC ➔
VH=VL+ NSE/NC . VL= (NSE+NC)/NC . VL
• VL / VH = NC / (NSE+NC) (7)
• Current relations:
• IL=IC+ISE employing Eq.(2) ➔ IC=(NSE / NC)ISE
• IL= (NSE / NC)ISE + ISE, since ISE=IH ➔
IL= (NSE / NC)IH +IH = (NSE + NC)/NC . IH ➔
IL / IH = (NSE + NC)/NC (8)
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AUTO TRANSFORMER

⚫ Apparent Power Rating Advantage of Autotransformer

⚫ Note : not all power transferring from primary to
secondary in autotransformer pass through windings
⚫ Therefore if a conventional transformer be reconnected as
an autotransformer, it can handle much more power than
its original rating
⚫ The input apparent power to the step-up autotransformer
is : Sin=VLIL
⚫ And the output apparent power is:
Sout=VH IH
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AUTO TRANSFORMER
⚫ And :
Sin=Sout=SIO
⚫ Apparent power of transformer windings:
SW= VCIC=VSE ISE
⚫ This apparent power can be reformulated:
SW= VCIC=VL(IL-IH) =VLIL-VLIH
⚫ employing Eq.(8) ➔ SW= VLIL-VLIL NC/(NSE+NC)
=VLIL [(NSE+NC)-NC] /(NSE+NC)=SIO NSE /(NSE+NC)
SIO / SW = (NSE+NC) / NSE (9)
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AUTO TRANSFORMER

⚫ Internal Impedance of an Autotransformer

⚫ Another disadvantage: effective per unit
impedance of an autotransformer w.r.t. the related
conventional transformer is the reciprocal of power
advantage
⚫ This is a disadvantage where the series impedance
is required to limit current flows during power
system faults (S.C.)

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All day efficiency

All day efficiency is defined as the ratio of total

energy output of transformer to thetotal energy
input in 24 hours.

out put in watts

ordinary commercial efficiency =
input in watts

output in kWh
 all day = ( for 24 hours)
Input in kWh
•All day efficiency is always less than the commercial efficiency
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22

Almost all major generation & Distribution

Systems in the world are three phase ac
systems
Three phase transformers play an important
role in these systems
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS
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➢ A three phase transformer has three sets of primary and secondary
windings.
➢ Depending upon how these sets of windings are interconnected, determines
whether the connection is a star or delta configuration.
➢ The available voltage which are each displaced from the other by 120
electrical degrees
CONNECTIONS OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS
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➢ A three-phase transformer is made of three sets of
primary and secondary windings.
➢ Those sets of primary and secondary windings will be
connected in either Δ or Y configurations to form a
complete unit.
➢ Y connections provide the opportunity for multiple
voltages,
➢ while Δ connections enjoy a higher level of reliability
(if one winding fails open, the other two can still
maintain full line voltages to the load).
Primary - Secondary
Y - Y
Y - Δ
Δ - Y
Δ - Δ
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3 phase Transformer connections

By connecting three single phase transformers

1. Star- Star connection
2. Delta- Delta connection
3. Star – Delta connection
4. Delta – Star connection
THREE PHASE SYSTEM

BASICS parameters
Line voltage VL= voltage between lines

Phase voltage Vph= voltage between a line and neutral

Line current IL
Phase current Iph

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Star- Star connection
BALANCED STAR

Line Voltage VL= √3 Vph ➢ This connection satisfactory only in

Line current IL = Iph balanced load otherwise neutral point
will be shifted.
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Balanced conditions
Balanced 3-phase conditions have:
• Line and phase voltages related as in previous slides.
• Za=Zb=Zc
This results in: Iˆ b = Iˆ a  − 120, Iˆ c = Iˆ a  + 120 , Iˆ n = 0
Note: In Wye-connected loads, the
line current and the phase current
(current through Za) are identical.
Î a
a

V̂an
b Î b Zb Za
a b

Î n
n n

Î c Zc
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c c 28
Phasor diagram for line-line (line) voltages

Line-to-line (line) voltages Rotation

a
V̂ca V̂ab
V̂ab 120°
a b b

V̂ca 120° 120°

n n V̂bc

ˆ =V
V ˆ  − 120 
bc ab
c c
ˆ =V
V ˆ  + 120 
ca ab
The identified voltages are referred to as
“line-to-line voltages,” or just “line voltages.”
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V̂ab 29
Phasor diagram for line-neutral (phase) voltages

V̂cn Rotation

120°
120°
120° V̂an

V̂bn
What is rotating?
➔The peak value of the sinusoid; this ˆ =V
V ˆ  − 120 
bn an
peak value is projected onto the positive
vertical axis to obtain the instantaneous ˆ =V
V ˆ  + 120 
value of the quantity, a concept equivalent cn an
to writing van(t)=Vpeaksinωt.

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30
Having both primary and secondary winding sets connected in “Y” formations
allows for the use of neutral conductors (N1 and N2) in each power system.
31
Advantages
1.Requires less turns per winding ie cheaper
Phase voltage is 1/√3 times of line voltage
2.Cross section of winding is large ie stronger to bear
stress during short circuit
Line current is equal to phase current
3. Less dielectric strength in insulating materials
phase voltage is less
Disadvantages
1.If the load on the secondary side unbalanced then
the shifting of neutral point is possible

2.The third harmonic present in the alternator

voltage may appear on the secondary side. This
causes distortion in the secondary phase voltages
3. Magnetizing current of transformer has 3rd
harmonic component 32
Delta - Delta connection

BALANCED DELTA
Line Voltage VL= Vph
Line current IL = √3 Iph

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➢ This connection is used for moderate voltages
➢When there is no need for a neutral conductor in the secondary power
system, Δ-Δ connection schemes are preferred because of the inherent
reliability of the Δ configuration.
➢Considering that a Δ configuration can operate satisfactorily missing one
winding, some power system designers choose to create a three-phase
transformer bank with only two transformers, representing a Δ-Δ configuration
34
with a missing winding in both the primary and secondary sides:
Advantages

1. System voltages are more stable in relation to

unbalanced load

2. If one t/f is failed it may be used for low power

level ie V-V connection

3. No distortion of flux ie 3rd harmonic current not

flowing to the line wire
Disadvantages
1. Compare to Y-Y require more insulation

2. Absence of star point ie fault may severe

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36
➢ Used to step down voltage ie end of transmission
line
Advantages
1. The primary side is star connected. Hence fewer number of turns are
required. This makes the connection economical
2. The neutral available on the primary can be earthed to avoid distortion.
3. Large unbalanced loads can be handled satisfactory.
Disadvantages

The secondary voltage is not in phase with the

primary. (30 ⁰ phase difference )

Hence it is not possible to operate this connection in

parallel with star-star or delta-delta connected
transformer. 37
Such a configuration would allow for the provision of multiple
38
voltages (line-to-line or line-to-neutral)
➢ This connection is used to step up voltage ie.
Beginning of high tension line

Features
➢ secondary Phase voltage is 1/√3 times of
line voltage
➢ neutral in secondary can be grounded for 3 phase
4 wire system

➢ Neutral shifting and 3rd harmonics are there

➢ Phase shift of 30⁰ between secondary and

primary currents and voltages

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Per-phase analysis
Under balanced conditions, we may perform single-phase
analysis on a “lifted-out” a-phase and neutral circuit, as
shown below.

Î a
a

V̂an
b Î b Zb Za
a b

Î n
n n

Î c Zc
40
c c 40
Per-phase analysis
Î a

V̂an
Za
a

Now it is clear that:

Vˆ
Iˆ a = an ˆ Iˆ * = P + jQ
S1 = Van a 1 1
Za
Also, we still have: P1 = Van I a cos , Q1 = Van I a sin 

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41
Per-phase analysis
Î a

V̂an
Za
a

After we perform the single-phase analysis, we may then

compute the 3-phase quantities according to:
S3 = 3S1  P3 = 3P1 , Q3 = 3Q1

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42
Three phase power relations
The previous power relations utilize line-to-neutral
voltages and line currents. Power may also be computed
using line voltages, as developed in what follows:
P1 = Van I a cos
ˆ ˆ Vab
Vab = 3Van30  Vab = 3Van  Van =
3
Vab Vab 3 Vab 3
P1 = I a cos = I a cos = I a cos
3 3 3 3
Vab 3
P3 = 3P1 = 3 I a cos = 3Vab I a cos
3
Likewise, we may develop that
Q3 = 3Vab I a sin  43
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Three phase power relations
In summary:
S3 = 3S1  P3 = 3P1 , Q3 = 3Q1
P1 = Van I a cos Q1 = Van I a sin 
P3 = 3Vab I a cos Q3 = 3Vab I a sin 
Note 1: In Wye-connections, the power factor angle θ is
the angle by which the line-to-neutral voltage V̂an leads
the phase current Î a . It is not the angle by which the
line-to-line voltage V̂ab leads the phase current. More
generally, the power factor angle at two terminals is the
angle by which the voltage across those terminals leads
the current into the positive terminal.
Note 2: You may see notation 44VL or VLL for Vab.
44
45
46
Vector Group of Transformer
➢ The three phase transformer windings can be connected
several ways. Based on the windings’ connection, the vector
group of the transformer is determined.
➢ The transformer vector group is indicated on the Name Plate
of transformer by the manufacturer.
➢ The vector group provides a simple way of indicating how the
internal connections of a transformer are arranged.
➢ The vector group indicates the phase difference between the
primary and secondary sides, introduced due to that particular
configuration of transformer windings connection.
➢ The Determination of vector group of transformers is very
important before connecting two or more transformers in
parallel.
➢ If two transformers of different vector groups are connected in
parallel then phase difference exist between the secondary of
the transformers and large circulating current flows between
the two transformers which is very detrimental.
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➢ The vector group is indicated by a code consisting
of two or three letters, followed by one or two
numeric digits. The letters indicate the winding
configuration as follows:
➢ D or d: Delta winding, also called a mesh winding.
➢ Y or y: Wye winding, (also called a star).
➢ Z or z: Zigzag winding, or interconnected star
winding. Similar to a wye winding, but two
windings form each phase are arranged so that the
three legs are "bent" when the phase diagram is
drawn. Zigzag-wound transformers have special
characteristics and are not commonly used where
these characteristics are not needed.

48
A single-phase transformer has 1000 turns on the primary and
200 turns on the secondary. The no load current is 3A at a
power factor 0.2 lagging when secondary current is 280A at a
power factor of 0.8 lagging. Calculate the primary current and
the power factor. Assume the voltage drop in the windings to
be negligible.
Ip Ns
Recall Equation 12 =
Is N p

NS 200
therefore IP =  IS =  280 = 56 A
NP 1000

49
cos2 ' = 0.8  sin 2 ' = 0.6 V1 , E 1

- I 2‘
coso = 0.2  sin o = 0.98 I 1

1
Solve for horizontal and vertical components O Io
I1 cos1 = I 2' cos2' + I o coso 

= (56  0.8) + (3  0.2 ) = 45.4 A 2

I1 sin 1 = I 2' sin 2' + I o sin o I2

V2 , E 2

= (56  0.6 ) + (3  0.98 ) = 36.54 A

I1 = (45.4)2 + (36.54)2 = 58.3 A

tan 1 =
36.54
= 0.805  1 = 38 o
50'
45.4
Power factor cos1 = cos 38o50' = 0.78 lagging
50
A 100kVA transformer has 400 turns on the primary and 800
turns on the secondary. The primary and secondary resistances
are 0.3W and 0.01W respectively, and the corresponding
leakage reactances are 1.1W and 0.035W respectively. The
supply voltage is 2200V. Calculate:
(a)The equivalent impedance referred to the primary circuit;
(b)The voltage regulation and the secondary terminal voltage for
full load having a power factor of (i) 0.8 lagging and (ii) 0.8
leading.
(c)The percentage resistance and leakage reactance drops of the
transformer

51
2
 V1 
2
(a)  400 
Re = R1 + R2   = 0.3 + 0.01  = 0.55W
 V2   80 
2
 V1 
2
 400 
 
X e = X 1 + X 2   = 1.1 + 0.035  = 1.975W
 V2   80 
Z e = Re2 + X e2 = (0.55)2 + (1.975 )2 = 2.05W

P 100 10 3
(b) (i) Full − load primary current = = = 45.45 A
V 2200

I1 (Re cos2 + X e sin 2 )

Per − unit voltage regulation =
V1
45.45(0.55  0.8 + 1.975  0.6)
= = 0.0336 per unit
2200
= 3.36 per cent

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NS 80
Sec. terminal voltage on no-load = VP  = 2200  = 440V
NP 400
The decreasing of full-load voltage is = 440  0.0336 = 14.8V

Therefore the secondary full-load voltage = 440 −14.8 = 425.2V

(b) (ii) power factor 0.8 leading

45.45(0.55  0.8 − 1.975  0.6)
Voltage regulation = = −0.0154 per unit
2200
= −1.54 per cent

The increasing of full-load voltage is = 440  0.0154 = 6.78V

Therefore the secondary full-load voltage = 440 + 6.78 = 446.78V

53
 full - load   equivalent resistance 
    
Resistancedrop per unit = 
primary current   referred to primary 
primary vo ltage

 full - load   equivalent resistance 

    
Resistance drop per unit = 
secondary current   referred to secondary 
Or
secondary voltage on no - load

=
I1R e 45.45  0.55
 Resistancedrop = = 0.0114 Per unit
V1 2200

= 0.0114%

54
Ip Ns
Alternative Recall Equation 12 =
Is Np
NP 400
Full load secondary current IS = IP =  45.45 = 227 .2 A
NS 80
2
 N2 
2
Equivalent resistance  80 
Re = R2 + R1   = 0.01 + 0.3  = 0.022 W
referred to secondary  N1   400 
NS 80
Secondary voltage on no-load = VP  = 2200  = 440V
NP 400
 full - load   equivalent resistance 
    
secondary current   referred to secondary  227 .2  0.022
Resistance drop per unit =  =
secondary voltage on no - load 440

= 0.0114per unit = 1.14%

55
equivalent leakage resistance referred to primary
2
V 
2
 400 
X e = X 1 + X 2  1  = 1.1 + 0.035  = 1.975W
 V2   80 

P 100 10 3
Full − load primary current = = = 45.45 A
V 2200

 full - load   equivalent leakage resistance 

    
Leakageractance drop per unit = 
primary current   referred to primary  = 45.45  1.975
primary vo ltage 2200

= 0.0408 per unit = 4.08%

56