Bit4103 Human Computer Interaction Manual (1)
Bit4103 Human Computer Interaction Manual (1)
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[Donald] Norman's 7 Principles ..................................................................................... 27
USER-CENTERED DESIGN (UCD) ............................................................................. 27
How do we do that? ............................................................................................................... 28
CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................ 33
INFORMATION ARCHITECTURE AND NAVIGATION ....................................... 33
Information architecture................................................................................................. 33
Navigation ...................................................................................................................... 36
CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................. 40
PROTOTYPING .............................................................................................................. 40
Introduction .................................................................................................................... 40
Types of prototypes........................................................................................................ 40
Requirements for prototyping tools ............................................................................... 41
Prototyping tools ............................................................................................................ 42
CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................ 46
MULTI-MODAL INTERFACES................................................................................... 46
Introduction .................................................................................................................... 46
Sound in the interface .................................................................................................... 46
CHAPTER SEVEN .......................................................................................................... 48
VIRTUAL REALITY ...................................................................................................... 48
Introduction .................................................................................................................... 48
Applications of virtual reality ........................................................................................ 49
Augmented reality.......................................................................................................... 49
CHAPTER EIGHT .......................................................................................................... 50
COMPUTER SUPPORTED COOPERATIVE WORK (CSCW) .............................. 50
Introduction .................................................................................................................... 50
Features and classification of CSCW systems ............................................................... 50
CHAPTER NINE ............................................................................................................. 51
HUMAN- COMPUTER INTERFACE .......................................................................... 51
Human/computer interfaces provide the means by which the user tells the computer
what to do and at the same time the computer can interact with the human user by
producing a response. ...................................................................................................... 51
Chapter summary ................................................................................................................... 73
Organizations tend to use one of three types of HCI ..................................................... 73
Context sensitive help can be provided............................................................................. 74
Drawbacks ......................................................................................................................... 74
The best interfaces are those that are those that are: - ................................................... 75
Resource implications of a sophisticated HCI ................................................................. 77
Human Factors Models .......................................................................................................... 83
A Modern Human Factors Challenge: Cell Phones and Driving ........................................... 84
Ergonomics ............................................................................................................................ 88
User friendliness .................................................................................................................... 88
Input component .................................................................................................................... 88
Output component .................................................................................................................. 88
Display ................................................................................................................................... 88
Control ................................................................................................................................... 88
Musculoskeletal disorders ...................................................................................................... 88
Human-computer interface .................................................................................................... 88
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CONTEMPORARY WORK DESIGN CHALLENGES ...................................................... 88
Technology ............................................................................................................................ 88
Computers ........................................................................................................................ 92
User-centered design ........................................................................................................ 99
CHAPTER ELEVEN..................................................................................................... 100
MEMORY AND MENTAL MODELS ........................................................................ 100
Ergonomics .......................................................................................................................... 113
User friendliness .................................................................................................................. 113
Input component .................................................................................................................. 113
Output component ................................................................................................................ 113
Display ................................................................................................................................. 113
Control ................................................................................................................................. 113
Musculoskeletal disorders .................................................................................................... 113
Human-computer interface .................................................................................................. 113
7. User interfaces have gradually become more and more oriented to the needs of
users over recent years. ............................................................................................... 125
Psychological factors: Max. 4 @ 1 each from: user friendly interface (qualified),
help available for novice users, short cuts for expert users, make use of human long
term memory to maximise efficiency, functionality, technophobia .............................. 125
(b) Three points. In each case: ............................................................................... 125
on-line help availability- increased need for backing store (2,1,0) ...................... 126
complexity of interface/ multiplicity of menu routes adds to size of resultant code
thus increased IAS demands (2,1,0) ............................................................................. 126
use of GUI- increased IAS demands (2,1,0) .......................................................... 126
Faster searching of help file -processor speed overhead. (2,1,0) ......................... 126
References .................................................................................................................... 133
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CHAPTER ONE
The study of Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) finally took center stage in the mid-1990s
as the World Wide Web, e-mail, and Windows 95 burst upon the scene. Over the years,
computers and programs have become easier to use. Computer programs have become more
user friendly, taking advantage of “point and click” design. Minimal mouse clicks are only
part of the picture to improve the computing experience. Cleaner, less cluttered “work
spaces” for software are the heart of HCI. Users can focus on the tasks at hand (i.e., doing
whatever it is they want to do with computers without worrying about how to “make things
work”).
HCI was a major factor at the Xerox Park Research Project in the late 1970s, even if the
people involved weren’t quite sure initially what HCI was (or the monumental impact it
would ultimately have). Those researchers made pioneering efforts studying how people
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interacted with technology. They then redesigned software (and computers) to improve the
“computing experience,” boosting productivity. Mouse technology and “desktops” with
icons (primitive as they were compared to today’s standards) made it easier for people to
work with technology that was soon to change the computing landscape of our daily lives in
the 1980s.
What is HCI?
HCI has to do with the space that is created for you to work with technology. I’m not talking
about space in the traditional sense of “floor space.” I’m referring to the space that envelops
you the minute you start concentrating. That space is what you become “submerged” in
when you interact with a computer (or any kind of technological device you need to
control).Think about all those flashing “12:00” digits on VCRs when they became a part of
outlives in the 1980s. People quickly figured out how to press the red record button on the
VCR to record a program “on the fly.” But it was a much different story when it came to
performing such tasks as programming the VCR and setting channels. The typical reason for
the futility many people felt while trying to use a VCR was confusing or poorly written
instructions. The same is true for digital watches. Setting (or turning off) an alarm on a
digital watch can be difficult. And, it really all comes back to HCI. The steps to accomplish
tasks with electronic equipment have become more intuitive, because the designers of the
products now look very closely at HCI and the space they are creating for you to work in.
Problems setting VCRs and digital watches are only a small part of the picture. Even today,
people don’t use many of the features on their cell phones or answering machines. The
reason is that they just can’t figure out what to do. After just a few attempts a person usually
gives up on taking advantage of the “bells and whistles” that sounded great at first.
Affordance
Affordance is the essence of HCI. Simply put, affordance is the knowhow and skill set you
brings to any new situation. Here’s an example of affordance: You rent a car. Even though
the car is a model you have never driven, when you climb into the rental car you already
know how to press the button to roll down the electric window. However, the affordance
you “bring to the table” in such a situation isn’t going to do you much good if, instead of
pressing down on the button, you need to pull up on the button to make the window work.
Here’s another example: There’s a very good reason that most rental car companies do not
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offer cars with manual transmissions. Anyone who has a license has the skill necessary to
drive a car with an automatic transmission. But you’re driving skills would do you no good
if you couldn’t use a clutch or shift. Therein lays the conundrum for HCI. Because there is
no one specific standard way to create products, there is no magic way to create user-centred
design. The goal that HCI achieves is to create something the user can work with
successfully. A person must be able to work within an interface (or space) intuitively.
Affordance is something you keep adding to over time.
You have most likely interacted with technology in positive and negative ways. A good
experience, where you can accomplish what needs to be done with minimal heartache, isn’t
something that can be listed in “10 easy steps” for product design. The evolving study of
HCI is the major force leading to a better working experience in those technology spaces
you inhabit daily.
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While easy to use, the structure of the table of Contents is dependent on the thought process
of the Help author. As a result, finding information in the Table of contents is not likely to
be intuitive. The user would have to know what the Help author was thinking when the
author created the Table of Contents.
Most users quickly discover that the Table of Contents, while nicely structured, does not
allow a user to find information quickly. Instead, users tend to spend more time on the Index
tab where users find an alphabetical list of keywords. The user can type a keyword and, if
the keyword is part of the Help system, the user is presented with associated topics. Of
course, one drawback to the Index is that a user would have to know which keyword to type
to use the Index effectively. The Search tab, on the other hand, allows a user to find any
word in any topic simply by typing the word and clicking “Search.” For these reasons, a
Help system that uses either the Index or Search tab as the default, instead of the Table of
Contents, would be an example of good HCI.
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Most people who use your projects will first look in the upper left portion of a window. This
area of the window is known as the “hot spot.” In newspaper publishing, the upper left part
of a page is often reserved for the most important news items. Positioning the play bar can
be a tough decision. Should you position the play bar in the upper left, or would that be a
distraction? How about positioning the play bar in the bottom centre of the user’s window.
That’s not a bad idea until you hear from users that they didn’t know there was a play bar
because it was too far down the page. Unless it would be blocking important screen
elements, I recommend placing the play bar in the upper right of the project. In my
experience, this kind of positioning garners the most favourable reviews.
The bottom line where your projects are concerned is that you should create your projects
with HCI in mind. If you do, your projects will build on what the user already knows and
your projects will add to the success a person will have when working with technology—
new and old.
Electronic classrooms also allow homework assignments, as well as tests and certifications,
to e more easily distributed and processed. Additionally, the tutorials and training aids to
prepare for such testing can be handled effortlessly and effectively. The success of
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electronic meetings and learning has come from HCI being interwoven into goals, planning,
development and implementation. By building on skills learners already have, electronic
meetings and classrooms have become productive tools for corporations and education
institutions.
Some programs require certain combinations of keystrokes for commands and although the
combinations chosen may seem obvious to the programmer, they can be off-putting to a
novice user. Sometimes the user may be led down a path in an application only to be left
stranded when there is no indication provided as to what to do next. In other applications,
when the user presses a key they are not given any indication
of whether the key has been accepted or not. ` User-friendliness does not just apply to the
software itself; it can also apply to the manuals that accompany the software. Many software
manuals make too many assumptions as to the user's prior computer knowledge. Software
should be designed from the point of view of the novice user,
EXAMPLE
Software: You should ask yourself the following question:
`What kind of program can I write so that it will meet the needs of 90 per cent of the
users rather than the 10 per cent or fewer experienced users who must have
enormously varied features and capabilities'?
There is often a false assumption that the more complex a program appears, the more
features it will have and the more useful it will be. For an application package to be
commercially successful, it need not have complex graphics, colour options, windows,
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toolbars and icons. It needs instead to be user-orientated, so that the minimum number of
keystrokes or mouse movements is needed to enable the user to achieve their objective.
There must be a coherent logic in the interface which is repeated and reinforced as the user
employs its various features.
Technophobia
Many people, when introduced to computing, are afraid to try things out. Some people never
seem to grasp the operation of devices such as video recorders, washing machines, etc.
Many of these people find it difficult to understand manuals and instruction books. The
human/computer interface should therefore be designed for accessibility.
User Freindly
A user-friendly interface is less frustrating and less stressful to use, and the user can
therefore work more quickly. Documentation accompanying the program should also be
user-friendly. The user should not have to wade through a lot of confusing material to learn
about basic features of the software, such as how to start the program or print out the results.
One of the best methods of ensuring that software interfaces are user-friendly is to pay end
users to test the completed version before release. Testers should be picked to include
novice users.
The screen shot opposite shows the first step of the Chart Wizard in Microsoft Excel.
Clearly this wizard gives help to the novice user but also allows the expert to control every
aspect of creating graphs.
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Software should allow novice users to gain confidence in exploring the system. They should
know that it is possible to try an action, view the result, and undo the action if the result is
not what they wanted.
Short-term storage is where data is held temporarily. An example of this is when we ask
someone for a phone number without writing it down and then remember it for the short
period it takes us to dial the number.
Long-term storage is for those things we need to remember over a longer period. The more
often anything committed to long-term memory is rehearsed, the longer it will usually be
remembered for.
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Human/computer interfaces are as different as their users. Some operators are passive and
will only react in accordance with the computer's instructions whilst others will make
enquiries, issue commands and get the computer to do things for them.
The response to an error message depends upon the experience of the user. Untrained or
inexperienced users will often be scared of error messages and unable to know what to do
without help; experienced users are usually able to do something about the problem
themselves.
When designing a menu system there are a number of things to bear in mind:
There should be an opening menu, or general menu, from which other menus can be
accessed, but you should never go more than three or four levels deep.
The grouping of items in each menu should be natural and comprehensible.
There should be either letters or numbers that allow the user to gain quick access to a
particular item in the menu.
Menus are ideal if operators are likely to receive very little training or are infrequent users
of the system, or are possibly unfamiliar with the terminology of the system.
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Screen design
If a source document, such as an application form or an order form, is used to supply the
information, then the input screen should mirror the form so that time is not wasted
matching an item on the form with its equivalent on the screen. It is much better if a single
screen can be used rather than multiple screens, even if it means that the screen is cluttered.
It is also important that screen designs are consistent across all the departments in an
organisation.
Error messages
Error messages can be infuriating to the user if they just say what is wrong without offering
any suggestion as to what to do about it. On the other hand, there is a limit to the help the
package can provide since the computer cannot mind-read. If an error message is given and
it is impossible for the computer to anticipate what was intended, then the help facility
should provide some guide to the likely problems.
Sample Error
Messages
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The above examples clearly show how un-helpful error messages can be.
In essence you should consider that any error messages developed within
your system should be understandable by novices.
Availability of help
All modern software has a help facility but its usefulness varies. A poor help facility can
serve to add to the confusion of an inexperienced user. Most help facilities enable the user to
search for help on a certain topic; they sometimes look at the context in which the user
requires the help. The human/computer interface can do this because it looks at the way the
help query is phrased.
User-friendliness
User-friendliness is usually taken to mean the ease with which the software may be learnt
and used. User-friendliness is a personal thing what one person finds user-friendly another
person may find off-putting or annoying. When assessing the user-friendliness of software,
it is best to get the comments of a range of users with different IT skills.
Ease of learning
There are a number of factors that make software easy to learn, including:
Make the operation of the package similar the operation of other packages (this is a
significant factor that makes Windows-based software easy to learn).
Have an on-line tutorial that takes the user through the basics of the package. This
should be interactive and make use of multimedia to add interest and involve the
user.
Provide a user-friendly manual, preferably written with the novice user in mind.
A solution based on one of the popular packages for which there are many books and
training guides facilitates learning.
The software should be able to anticipate what the user is trying to do and offer
appropriate help.
The user should be able to get out of trouble easily, for example by pressing the ESC
key. This will encourage the user to experiment and not worry too much about the
consequences.
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Involve lots of users at an early stage so their advice can be obtained if needed.
If you are considering writing a program or developing a system with a GUI, you should
always bear in mind the extra resources it requires, which could limit its use for
organisations that have older hardware and thus be unable to run your software. One way
around the problem is to use only a few pictures, fewer graphics, and to limit the range of
colours used.
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For example, a novice may prefer to use a pull-down menu or click on an icon to print out a
file, whereas the experienced user may find it faster to issue a command using a sequence of
keys, such as Ctrl+P
Multi-tasking capabilities
Most modern operating systems support multitasking, which makes it easy for the user to
switch between applications. Multi-processing, where more than one application is open at
any one time, places great demands on the processing power of the chip as well as the main
memory requirements. As users demand this facility, faster processors and more main
memory are needed.
Some user interfaces are quite expensive in terms of hardware and software. For example,
touch-screen technology enables people who may have never used a computer before to find
out about a range of products and services, but this requires an expensive screen. CAD work
requires maximum use of the screen uncluttered by toolbars and menus, so these are
transferred to an expensive graphics tablet instead.
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stretch the capabilities of the chip, and to run such software quickly requires a processor
with a high clock speed.
You can create new toolbars or menus by adding icons or groups and getting rid of
any which you seldom use. In some cases, the
software is automatically configured on the basis of
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what is used most often. In other words, it puts only those items that you use
regularly in the toolbars.
Forms are used to enter the data into some packages (such as databases) in a user-friendly
way. These forms must be designed carefully, since some staff will be using them for
several hours a day and entering large amount of data. Designing this type of
human/computer interface is something anyone who develops databases will need to do.
Suppose you are asked to design a form for entering personal details of sports club members
into the computer. As the personal details come from the members themselves, you need to
ask them to complete an application form and then use this as the source document for
keying the data into the database. There are a number of things that can be done to make it
easy for the person who does the keying in. They include:
The most important fields (i.e. the primary key and keys) should be situated in the
most prominent place (usually the top left of the screen).
The fields on the database form should be in exactly the same positions as the fields
on the application form. This means that the person keying in the data knows exactly
where to look.
Help menus that pop up when the cursor is moved to a field can be included; these
should give an indication as to the type and format of data required.
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Suitable fonts and font sizes should be used. Do not use many different styles and
sizes – go for consistency.
Colours should be used very carefully. Do not use bright colours inappropriately and
choose colour combinations that work together.
An inexperienced user might not understand specialist terms, so these must not be
used on the form.
There should be a limit to the number of fields on one screen; otherwise the user
could be overwhelmed.
Validation checks should be included, along with useful validation messages that
appear if the wrong data is entered or it is entered in the wrong format.
Note in the example shown opposite. Information has been grouped into areas of the screen
where there is a collective relevance.
There is also
a logical flow
when
inputting the
data starting
from the
upper left
leading to the
bottom right
of the screen.
Such as a book would be read.
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Here is a quote that sums up the consideration needed when developing HCI:
'To the vast majority of mankind nothing is more agreeable than to escape the need for
mental exertion ... to most people nothing is more troublesome than the effort of thinking'.
(Bryce 1888)
CHAPTER QUESTIONS
1) Describe three of the features of a sophisticated user interface that makes it easy for a
novice to use.
2) Describe three features of a sophisticated user interface that makes it quick for an
experienced user.
3) Give three psychological factors which govern how people interact with computer
systems.
4) What are the factors you would need to take into account when designing a screen layout
for a database application?
6) A supermarket chain has recently implemented a new stock control system in each of its
branches. This has affected those staff who have not used computer systems before. Many
of the staff have described the system as being 'user friendly'. However, when the package
was implemented in one particular store, it was not well received by its staff.
(a) Give four features of software packages that would merit the description 'user friendly'.
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(b) Both physical and psychological factors can influence how people interact with
computer systems. Both may have contributed to the poor reception of this system in that
store.
7. Describe the psychological factors that affect human / computer interaction: user
friendly, give help to novices, provide short cuts for experts, make use of human long
term memory to maximize efficiency.
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CHAPTER TWO
USER INTERACTION DESIGN
Design Rules
The goal of interaction design is to design for maximum usability.Design rules are rules
that a designer can follow in order to increase the usability of the system/product e.g.,
principles, standards, guidelines.important consinderations to make are:-
• What are the differences among principles, standards and guidelines. Hint: they have
differences based on level of abstraction/generality and level of authority e.g.,
principles are rather general, standards are specific.
• Principles: Example - usability principles by Dix et al (HCI book)
• Standards: They are often set by national (eg British Standards Institution) or
international bodies (ISO). Example [of standards] - ISO 9241 "Ergonomic
Requirements for Office Work with Visual Display Terminals (VDT)s"
• Guidelines: Example - Smith and Mosier's "Guidelines for User Interface Software"
[MITRE Corporation 1986].
• Design rules should be used early in the lifecycle [e.g., during the design; note that
they can also be used to evaluate the usability of the system]
Usability Principles
1. Learnability: the ease with which new users can begin effective interaction and
achieve maximal performance.
2. Flexibility: the multiplicity of ways the user and system exchange information.
3. Robustness: the level of support provided to the user in determining successful
achievement and assessment of goal-directed behavior.
1. Learnability
The ease with which new users can begin effective interaction and achieve maximal
performance.
• Predictability: support for the user to determine the effect of future action based on
past interaction history.
• Synthesizability: support for the user to assess the effect of past operations on the
current state.
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• Familiarity: the extent to which a user's knowledge and experience in other real-
world or computer-based domains can be applied when interacting with a new
system.
• Generalizability: support for the user to extend knowledge of specific interaction
within and across applications to other similar situations.
• Consistency: likeness in input-output behavior arising from similar situations or
similar task objectives.
2. Flexibility
The multiplicity of ways the user and system exchange information.
• Dialogue initiative: user freedom from artificial constraints on the input dialog
imposed by the system; user vs system.
• Multithreading: the ability of the system to support user interaction for more than
one task at a time.
• Task migratability: the ability to transfer control for execution of tasks between the
system and the user (consider e.g., spell-checking task).
• Substitutivity: the extent to which an application allows equivalent input and output
values to be substituted for each other (values in input eg fractions/decimals, values
in output eg both digital and analog, output/input eg output can be reused as input).
• Customizability: the ability of the user or the system to modify the user interface.
(adaptability vs adaptivity) ?-initiated modification.
3. Robustness
The level of support provided to the user in determining successful achievement and
assessment of goal-directed behavior.
• Observability: the extent to which the user can evaluate the internal state of the
system from the representation on the user interface.
• Recoverability: the extent to which the user can reach the intended goal after
recognizing an error in the previous interaction.
• Responsiveness:a measure of the rate of communication between the user and the
system.
• Task conformance: the extent to which the system services support all the tasks the
user would wish to perform and in the way the user would wish to perform.
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Heuristics and Golden Rules
Jakob Nielsen’s 10 Usability Heuristics
1. Visibility of system status: the system should always keep users informed about
what is going on, through appropriate feedback within reasonable time.
2. Match between system and the real world: the system should speak the users'
language, with words, phrases and concepts familiar to the user, rather than system-
oriented terms. Follow real-world conventions, making information appear in a natural
and logical order.
3. User control and freedom: users often choose system functions by mistake and will
need a clearly marked "emergency exit" to leave the unwanted state without having to
go through an extended dialogue. Support undo and redo.
4. Consistency and standards: users should not have to wonder whether different
words, situations, or actions mean the same thing. Follow platform conventions.
5. Error prevention: even better than good error messages is a careful design which
prevents a problem from occurring in the first place.
6. Recognition rather than recall: make objects, actions, and options visible. The user
should not have to remember information from one part of the dialogue to another.
Instructions for use of the system should be visible or easily retrievable whenever
appropriate.
7. Flexibility and efficiency of use: accelerators -- unseen by the novice user -- may
often speed up the interaction for the expert user such that the system can cater to both
inexperienced and experienced users. Allow users to tailor frequent actions.
8. Aesthetic and minimalist design: dialogues should not contain information which is
irrelevant or rarely needed. Every extra unit of information in a dialogue competes with
the relevant units of information and diminishes their relative visibility.
9. Help users recognize, diagnose, and recover from errors: error messages should be
expressed in plain language (no codes), precisely indicate the problem, and
constructively suggest a solution.
10. Help and documentation: even though it is better if the system can be used
without documentation, it may be necessary to provide help and documentation. Any
such information should be easy to search, focused on the user's task, list concrete steps
to be carried out, and not be too large.
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Ben Shneiderman's 8 Golden Rules
1. Strive for consistency: layout, terminology, command usage, etc.
2. Enable frequent users to use shortcuts: support special key combinations and
sequences, macros, abbreviations, ...
3. Offer informative feedback: for every user action, offer relevant feedback and
information, keep the user appropriately informed, human-computer interaction.
4. Design dialogs to yield closure: help the user know when they have completed a
task.
5. Offer error prevention and simple error handling: prevention and (clear and
informative guidance to) recovery; error management.
6. Permit easy reversal of actions : to relieve anxiety and encourage exploration,
because the user knows s/he can always go back to previous states.
7. Support internal locus of control: make the user feel that s/he is in control of the
system, which responds to his/her instructions/commands.
8. Reduce short-term memory load: make menus and UI elements/items visible, easily
available/retrievable, ...
UCD is an approach to design that grounds the process in information about the people who
will use the product.
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UCD intends to ensure that the user is at the center during the design process in order to
realize products that meet usability requirements.
UCD follows a series of methods and techniques for analysis, design, and evaluation of
software products.
The UCD process is iterative and focuses on users through all the life-cycle phases in order
to realize products that the user can use with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction
(usable products).
There is an international standard that forms the basis for UCD. This standard (ISO 13407:
Human centred design process for interactive systems) defines a general process for
including human-centered activities throughout a development life-cycle, but does not
dictate the specific methods.
"UCD is an iterative process whose goal is the development of usable systems, achieved
through involvement of potential users of a system in system design." [Karat 1996]
"… user-centered design emphasizes that the purpose of the system is to serve the user, not
to use a specific technology, not to be an elegant piece of programming. The needs of the
users should dominate the design of the interface, and the needs of the interface should
dominate the design of the rest of the system." [Norman 1986]
How do we do that?
UCD illustrated
In order to support such i.e. in order to support UCD, the following are necessary
[characteristics of UCD]:
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Know your users (characteristics, tasks, context/organization/environment in which
they use the system)
Actively involve users early and continuously
Rapid and frequent iteration of designs with usability assessments
Multidisciplinary team [this is inline with the ISO 13407 standard (Human-centred
design processes for interactive systems)] ie It is important that the development
team is made up from representatives of all the groups who have a 'stake' in the
proposed software (stakeholders) e.g. it could include: managers, usability
specialists, training and support staff, software engineers, quality assurance
representatives and of course the users themselves.
CHAPTER THREE
DIRECT MANIPULATION DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Direct manipulation
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One of the consequences of the direction manipulation paradigm is that there is no longer a
clear distinction between input and output – output expressions are used to formulate
subsequent input expressions. [For instance, the document icon is an output expression in
the desktop metaphor, but that icon is used by the user to articulate the move operation.]
Another example:
Note that in the above example, the visible objects for Bold and Italics are serving output
expressions regarding the text, but they can also be used to provide input (to make the text
bold or have it in Italics)
Well-designed direct manipulation interfaces may also engender enthusiasm and elicit
enjoyment from the users because:
i. Novice users can learn the basic functionality quickly
ii. Experienced users can work extremely rapidly to carry out a wide range of tasks,
even defining new functions and features
iii. Knowledgeable irregular users can retain operational concepts; in fact error
messages are rarely needed
iv. Users can immediately see if their actions are furthering their goals and, if they are
not, can simply change the direction of their activity
v. users experience less anxiety because the system is comprehensible and because
actions are so easily reversible
vi. Users gain confidence and mastery because they initiate an action, feel in control and
can predict system responses.
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CHAPTER FOUR
Information architecture
Organizational/Classification schemes
Organizational/Classification schemes describe a way of classifying objects in the
information space (i.e. creation of categories/groups of objects).
Organizational structures
It is almost always certain that not everything will fit onto one screen/page.
Some decision will have to be made about how to break up the site in order to accommodate
this constraint.
While organizational/classification schemes describe a way of classifying objects i.e.
creating categories/groups,
organizational structures describe the relationship between the groups.
There are various standard organizational structures for that purpose – note that they tie in
with the classification schemes chosen.
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1. Hierarchical structure/tree: It arranges the information space with a single root at
the top and a number of branches underneath, each of which may have several sub-
branches. There is the big picture from which one can drill down to detail. For
example: music > classical, rock, jazz, etc
Another example:
Question: In the context of hierarchical structures, what is the breadth vs. depth
debate?
2. Network structure: These are structures in which the same item may be linked into
different hierarchies. It is a more natural structure but a more confusing one for
people to understand. Examples of network structures: hypertext links in which
jumps can take place from one page to another irrespective of ordering, search
interfaces where one specifies the search criteria in order to get results (note two
main problems with search interfaces: the user needs to know what they are looking
for and how to specify the correct search criteria).
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Hypertext links
Search interface
3. Sequence – ideal for dealing with a straightforward task structure. For instance,
when going through a registration process, when purchasing a product, when doing a
survey, when boarding a flight online, when installing software, when applying for a
job, etc.
Example:
Navigation
Navigation is concerned with finding out about, and moving through, an environment. It
includes three but related activities:
Object identification – which is concerned with understanding and classifying the
objects in an environment.
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Exploration – which is concerned with finding out about a local environment and
how that environment relates to other environments.
Wayfinding – which is concerned with navigating toward a known destination.
Signage
Good, clear and unambiguous signposting of spaces is critical in the design of spaces. There
are three primary types of signs that designers can use: informational signs, directional
signs, and warning and reassurance signs.
- Informational signs: they provide information on objects, people and activities.
e.g.1:
e.g.2 labels: these are used for internal and external web links, headings and
subheadings, titles, and related areas.
- Directional signs provide route and survey information. They do this often through
sign hierarchies, with one type of sign providing general directions being followed
by another that provides local directions.
e.g.1:
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e.g.2 labels: It is common to have a navigation bar across the top of a site which
points to the main, top-level categories. Within each of these there are subcategories
(eg as a menu on the left-hand side or as a drop-down).
e.g.3 site maps are useful since they display the structure and content headers of the
various categories.
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e.g.2 “You are here” sign, or by having current page highlighted
e.g.3 using breadcrumbs (is a common way of showing people where they are and
how they could find their way back)
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When maps are supplemented with additional detail about objects in the environment, they
become guides.
CHAPTER FIVE
PROTOTYPING
Introduction
Types of prototypes
Prototypes can be classified based on the precision level of the prototype relative to the
anticipated final product.
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It is considered that there are two major precision levels and therefore two main types of
prototypes: low-fidelity prototype and high-fidelity prototype.
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Executable prototypes: Prototypes should ideally exhibit reliability close to real systems,
because designers need to make them in order to increase the reliability of the
information collected. An executable prototype is one that can respond to user input and
provide appropriate responses. However, it is not always necessary that prototypes be
connected to real data and that they perform real computations (e.g. simulations could be
sufficient).
Lifecycle support: Prototyping tools should help with all the stages of the entire design
process starting with the early design stages through the advanced and detailed screen
and behaviour design.
Team design: Software products are developed by teams. Prototyping tools should
support groups of people working together either simultaneously or asynchronously, and
perhaps remotely.
Version control: In prototyping, it is important to explore alternative designs. Many
versions of a prototype might be built while exploring different alternatives. Designers
might want to revisit previous designs, so keeping and managing prototype versions is
important.
Prototyping tools
Paper and pencil prototyping allows the development of paper prototypes, which are low-
fidelity prototypes.
They produce low-fidelity prototypes which are used during early stages of design for
conceptualizing and envisioning the application.
The method itself involves creating rough, hand sketched, drawings of an interface to use as
prototypes of a design. User interface interaction objects such as checkboxes, text fields, and
drop-down lists can be cut out of a sheet of paper and added to the interface to simulate the
interactivity. These prototypes can then be evaluated by asking users to perform some tasks
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using the roughly sketched out interface, while designers observe their actions to gauge
where they face problems, and what they like. This method is very successful at discovering
usability issues early in the design process.
One of paper prototyping’s main drawbacks is lack of interactivity. It can be countered by
combining classical prototyping tools like HyperCard, PowerPoint, etc.
Facade tools
Facade tools allow designers to construct the screens of a user interface without a real
application behind. Of course, each tool has its own domain of applicability, but globally,
this category of tools takes the advantages of Paper and Pencil, by adding the basic
interactivity of an executable prototype: a response to inputs such as a click on a button.
Facade tools create mid-fidelity prototype which are used to design and evaluate mostly the
content, layout, and some interactive aspects, including navigation functionality.
These tools are usually easy to handle. They however do not produce reusable code.
Examples:
Microsoft’s PowerPoint
Apple’s Keynote
Apple’s Hypercard (for hypertext applications, but is getting old)
Macromedia Flash and Director are powerful vector based development tools. Director is a
more complex multimedia authoring tool than Flash. Adapted to large graphical
components, Director is an effective tool for producing impressive simulations,
visualizations, presentations and of course for prototyping user interfaces. Microsoft
Frontpage offers a simple way of developing a website.
Flash, Director and FrontPage can produce any kind of prototypes, from low to high fidelity,
including a full Flash-based application, depending on the depth of the work on the
prototype.
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User interface builders
GUI builders are tools developed to increase the productivity of user interface development
teams, and to lower the cost of user interface code in both the development and maintenance
phases.
They are the construction tools that give interface developers a drawing-like interface to
specify the layout. Their main function is to save time by generating the executable code of
the interface from a few mouse clicks. For instance: Microsoft Visual Basic, Microsoft
Visual C++, which are part.
Microsoft Visual Studio software development suite, have a direct-manipulation user
interface builder, in conjunction with a corresponding programming environment/code. The
designer is able to create and place standard interface elements, set and modify their
properties, and associate them with codes that execute when they are invoked by a user of
the interface. The development suite/environment makes it easy for the designer to convert a
Visual C++ project into an executable file that can be distributed and run by users who do
not have the Visual Studio Environment on any computer that runs Microsoft Windows.
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CHAPTER SIX
MULTI-MODAL INTERFACES
Introduction
Recall that there are five human senses: sight, sound, touch, taste and smell.
Since our interaction with the world is improved by multi-sensory input, it makes sense that
interactive systems that utilize more than sensory channel will also provide a richer
interactive experience. Moreover, users can interact with the system using the mode of
interaction that is most appropriate to their abilities.
A multi-modal interactive system is a system that relies on the use of multiple human
communication channels. Each different channel for the user is referred to as a modality of
interaction. However, genuine multi-modal systems rely to a great extent on simultaneous
use of multiple communication channels for both input and output.
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Exercise: What are the corresponding dangers if sound is not used and we primarily rely on
visual?
There are two types of sound that can be used on the interface: speech and non-speech.
1. Speech
Language is rich and complex. The complexity in general makes speech recognition and
synthesis by computers very difficult.
Speech recognition:
There are several practical issues that speech recognition faces.
Background noise can interfere with speech recognition.
Redundant or meaningless noise too can interfere with speech recognition.
Speech recognition also has to deal with the uniqueness of a specific voice, different
accents, and different intonations.
Speech synthesis:
Speech synthesis complements speech recognition. The notion of being able to converse
naturally with a computer is an appealing one for many users, especially those who do not
regard themselves as computer literate, because it reflects their natural, daily medium of
expression and communication. However, speech synthesis faces many challenges.
We are highly sensitive to variations and intonation in natural speech, and are
therefore intolerant of the imperfections in synthesized speech (ie imperfections as in
the monotonic tones that the speech synthesizer may produce).
Synthesized speech is transient, and therefore the spoken output cannot be reviewed
or browsed easily.
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Spoken output is intrusive (consider, eg the user may have to use headphones).
Speech synthesis is applicable in several areas.
- For users who are blind or visually impaired, synthesized speech offers an output medium
which they can access eg through screen readers.
- Speech synthesis is useful as a communication tool to assist people with physical
disabilities that affect their speech.
- Speech synthesis is also used as a supplement to other output channels to enhance
applications where the user’s visual attention is focused elsewhere, such as warnings in
aircraft cockpits, cars, etc.
2. Non-speech
Here are some advantages of non-speech sounds:
- Since speech is serial, we have to listen to most of sentence before we understand what is
being said. However, non-speech sounds can often be assimilated much more quickly.
- Speech is language-dependent (and therefore a speech-based system requires translation
for it to be used for another language group). However, the meaning of non-speech sounds
can be learned regardless of language.
- Speech requires user’s attention. However, non-speech sound does not require much
attention and can make use of the phenomenon of auditory adaptation: background sounds
are ignored unless they change or cease.
Disadvantage with non-speech sounds is that they have to be learned, whereas spoken
messages are obvious (at least to a user who is familiar with the language).
VIRTUAL REALITY
Introduction
Virtual reality (VR) refers to the computer-generated simulation of a world, or a subset of it,
in which the user is immersed.
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Since the user has to “see” a new environment, a headset is usually used in a VR setup. It
comes with an independent screen for each eye in order to give a 3D image. The headset can
be a large, relatively cumbersome piece of head-mounted gear or even smaller, lighter
virtual reality goggles [which are (the goggles) now available].
Having to produce and render realistic images in real time requires vast amounts of
computing power. Moreover, the resources for full realism are rarely available (or even not
available as yet).
Input to VR systems is often accomplished through a dataglove that captures gestural
information.
Augmented reality
In augmented reality systems, electronic images are projected over the real world –
virtuality and reality meet. [The head-up displays in many aircraft and even some
automobiles can be regarded as an example of this, but the data in such displaces are not
typically connected to the objects seen through them, and hence the blend between virtuality
and reality is quite weak.A stronger sense of connection can be obtained using semi-
transparent goggles. Users can move around in the real world and see real objects, but
computer images are reflected off the inside of the glass and overlay the physical objects.
The great difficulty with such systems is in ensuring that the physical and virtual worlds are
correctly aligned [or synchronized], a problem called registration.Example: In the
electronics of a large aircraft, the wiring looms that run from end to end may include dozens
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of colored wires, each of which has to be routed to the right place. With augmented reality,
the schematic wiring diagrams can be overlaid onto the physical wiring, helping the
engineer to correctly identify and route each wire.
CHAPTER EIGHT
Introduction
CSCW refers to collaboration between individuals via the computer.
The main distinction between CSCW systems and interactive systems designed for a single
user is that designers can no longer neglect the society within which any single user
operates. CSCW systems are built to allow interaction between humans via the computer
and so the needs of the many must be represented in the one product.
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Asynchronous-local (different time/same place):
They take the form of asynchronous interaction e.g project scheduling, coordination tools,
etc
CHAPTER NINE
Human/computer interfaces provide the means by which the user tells the computer
what to do and at the same time the computer can interact with the human user by
producing a response.
These interfaces are important because they determine the ease with which the computer can
be used. When the manufacturer of systems software or applications software gets it wrong,
then using the software can prove very frustrating and the user will be less likely to buy one
of their products again.
The standard interface for inputting data into the computer is the keyboard with the
computer giving its response on the screen. This is not the only type of human/computer
interface, although it is the most common. There are many other systems that make use of
IT and need a different type of interface.
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Process control screens, computer games, cockpit controls on fly-by-wire aircraft,
information systems which can be used by members of the public, all make use of
innovative user interfaces.
They then design a system for those users which uses appropriate:
Input and output devices
Navigation
Validation
Error messages and help
ACTIVITY 1:
Discussion – how many different types of interface can you recall? What type of response
does the interface give?
Recall different approaches to the problem of communication with ICT systems and
discuss the resource implications of sophisticated HCI.
Studying the human computer interface is important from the point of view of improving
productivity and therefore job satisfaction.
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Also in certain instances there is the need to ensure that work practices are safe i.e. that
interfaces do not mislead the user or indicate incorrect actions.
ACTIVITY 2:
Choose one of the interfaces listed below and discuss how it is specifically designed for the
task. Look out for any features of the interface which are specific to its use.
A video recorder handset
The interface for a games console
The interface used in a cash dispenser
The interface between the driver and the controls of a car.
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Humans receive information about the outside world using the senses of taste, touch, sight,
smell and hearing. The ideal interface between humans and machines should incorporate as
many of these as possible.
TOUCH. Multimedia applications make use of our sense of touch via the keyboard, mouse,
joystick and touch-screen monitors.
Virtual Reality. Another interface, which makes use of as many of our senses as possible,
is in the area of virtual reality. Virtual reality applications are programs that envelope the
user within a simulated, three dimensional world of sight, touch and movement. With such
an interface, the user is able to interact in a virtual world.
When user interfaces become sufficiently user friendly, communicating with computers will
be almost like communicating with another human being. We are clearly some way from
this at the moment but successive versions of new operating systems and applications
software are making interfaces easier to use.
ACTIVITY 3:
Explain the type of interface that would be most suited to the following applications:
Suppose you are playing a computer game, such as guiding a Rally car around a track. The
game's manufacturer and you will want to make the game as realistic as possible, as this will
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enhance your enjoyment. The graphics showing the track and the other vehicles can be made
realistic, as can the actual performance of the car (cornering, braking, accelerating and so
on). This all adds to the realism of the game, but the thing that can let the game down is the
human/computer interface.
The worst interface would be the cursor keys and other keys to steer the car, change gear,
accelerate and so on. A better interface would be a joystick, although this is not ideal as cars
are normally fitted with steering wheels, gear sticks and foot pedals. However you can now
actually buy such interfaces to make controlling the car as realistic as possible.
Dialogue boxes and pull-down menus are used as part of these interfaces. The work area is
located in the centre of the screen and users are usually able to choose which toolbars, rulers
and icons are displayed around this area. The user work area provides a moveable `window'
through which one can see the data being worked on; to move the data, the horizontal and
vertical sliders at the side and the bottom of the screen are used.
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A typical window is shown in diagram below what makes windows-based software
particularly easy to use is that the interface is standardised across different applications.
Some components of a typical window
Most windows computers will look similar to the previous screen shot and within any suite
of applications there will be very identical icons, button bars, dialogue boxes and pull-down
menus. This makes learning windows-based packages much easier.
A graphical user interface does more than simply control the hardware; it can be used by the
programmer to influence how the user interacts with a program. In particular, it allows the
programmer to standardize the way a program works. If a user knows how to open a
document in a word processing package, then if the interface is standardized, they will also
know how to open a worksheet in a spreadsheet package.
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So in summary, standardizing programs makes it easy for the user to transfer skills from one
application to another.
There are a number of features common to all GUIs and these are:
A mouse is used as the main input device. By moving a mouse on a flat surface, the
cursor can be made to move across the screen; the left mouse button is used to make
selections.
INSERT GRAPHICS HERE
Overlapping windows are used. Many windows, even in different applications, can
be opened simultaneously. You can therefore have a spreadsheet and a
wordprocessed document on the screen at the same time and this makes it much
easier if you are going to import data from one package into another.
They make use of many graphics features. There are many graphical features
incorporated into the design, such as icons, pull-down menus, toolbars, slide bars,
selection boxes, dialogue boxes, etc.
ACTIVITY 4:
Discuss in small groups the following questions.
a) All systems software and applications software have user interfaces. Some systems
software makes use of a command line interface while others use a graphical user
interface (GUI). Discuss the main differences between them.
b) Discuss – In your opinion what are the five most important features of a graphical
user interface?
c) Find three advantages in using a GUI rather than a command line interface.
The advantages of having a common user interface for different generic application
programs
The advantage of most users having the same operating system is that people can move
between computers and still know how to operate them. The same can be said of different
generic packages, such as word processors, databases and spreadsheets.
Common commands
Where a number of commands can be issued using the keyboard, it makes sense to use the
same combination of keys to perform the same task no matter which manufacturer has
produced the software. This needs a certain amount of co-operation between rival
companies and it can also mean that newer, improved user interfaces are harder to introduce.
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You have only to look at the standard layout of the typewriter keyboard to see how users
like uniformity. Can you imagine what it would be like if every computer manufacturer
decided they would have a different arrangement of keys on a keyboard?
The present arrangement was designed originally to cope with the mechanical properties of
the typewriter, but ended up making it slow. Other shapes of keyboard have been developed
over the years; they are more ergonomically designed but people's resistance to making the
change has meant that there are very few of them in use, even though most users find they
are an improvement.
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ACTIVITY 5:
Interfaces for people with sensory impairments must be aimed at those senses which are
unaffected by their disabilities.
A visually impaired person has two problems with most common interfaces. First they
cannot look at the screen to see the menus, icons, etc. that enable them to make a particular
selection, and secondly, they are not always aware when a mistake has occurred. The usual
graphical interface is difficult to use and it is better if commands are issued using the
keyboard.
Before the introduction of the Windows operating system, an operating system called DOS
(disk operating system) was used, which meant the user had to learn a series of commands
to do certain things such as format a disk or copy a group of files. Many of these commands
did not need to be typed in full, but could be issued using a single keystroke or a
combination of keystrokes. The visually impaired user can issue DOS commands to the
computer relatively easily. When hard copy output is needed, it is possible for an impact
printer (such as a dot matrix printer) to produce the output on Braille which can be read by
other visually impaired users.
Another approach is to use special software that converts the text or commands into speech.
For example, wordprocessing software for visually impaired people enables the user to
move through a document word by word, while the system reads them. By using this
method, the user can detect any mistakes made. The user of this system also hears
commands as they are issued, so mistakes can be detected and the command corrected.
Many users, particularly disabled users who have difficulty in pressing individual keys, may
find speech recognition systems much easier to use. The main problem arises when what has
been typed needs to be edited. There are, however, ways in which the user can direct the
cursor for editing and then issue spoken instructions.
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The importance to companies of adopting a common user interface
If you regularly work at a college or school, you will probably have to use lots of different
computers in the course of a week. This means you are likely to experience some problems
when using operating systems software or applications software.
The problems usually involve the previous user having changed some of the settings on the
interface. For example, they could have changed the screen or character colours.
If you are using applications software, such as wordprocessing, there may be different
margins set or toolbars showing on the screen. These are just some of the frustrations that
occur when you have to share computers with other people.
Many commercial organisations do not have a desk for each of their employees; they
consider it wasteful to do so because not all employees are working at their desks at the
same time. This means that employees have to find a vacant desk with a computer if they
want to do some work. So that changes to the user interface are not passed on to the next
user of the system, companies make use of a network where the software is stored on the
server. When a user logs on to the system they are presented with the same interface, and it
is then up to them to change the settings for their own use during their log-in period, should
they want to.
This avoids unnecessary calls to the help lines; most large companies operate, to sort out
problems caused by changed settings.
The operational basics of one application can easily be applied to other applications.
Key commands can be found in the same place for each application.
There is consistency in toolbars and menus.
Dialogue boxes, customisable features and operational features are similar.
On-line help is provided in each application in a similar way.
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Other types of user interface
Sometimes, users need only simple interfaces, when the variety of tasks to be performed is
quite limited, for instance, entering customer order details using a terminal.
Forms dialogue
Forms on the screen are used in a similar way to paper forms. They enable data to be
entered into the system in a pre-determined and structured way. The forms usually have the
name of the data to be entered into each box at the side of the box and this tells the user
exactly what they have to type in. If this is not sufficient, additional instructions can be
added by way of an explanation. Forms can also have buttons added and pick lists that give
the user a dropdown list of options to choose from. Check boxes can also be used, where the
user can select one or more items by clicking on the appropriate boxes in a list. This
arrangement is very popular when entering details into a database; if you do a database
project you will probably have to design such a form for data input.
Forms dialogue can be classed as either formatted or free format. The difference between
the two is in the flexibility offered to the user. With formatted dialogue interfaces there are
fewer ways for the user to enter data into the computer and for this reason they are better
suited to novices. With free format dialogue the interface is more complex and there are lots
of ways of entering data. It is important that the designer of the interface matches it to the
capabilities of the user, since a simple formatted dialogue design can annoy an experienced
user with its lack of scope, while a novice could find overwhelming the choices in a free
format dialogue system.
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Command-driven interfaces
The main problem for users of command-driven interfaces is that to use them successfully,
it is necessary to remember a large number of commands and also how to construct them.
Although these interfaces often use help screens, in case you forget a command or need to
look up the syntax, they are still very hard for inexperienced users to master. The users of
command-driven interfaces have to learn a command language similar in many ways to a
specialist programming language and which is almost as difficult to learn.
INSERT DOS COMMANDS HERE
Interface Styles
C:>Format a:
The user types in commands. The computer responds by
displaying text on the monitor.
The user must remember all of the commands.
MS-DOS, some databases, e.g. dBase4 (LDL taught this in
1993!)
Good for experts - the commands can be entered quickly and take
up little computer memory.
TASK 2 Explain three advantages and three disadvantages of using a command line interface.
Users usually know what they want to do, but they do not know how to translate this into a
series of commands. For this reason command driven interfaces have become much less
popular over recent years, and have been overtaken by graphical user interfaces.
Command-driven interfaces are also called command line interfaces because it is necessary
for the user to type in a command next to the cursor on the line. Many operating systems
such as MS-DOS (Microsoft disk operating system) and UNIX use a command line
interface and in MS-DOS the user has to type `C>DIR' to obtain a list of the files stored on
the hard drive. Once all the commands are learnt, a command line interface can be quite fast,
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but you may waste time looking up commands and syntax details or making mistakes and
then having to correct them.
Here is a summary outlining the advantages and disadvantages of using a command-
driven interface.
Advantages
They are very powerful and the user can achieve a lot with a single command.
They are very quick provided you are an experienced user.
They are very flexible and you can alter the parameters to do different things.
Disadvantages
They are quite difficult to learn.
They are less suitable for novice or intermittent users.
They sometimes use obscure abbreviations or keywords and syntax is important.
They are prone to typing mistakes.
TASK 4
1) What do the ticks signify?
2) Why is one row blue?
3) Why have a menu and sub-menu instead of just one menu?
Windows
Pop-up menus
These are usually brought up by clicking the right-hand button of the mouse; the user is then
able to make a selection from a list.
Pull-down menus
To save space these menus are only shown if the user clicks on a particular item. To make a
selection, the user clicks on one of the items in the menu. To cancel the operation, escape is
pressed.
Form based data Entry
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TASK 3 Explain two disadvantages and two advantages of using forms for data entry.
Yes!
Language is ambiguous:
Are Lynn and Mike married?
Are Lynn and Ian married?
TASK 5 Explain two advantages and two disadvantages of a natural language interface.
Resource Implications
GUIs and Windows are user-friendly, but they need better and faster computers. We could
not have such systems running on old computers.
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Hard drive space 5Mb
Windows 2000 GUI Processor 133Mhz
Internet capability RAM min 64Mb
Hard drive space 650Mb
Windows XP As 2000 + networking, Processor 300Mhz
movies, music etc RAM min 128Mb
Hard drive space 1.5 Gb
The most important aspect of a natural language interface is that the computer should be
able to understand what the user wants it to do without requiring correctly structured
commands and data names in a particular order. All you should need to do is to express
yourself clearly, either by typing or speaking to the computer.
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Since people can say the same thing in a variety of ways, the computer would need to be
able to interpret and understand what is being said accurately, and this is a major hurdle for
developers of natural language interfaces.
One person might say `Can I have the sales of Mars bars for March?', and another might say
`Give me the revenue details for Mars bars sold in March'. In either case the computer
should be able to give the same details. A natural language interface also needs to be able to
cope with misspelled words, bad grammar and slang, either `understanding' them or asking
the user for clarification. If speech recognition is used, the interface will also need to cope
with mispronounced words, different regional accents, etc.
The use of a natural language interface to access a knowledge base is the foundation of the
area called artificial intelligence.
Pointer-based interfaces
There are other up-to-date interfaces besides GUIs and these are called pointer-based or
gesture-based interfaces. They work by using a pen-like stylus or pointer to interact with the
computer. With some systems, you can simply write in ordinary handwriting using the
stylus on a special pad which represents the input device for the system. These systems need
special software called handwriting recognition software. In some systems, particularly
CAD (computer-aided design) systems, the user uses a graphics tablet or pad and the stylus
is used to point to certain shapes or commands on the pad. The advantage with this system is
that it allows the user to use freehand, using the stylus like a pencil. This is much easier to
control than a mouse.Some pointer-based interfaces do not even have a stylus and they
instead make use of a touch sensitive screen which can detect the pressure of a user's finger
on the screen. You may have seen such devices being made use of in quiz
machines. You can also see them in banks where they are used to present the user with a
series of options and the user can make their selection by pressing the screen at a certain
point.
Pointing devices
Pointing devices enable the user to move the cursor to anywhere on the screen and point to a
tool, icon, menu selection or button. The commonest pointing device is the mouse which
seems to come with any new computer purchased. The mouse is the part of the computer
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system that wears out soonest because it is usually mechanical and has moving parts which
wear. Mice usually come with either two or three selection buttons for making selections
and some have a small wheel in the middle.
As well as traditional mice, there are also some other pointing devices which are better
suited to some applications.
The trackball
If you turn an ordinary mouse upside down and rotate the ball using your hand, you have a
simple trackball. Although it is quite difficult to use, after a while you get used to it.
Trackballs are particularly useful if there is no flat surface on which a mouse can be moved
and for this reason they are provided on laptop computers. Systems designed for members
of the public or for children often make use of trackballs. One such trackball, called
EasyBall, is designed specifically for very young children, so that they can learn to interact
with the computer from an early age. It is also ideal for anyone who lacks the manual
dexterity needed for using an ordinary mouse.
The bit pad works in a slightly different way, by making use of absolute positioning. Unlike
the mouse pad, if you move the pointer from one corner of the pad to the other, the cursor
jumps from one corner to the other. This makes it quicker to use than the mouse pad since it
is not necessary to move the stylus across the surface of the pad. The bit pad is ideal for
drawing freehand on the screen since using the stylus on the pad is just like using a pencil or
pen on paper.
Full size bit pads are ideal for drawing or painting. The pad also has icons from which
certain tools and functions may be selected by touching them.
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Speech recognition
Using speech to supply both instructions and data to the computer moves us nearer to the
natural language interface. It allows humans to communicate directly with the system and
although it can be used in a wide variety of applications, it has only become popular as a
method of communicating with the computer via the operating system OS/2, or when
inputting text into a word-processing package.
The main advantage with speech recognition as part of the user interface, is that there is no
longer any need to learn commands or complex procedures. Speech recognition also avoids
any need for difficult-to-use devices such as mice and keyboards.
Using speech recognition, the user has only to state what they want the computer to do. Of
course, things are not that simple and there are a number of difficulties that need to be
overcome. When speech recognition is used to issue commands, it is necessary for complex
speech recognition software to understand what the user means, translate this into an actual
machine command and then execute it.
Problems include being able to understand different kinds of voices (e.g. male and female)
and different accents. In addition to these problems the system also has to deal with
background noise such as telephones ringing or people talking in the background.
You may have already used a speech recognition system in the shape of a telephone service
where the computer asks you simple questions and then reacts to the responses given.
Using speech recognition and a natural language interface means that users will no longer
need to interact physically with the computer using a keyboard or mouse. Instead, as long as
the computer system can hear them, this will be enough. Just think, you could ask the
computer to load the word-processing software and create a new document, then dictate
your letter while hanging wallpaper! This would also open up lots of possibilities to disabled
people who could then interact with the computer more effectively
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Speech recognition offers an improved interface for most people, who can generally talk
faster than they can type. Also, if you tell the computer in general terms what you want, it
takes a lot less time and explaining than it does typing the instruction.
Speech recognition will be particularly useful for the Internet since a user can simply
describe what they want the computer to search for and an `intelligent agent' will go away
and look for the information.
There are some areas where speech recognition and the natural language interface may not
be useful. For example, mathematical equations and programming steps are both difficult to
describe using the spoken word. Handwriting recognition or a keyboard are more useful in
these cases.
There are occasions, such as when you are preparing a confidential document, when it
would be inappropriate to speak aloud, so some silent form of HCI would be needed.
Another example is the selection of options from a list, in which case the options would
need to be read out. A keyboard or mouse is better suited to this type of application.
Keyboards
When you buy a computer it comes with a keyboard and mouse (or other pointing device in
the case or portables and laptops). Coupled with a screen, these provide the most usual
interface. However, this arrangement does present a problem for users who only type slowly
and even more of a problem for users who have never used a computer before. It is for this
reason that other interfaces have been developed for these situations. Even when software
makes extensive use of a GUI, you can often still use the keyboard to work the computer,
using a combination of keys. For an experienced typist, removing their hands from the
keyboard to use the mouse will slow them down considerably. Instead they can use a
combination of keys (such as Ctrl and P at the same time).
Dedicated keys
A dedicated key is a key on the computer keyboard which is used for only one purpose. The
purpose of the key cannot be altered using the applications software. The page up and page
down keys are examples of dedicated keys.
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Soft keys
A soft key is a key on the computer keyboard which may be used for different things by
different packages. For example, the function keys F1-F12 all carry out different commands
depending on which software is being used.
Chapter summary
It is important not to allow the word “computer” to limit your vision to a PC sitting on an office
desk. HCI’s are also found in the following situations: -
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ii) Menu Driven
1. New Document Menu driven systems are slightly more user friendly than
2. Load document
3. Save Document command driven systems because you are less likely to
4. Print Document make mistakes if you do not remember the commands.
5. Quit
The user can choose from the menu
Benefits
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common commands Increased speed of learning
ease of use Confidence building in novice users
increased range of tasks solvable by Greater range of software accessible to average users
experienced users
For users to communicate effectively with IT systems, a good user interface design is essential.
Well-designed systems can improve the output of employees, improve the quality of life and
make the world a safer and more enjoyable place to live in.
The best interfaces are those that are those that are: -
ATTRACTIVE Interfaces are more likely to be used if they are attractive.
Screen arrangement i.e. colours, typefaces (font & sizes), graphics
elements, all impact on the look of the interface
FORGIVING Users should be able to recover easily from mistakes users should
be able to get on line help easily
Easily cancel wrong selections
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Design icons and tool bars
Design desktop patterns
TRANSPARENT This implies predictability; that is the interface should provide
choices that are logical and reflect how users are likely to react to
situations
UNBURDENSOME Implies that the software rather than the user should be the most
accommodating
e.g. menu systems that require users to simply recall what a
command does rather than remember a specific language syntax
Several ways to execute a command, thereby making it easier for
the user to work in the way they find most comfortable
SAFE e.g. the pilot of a jumbo jet
EFFICIENT Users do not spend five minutes trying to find the correct way to
insert their card and type in their PIN and the amount of cash they
want, and then leave without remembering to take their card
USER FRIENDLY e.g. screen which leaves error message on screen can be
confusing
Repeated rejection of data without explanation can be frustrating
Should be concise but intuitive/easy enough to allow the user to
correct the error
AVAILABILITY Users still complain that programs are hard to use. What these
programs need are of help better built in training and
troubleshooting features e.g. on line help screens that the user can
pull up on the screen for assistance when they are stuck
indexed alphabetically
Context sensitive - refers to an on line feature that provides
assistance relating to the type of operation the user is currently
trying to perform
USABLE should be a product of collaboration between the designer and the users
User, not designer, convenience should be Interface is consistent throughout the system
paramount
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Built in help and advice accessible at Spacing is important
different levels
Switches for setting options on and off e.g. a Radio buttons for choosing sizes of paper
grid on a spreadsheet
Lights to indicate active events e.g. printing Sub-panel menu to select system defaults
The overhead of increased processing time due to complex use of graphics and dynamic
objects/windows, etc.
need for increased memory resource Backing Store (a GUI takes up more disk space than a
command line interface)
Immediate Access Store (a GUI will hog RAM)+ hard disk as virtual memory.
sound Card
colour monitor
Implications include: -
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Safety - pilot of jumbo jet
Who is HCI for? blind person, disabled person
Accuracy (voice recognition)
ACTIVITY 6:
Variety of new terms has been introduced in this module, many of which may be new to
you. It is important that you build up vocabulary which can be used when answering exam
questions or writing project documentation
Write a definition for each of the following terms used in this section
Interface
HCI
Graphical user interface (GUI)
Icon
Natural language interface
Pointer-based interface
Trackball
Bit pad
CHAPTER QUESTIONS
1) A different human/computer interface would be needed for each of the following users:
(i) a young child in a primary school,
(ii) a blind person,
(iii) a graphic artist.
For each user describe and justify an appropriate human/machine interface.
(NEAB, Module ITO2, Specimen Paper, q7)
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2) A college uses a range of software packages from different suppliers. Each package has a
different user interface. The college is considering changing its software to one supplier and
to a common user interface.
3) Speech recognition systems for Personal Computers are now becoming more affordable
and useable.
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CHAPTER TEN
HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING (HFE)
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work, and in particular to issues related to work safety, we present this chapter as a primer
or perhaps a sampler of human factors issues.
Workers are exposed to a wide variety of work “conditions.” We covered many of those
conditions in Chapter 10. They included physical conditions such as heat, light, and noise.
They also included psychological conditions such as work pace, conflict, and responsibility.
We also introduced the notion of compensation for working conditions in our discussion of
job evaluation. In each of these discussions, working “conditions” were taken as a given.
The individual worker was expected to either adapt, or at least put up with, these conditions.
We will use the term human factors to represent synonymous terms such as human
factors engineering or human factors psychology. Human Factors overlaps with related
disciplines such as ergonomics, applied experimental psychology, occupational medicine
and exercise physiology. We will not deal directly with these latter areas but you should
understand that since Human Factors is related to these other disciplines, human factors
research and practice may be the most interdisciplinary area of I-O psychology.
The human factors approach assumes that workers are a constant, and that the work needs to
adapt to the worker. Human factors engineering can be defined as follows:
“[HF] uses knowledge of human [capacities] and limitations to design systems,
organizations, jobs, machines, tools, and consumer products for safe, efficient, and
comfortable human use” (Helander, 1997, p. 4).
These capacities and limitations include physical and cognitive abilities, knowledge,
personality, and even physiology. The goal of the human factors psychologist is to develop
an environment (both physical and psychological) that is optimally compatible with the
capacities and limitations of humans. Rather than accepting the environment as a constant,
and selecting those few individuals who may be most compatible with it, the human factors
psychologist catalogues the capacities and limitations of humans, and develops an
environment that is as ideally suited as possible to those humans.
But this was not always the case. In the early days of the factory system, machines were
designed by mechanical engineers who had little concern for the capacities and limitations
of humans. An example of this can be seen in the design of a popular machine for working
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on metal parts called a lathe. The purpose of a lathe is to create a shape in a piece of steel or
aluminum by spinning that piece at a high speed and applying a sharp bit to its surface while
it is spinning. Before computers were introduced to the factory floor, lathes were operated
by hand with lots of manual controls, usually in the form of wheels, levers, and buttons
which were used to bring the bit into contact with the piece to be shaped.
The person in the top portion othe figure represents a typical lathe operator (height, reach,
build, etc.). But the “ideal” operator of a lathe designed by mechanical engineers in the
1920s, as sketched in the lower portion of the figure, would look much different. The
“ideal” operator would be slightly over four feet tall and twelve feet across the shoulders,
and would have an eight-foot arm span. This “ideal” operator was determined by the way
the mechanical engineers designed the lathe, and we can be fairly sure that few real-life
lathe operators resembled the ideal. It is most likely that the engineers began their design
with standard measurements of the components from which the machine would be built.
From the human factors perspective, this was foolish. The mechanical engineers should
have begun their design with an appreciation of the range of likely characteristics,
capacities, and limitations of the operators of the lathe. The implications are clear. If the
equipment and environment are not compatible with the humans who will use that
equipment and populate that environment, we can expect problems in the form of lowered
production, injuries, and accidents. We should also expect to see unhappy workers who are
continually “taxed” by their work.
we often take human factors for granted. Imagine an elevator with such a control panel.
Imagine the extra time you might need to locate the button corresponding to the floor you
wanted to visit. Worse than that, imagine the chaos of a telephone keypad with randomly
arranged numbers. There are literally hundreds of devices you use every day that have been
designed or modified by human factors specialists – the configuration of an automobile
dashboard, the height and tilt of a chair, the keyboard and screen at a computer work station,
the arrangement of knobs and burners on your stove top, the positioning of the brakes on
your mountain bike, even the way a radio dial or a TV remote control works. All of these
are examples of products or objects designed to be compatible with human capacities and
limitations. The goal has been to achieve “user friendliness.” In this chapter, we will
consider the concept and discipline of human factors engineering as it applies to work.
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Human Factors Models
Howell (1993) identifies human factors as a dynamic force in both technology design and
society.In the column on the right is the human factors issue or area of concentration. This
figure provides a good overview of the substance of human factors. Two very simple
models can be used to position human factors in the broader perspective of the study of
work behavior. the worker is embedded in a series of increasingly larger environments
which include, respectively, equipment (e.g., computers), physical workspace (e.g., work
cubicle or office), social workspace (e.g., teams), and organizational workspace (e.g.,
climate or culture). Each of these environments has an influence on the performance of the
individual. Traditionally, human factors has tended to concentrate on the interface between
the worker and the equipment (and in the last several decades, the “equipment of choice”
has been the computer).
As you can see, there are several components to this model. There is the worker, the
equipment, the way in which the worker receives information from the equipment, and the
way in which the worker controls the equipment . Both the equipment and the worker have
input and output components. An everyday example of this model may help you to
understand it more clearly. Suppose you had a paper due in one of your classes and you
were preparing it on your personal computer. As you sit in front of that computer, you see a
screen and a keyboard. What appears on the screen represents output from the computer and
input to you. What you type on the keyboard represents output from you, but input to the
computer. You and the computer are connected through this information flow loop. You ask
the computer to access information in a literature base related to industrial safety by first
activating a search engine, then typing in a website, and finally inputting some key words
for the search. With that instruction, the computer accomplishes the search and provides you
with the relevant journal articles. There have been a string of interactions between you and
the computer. You turned it on, you activated its operating system, you started the search
engine, you identified the website, and you listed the key words. At each point in this
process, the computer asked you to make choices. You made these choices with the mouse
or the keyboard, and when you made each choice, the computer went and “did its thing.”
There was a lot of input and output on both sides of the keyboard.
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This simple example introduces two additional technical terms that are important in human
factors: displays and controls. Displays (like the computer screen) provide an individual
with information, while controls (like the keyboard or mouse) permit an individual to take
actions. There is a rich history as well as a very active current research interest in the design
of the most effective methods for display and control (Salvendy, 1996; Wickens, Gordon, &
Liu, 1998). But displays and controls are just two components of a more elaborate model of
work from the human factors perspective.
Virtually every topic that we have covered in this book is represented in one or more of the
blocks of the model. The “machine,” the operator, and the environment all form an
integrated system and interact to yield productivity on the positive side; and accidents,
injuries, and even violence on the negative side.
Human factors is a global discipline. The same HF issues affect virtually any industrialized
country. Helander (1997) identified a number of human factors challenges that characterize
work in twenty-five different countries. These include the change of work organization and
design, work-related musculoskeletal disorders, human-computer interface, change in
social systems of work environments, high technology system design (particularly nuclear
power plant control rooms), mental workload, and human reliability.
The next time you are driving or riding in a car, take a minute and gather some data. Simply
observe how many drivers you see who have a cell phone to their ear; you will probably be
astonished by the number. You might have thought you were the only one on the road who
used a cell phone while commuting. The very fact of your astonishment can help to make
our point. While you were driving and using your cell phone, you never noticed how many
of your fellow drivers were doing the same thing. If you have a little extra time, don’t just
count them, but watch them drive. They are clearly involved in their conversations. They
may look distracted, happy, sad, or angry depending on the substance of the conversation.
They are often driving more slowly than others, who may be backed up behind them and
annoyed. Drivers behind them may need to beep their horns to prompt them to step on the
gas when a light turns green. They may pull into other lanes and into the path of other
drivers without signaling. They may breeze through yellow or even red lights without
touching the brakes. Since they are often holding the phone to their ear with one hand and
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controlling their vehicles with the other, or cradling the phone between their shoulder and
ear, their maneuvers are often jerky and clumsy. In short, the highways are full of accidents
waiting to happen.
Citizens in many areas have mounted a growing backlash against the use of cell phones
while driving. Consider the following two examples. An elderly passenger was seriously
injured in a collision between the car she was riding in and a car driven by a lumber sales
representative who was talking on his cell phone when the collision occurred. Although the
sales representative denied he was on the phone, his cell phone records demonstrated that he
was seventy-four seconds into a call at the time of the collision. Observers reported that the
sales representative accelerated through an intersection and never touched his brakes before
the collision. The jury awarded the victim $21 million (Heller, 2002). In another incident, a
driver on the Capital Beltway in Washington, D.C. was talking on her cell phone when her
car went over a guardrail and into oncoming traffic, resulting in the death of five people
(NY Times, 2002).
As a result of incidents like these, as well as scores of “near misses,” states and local
jurisdictions are passing laws banning the use of hand-held cell phones while driving. A
law passed by New York State in 2001 is representative of this new legislation (Perotta,
2002). Drivers can be fined $100 for a first violation, $200 for a second violation, and $500
for additional violations. Interestingly, the law forbids the use of hand-held phones but
permits the use of hands-free systems that use speakers or headsets. To be sure, accidents
can occur when drivers are fumbling to dial a number or receive a call, or trying to continue
a conversation with a phone held to their ear while simultaneously trying to avoid an
obstacle, change lanes, turn a corner, or shift gears. But holding the phone is only a part, and
possibly only a small part, of the problem. An equally important issue is the attention of the
driver. A hands-free systems is not a mind-free system. The critical issue is whether or not
the driver is paying attention to the control of the vehicle in the dynamic, often confusing,
and dangerous environment of the road – or to the “stimuli” being presented via the cell
phone.
A growing body of research confirms the danger of driving and cell phone use. Lesch and
Hancock (2004) studied the driving behavior of thirty-six drivers on a test track in
Massachusetts. The study was intended to distinguish between the structural problems of
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cell phone use (i.e., the challenge of holding the phone while driving) and the functional
problems (i.e., the cognitive challenge of performing two demanding tasks at once). An
automobile was designed with a touch screen on the dashboard to simulate a hands-free cell
phone system. The test track was arranged to have several critical demands (e.g., a signal to
stop). The experiment looked at the performance of the drivers who were engaged in the use
of the cell phone at a “demanding” moment. The drivers who were using the simulated cell
phone failed to stop for a red light significantly more frequently than those not using the
device. In addition, even when they did notice the red light and stop, they braked much
harder and stopped much more abruptly than those not using the cell phone. Abrupt
stopping often leads to rear end collisions.
The effect of this cell phone distraction was considerably more pronounced in older drivers
than younger ones. Younger drivers were between the ages of twenty-five and thirty-six
while older drivers were between fifty-five and sixty-five. We suspect that the effect on
drivers younger than twenty-five would be more pronounced, particularly among young
drivers who have just begun to drive. These inexperienced drivers must devote greater
mental energy to routine driving operations. Since they are inexperienced, every operation
requires attention. Thus, the demands of the cell phone impair not only unexpected actions,
such as stopping for a light that turns red, but also the routine actions such as maintaining a
constant speed, which require more attention for the new driver than the experienced driver.
Although the same distracting effects are likely to be seen in any inexperienced driver,
regardless of age, it will be most clearly seen in the very young drivers.
The Lesch and Hancock (2004) study is very appealing because it is a field study using a
real vehicle on a real road with a variety of participants. Nevertheless, laboratory studies
find much the same result. Strayer and Johnston (2001) used a simulated driving task and
found that while cell phones were distracting and affected driving performance, neither
music nor books-on-tape had the same distracting effect. In a follow-up study, Strayer,
Drews, and Crouch (2006) found that “when driving conditions and time on task were
controlled for, the impairments associated with using a cell phone while driving can be as
profound as those associated with driving while drunk” (p. 381). In the case of cell phones,
laboratory research, field research, observation, and personal experience point to the same
conclusion: the active use of cell phones and driving don’t mix (Beede & Kass, 2006;
Horrey & Wickens, 2006). From a human factors standpoint, there is no easy “fix” to the
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problem. The “hands-free” fix solves the structural part of the problem, but not the
functional part. The problem as a whole resides in the way in which humans process
information. They pay attention to the most salient information channel when choosing
between information sources. For all practical purposes, the selection is automatic – it is not
under our conscious control. The only effective way we can choose driving over cell phone
conversation is to turn our cell phones off. In this case, the contribution of human factors
psychology is to provide a scientific foundation for a shift in public policy, a shift toward
limiting the use of cell phones while driving.
Another example of the same phenomenon is the pairing of global navigation systems
(GPS) and video screens in cars to provide directions to destinations. The drivers will be
required to input information somehow and view or listen to output while simultaneously
driving. Consider that you most often look for directions when you are lost and you already
have a condition of stress/arousal. The competing demands for cognitive attention presented
by the interactive directions device will most certainly degrade performance.
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Ergonomics The study of the physical demands of work such as
reaching, stretching, lifting, and carrying
User friendliness Positive characteristic of machines, tools, and consumer
products that are designed to be comfortable, easy to use,
and compatible with human capacities and limitations
Input component Component that provides information to a human or
computer
Output component Component that receives information from a human or
computer and converts that information to action
Display Device such as a computer screen that provides an
individual with information
Control Device such as a keyboard or mouse that permits an
individual to take actions
Musculoskeletal disorders Disorders of the lower back and upper extremities
(arm/shoulder/wrist). They are the most commonly
studied injuries related to workplace safety
Human-computer The interaction between a human and a computer
interface
Technology
As we have pointed out in the earlier chapters, and as any observer of today’s workplace
would agree, the nature of work is changing rapidly. This adds to the challenge of designing
work and organizations. Although it is impossible to anticipate exactly what changes will
occur in technology or process in the next decade, we can look at some current technologies
and examine how human factors research has studied and modified these technologies. The
two most obvious and pervasive of these technologies are automation and computer use.
Automation
Automation describes a way of completing work through the use of mechanical or
electrical devices (Wickens & Hollands, 2000) rather than through direct human action.
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Robotics is a good example of automation. In an auto assembly plant, robots can be used to
weld, to turn car bodies at angles, to distribute materials, or to carry out tests of stability of
assembled parts. At one time, all of these activities were performed by humans. From the
human factors perspective, automation poses a challenge. Because the human operator
invariably interacts with the automated process, the challenge is to design an interface that is
effective, safe, and comfortable for the human operator.
One common motivation for automating is to eliminate humans from a system. The term
“human error” is often used as an “explanation” for a catastrophic accident. In response to
this, the logic is that if we can just get the human out of the system, the threat of accidents
will be greatly reduced. Examples of completely or partially automated systems include
refineries, space ships, engine block plants, nuclear power plants, and even the lowly
automatic teller machine (ATM). What is not so obvious, however, is that these automated
systems have not really eliminated the person from the system. People are still required to
monitor, maintain, and troubleshoot the system, often from remote locations. This is a good
news/bad news situation. The good news is that automated systems, on the average, are
more reliable than human systems. The bad news is that when automated systems go out
control, they can go wildly out of control. An oil refinery shuts down automatically, creating
dangerous toxic and flammable fumes. An engine block assembly operation drills holes
where they shouldn’t be for 700 engine blocks processed during a four-hour period. An
ATM dispenses $100 bills instead of $10 bills for several hours. While you may wonder
why the last example would be a “problem” for you, it is certainly a problem for the bank.
Perhaps one of the most dramatic examples of “failed” automation was the incident at the
Three Mile Island nuclear power plant on March 28, 1979. This potential catastrophe was
the result of a flawed interaction between an automated control system and human control
room operators. As part of a routine maintenance program, the secondary or backup system
for cooling the superheated water from the nuclear reactor was shut down. Plant personnel
forgot to turn this backup system back on when the maintenance was completed. Two weeks
later, a pump in primary cooling system failed, and because the secondary cooling system
had not been turned back on, the temperature in the reactor chamber began to climb. Then a
valve stuck. Simultaneously, an automatic emergency system was activated to address the
rising temperature. This automatic system was unrelated to the stuck valve, but as a result of
that stuck valve, the action of the emergency system was exaggerated. Finally, the control
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room operators, confronted with massive amounts of information, some of it inconsistent,
misinterpreted what was happening. The situation came close to becoming a genuine
disaster in which thousands of people might have died. Of course, we can’t blame the
accident on one person or one event, but it is clear nevertheless that human decisions played
a major role in the accident, in spite of (or possibly even because of) automated systems or
subsystems. Similarly, it is not unheard-of for both military and commercial pilots to fly
past a coordinate when the aircraft is on autopilot and the pilot is daydreaming or even
dozing.
On the positive side, it is clear that automation has taken a great deal of the drudgery,
inhumanity, and danger out of work, thus representing a tremendous contribution to
organizations, workers, and society in general. As Wickens and Hollands (2000) suggest,
automation can play several valuable roles by 1) carrying out functions that humans can’t
(e.g., using robots to handle dangerous materials), 2) carrying out functions that humans can
do but do poorly (e.g., warning pilots when they are too close to the ground), 3) assisting
humans in areas where they have limitations (e.g., using a voice recognition system to allow
a pilot to input completed elements of a pre-flight checklist and alert the pilot if he or she
forgets a step), and 4) freeing humans to do more satisfying and valuable work (e.g., using
robots to spot weld auto bodies). Nevertheless, automation has not taken the “person out of
the system.” It has simply changed the role of the person in the system. Human factors
addresses this interaction between worker and machine or process, particularly in terms of
costs or problems. Wickens and Hollands (2000) identified some of these costs.
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2) Reliability: operators may either under trust the reliability of an automated
system (e.g., because they don’t understand it) or over trust its reliability. In an
under trust situation, the operator may ignore an alarm from the system, or
possibly even turn off the alarm component. In an overtrust situation, the
operator depends on the system to provide more information than it is designed
to provide. As an example, the operator ignores various information about the
automated system until or unless a signal of some kind (e.g., an audible alarm)
indicates a malfunction. But if the operator has not been monitoring various
sources of information all along, by the time an alarm sounds, there may be too
much complex information for the operator to process in a short period of time.
3) Communications: although automated systems are not human, they still need to
communicate with human monitors, operators, or users. Consider the following
example of a “dialogue” between a customer calling with a question about a
telephone service and a phone menu. The customer heard from a friend that the
phone company would provide one-touch local weather updates and wants to get
one.
Case study
Automated System (AS): Please listen carefully to the following options
- to report a problem with your service, press 1
- to question a recent bill, press 2
- to terminate service, press 3
- to apply for a job with the company, press 4
- to inquire about new service, press 5
The Customer is confused and can’t remember all the choices, so presses 6.
After listening to the choices again, the customer presses 7.
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AS: please choose form the following options
- to add a phone line, press 1
- to change a phone number, press 2
- …
- …
- for all other questions about service, press 7.
Wickens and Hollands (2000) suggest five principles for making sure that
automated systems are compatible with human operators.
Computers
Computers are so pervasive in our culture that a general discussion of the design of
computer systems at the workplace would fill a book, not a mere section of a chapter. Even
the word “computer” can be misleading. As examples, electric musical keyboards, drum
sets, and guitars are computers, although we don’t apply that term; we don’t say we are
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going to the garage to play the computer. In contrast, a personal computer is neither
personal, nor do we use it to compute much anymore (Craiger & Weiss, 1998). In this
discussion, we will limit ourselves to a central aspect of computer use in the workplace --
some characteristics of human-computer interaction (HCI).
Case study
Buchanan and Boddy (1983) describe the introduction of a computer into the process of
cookie making. The computer standardized the mixing of dough as well as the monitoring of
the weight and size of cookies after baking. Both of these operations are critical for
successful mass production of cookies. Before the computer was introduced, dough was
mixed by master bakers who directed a group of subordinates. Like a chef, the master baker
approached the job almost as an art, adding a pinch here, a dash of water there, and
personally directing the mixing of every batch of dough. The master baker was universally
admired by others in the plant because of the high degree of skill and experience required.
After computerization, the job was greatly simplified. It only took one person. This person
needed no special skill other than to respond to the computer when it requested ingredients.
After taking a sample of the completed dough, this person simply moved the dough on to
the person who operated the oven, called the “ovens man.”
The effect of computerization on the ovens man was very different. Prior to the introduction
of the computer, the ovens man had to check the size, weight, and thickness of a sample of
cookies in order to tell the wrapping department whether they needed to make any
adjustments in their equipment. The ovens man would also direct the cookie makers to
adjust their rollers if the cookies were too thick or too thin, but only after hundreds and
sometimes thousands of cookies had already been made. Because this was all done by hand,
it was very inefficient. When the computerized weighing system was introduced, the
ovensman could get information much more quickly and, as a result, instruct the cookie
makers to adjust their rollers much sooner. The cookie wrappers also got much more useful
information, and in a more timely manner. As a result of the computerization, the
ovensman’s position came to be viewed as a much more responsible one, one that was the
kingpin to the entire quality control process. From this example, we can see that there is no
general statement that can be made about the effect of computerization on any particular job,
job family, or sector of the economy. Computerization may make some jobs more important
and others less so. In addition, the stature of some jobs may increase while the stature of
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others decreases, leading to corresponding changes in employee status, satisfaction, and
motivation.
User-Centered Design
It is the job of the I-O psychologist to address these issues of usability using the same tools
that he or she would use to develop any system intended to enhance human performance.
These tools are found in the chapters on performance measurement, training, motivation,
leadership, and organizational design. They include methods like cognitive job analysis
(e.g., think-aloud protocols), critical incidents interviewing, and statistical analysis of the
relative effectiveness of different designs.
We have examined a number of different work design issues. These have included
technological variables (computers and automation) and social variables (work scheduling).
Campion and Thayer (1985; 1987; Campion, 1988; 1989) have proposed that one might take
many different approaches to designing or redesigning work, and that since each approach
has different goals, we might expect different outcomes. Campion and Thayer (1985)
examined 700 different “rules” that have been suggested for designing work and reduced
them to four different approaches or models, which are presented in Table 16.2. As you can
see, each approach is based on a different theoretical approach, has a different goal, and
seeks to affect a different outcome. In Table 16.3, you will see the specific questions that
might be asked in designing or redesigning a job. If we use this framework to reconsider the
design issues we have discussed thus far in the chapter, you can see that any given design
change includes several different approaches, not just one. Our example of the introduction
of the computer into cookie making, as well as the process of usability engineering, included
elements of the motivational, mechanistic, and perceptual-motor approaches. Automation
included elements of the mechanistic, biological, and perceptual motor approaches. Work
scheduling is related to the motivational and biological approaches. When we discuss
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accidents and accident reduction techniques in a later section of this chapter, you will
recognize elements of all four approaches.
Campion’s (1988; 1989) models have several implications. The first is that in the design or
redesign of work, we need to be clear about what outcomes we expect or desire. If we are
redesigning work to increase worker satisfaction and to reduce turnover, we may want to
choose the motivational approach. If, instead, we are trying to reduce injuries and increase
the physical comfort of the workers, we would rely on the biological model. To reduce
errors or accidents, we would choose the perceptual motor approach. A second implication
is that conflict may occur between the approaches, resulting in both anticipated and
unanticipated outcomes. So, if you were to use the mechanistic approach to increase
productive efficiency, you would simplify work. But by doing that, you would also make
the work less interesting and motivating for the worker.
As an example, consider the job of a receptionist. Initially, he or she may have diverse
duties such as answering the telephone, greeting visitors, maintaining office supplies, and
scheduling various in-house conference rooms. Assume that, when the receptionist was busy
attending to other duties, callers occasionally got a voice menu instead of the live
receptionist. Assume further that the CEO, feeling that voice menus were too impersonal,
suggested that all other duties except answering the phone and greeting visitors be
eliminated from the receptionist’s duties. Although it might be true that the instances of a
caller encountering a voice mail menu would be reduced, it is also likely that the interest
value of the job of receptionist for the incumbent would be degraded.
Thus, work design and redesign are complex undertakings; organizations need to be aware
of the anticipated outcomes – and on the lookout for unplanned outcomes – resulting from a
design change. Campion’s work design models would be a good architecture to use for
planning design changes. Campion’s model, like any model or theory, is not necessarily a
statement of “truth.” Theories and models are not true or false, they are useful or useless.
Campion’s theory of design approaches is a useful one, one that has been replicated several
times as well (Campion, 1989; Edwards, Scully, & Breck, 2000).
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As you will recall from chapters 6 and 11, the Americans with Disabilities Act protects the
rights of workers with covered disabilities. In addition to addressing hiring issues, the ADA
also covers aspects of work design and redesign. Caplan (1992) has defined a disability as
“an inability to accommodate the world as it is currently designed” (p. 88). If a disabled
worker can perform an essential function with an accommodation such as a job design
change, and the accommodation is reasonable and feasible, then the employer is required to
make that accommodation. Some accommodations are relatively simple, such as enhanced
lighting for workers with a visual impairment, or ramps for workers in wheelchairs. Other
accommodations are more challenging. Noe et al. (2000) present examples of the types of
accommodations that might be implemented:
Eliminating marginal tasks that pose challenges for the disabled worker, or shifting them
to other workers
Redesigning work procedures
Altering work schedules
Reassigning a disabled worker to a job with essential functions that he or she can
perform
Providing technology or support in the form of readers or interpreters for employees
with reading or visual disabilities
Allowing an employee to bring a guide dog to work.
Noe et al. (2000) describe the innovative design efforts of a company that specializes in
training the disabled (Ricklefs, 1997). One of the problems they addressed is the shaking
that workers with cerebral palsy have in their hands; this makes it difficult for them to use a
computer keyboard because they often strike keys inadvertently. The accommodation that
the company introduced was a clear plastic shield over the keyboard which requires the user
to put a finger through the hole above the particular key chosen. Similarly, for a worker with
muscular dystrophy who would have difficulty moving his or her arms, the company
designed a compact keyboard so that the worker could strike every key without any arm
movement.
Vanderheiden (1997) has provided a detailed treatment of the design and redesign
approaches for accommodating various disabilities. He suggests three basic approaches: 1)
change the individual (e.g., teach them “tricks” or “secrets” for doing things more easily), 2)
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provide the individual with tools (e.g., telecommunication devices for the hearing impaired),
or 3) change the way the work is designed (e.g., rearrange the essential functions of jobs).
The most common forms of accommodation involve what are known as “assistive
technologies.” Examples of these technologies are presented in Table 16.4. You will recall
that in an earlier section of this chapter, we introduced the terms “display” (output to the
worker) and “control” (input from the worker). Vanderheiden suggests following a
“maximization” principle in designing work environments for the disabled. The designer
should maximize the number of people who can receive output, and maximize the number
of people who can provide input. Remember the figure that showed the “idealized” lathe
operator? Old time lathes were not designed for maximizing input (except for those workers
who were twelve feet across the shoulders!). Examples of how the maximization principle
would be applied appear in Table 16.5 It is important to note that by following
maximization principles , designers may make the work better suited not only to disabled
workers, but to the non-disabled as well.
Integrating disabled workers into the workforce raises interesting cross-cultural issues. You
will recall from Hofstede’s model of culture that countries vary on the individualism-
collectivism dimension. The United States is seen as predominantly individualistic, while
China would be characterized as collectivist. Since individuals in collectivist cultures are
more concerned about what others think, there is a tendency to “hide” disabled family
members to avoid shame and feelings of guilt (Aycan & Kanungo, 2001). In the U.S.,
individuals with disabilities are not hidden or ignored, and are more likely to be present in
the workplace. For multinational organizations, it is important to examine the extent to
which the spirit and the letter of the “accommodations” requirement is met in non-U.S.
facilities.
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accidents will be greatly reduced
Complexity Property of automated systems that typically replace the functions of
many different individuals and, as a result, represent a “job” that is
much more complicated than the work done by any one individual
Approach to human-computer interaction research that focuses on the
User-centered
user during system development
design
Usability Approach that involves an iterative process in which a basic system is
engineering designed and then redesigned with input from users
Participatory Design adopted in usability engineering that is stated in user-directed
design terms
Ethnographica Type of user-centered design that takes into account power
lly-informed relationships, tacit knowledge of the organization and its procedures,
design and organizational climate and culture
Shift work The scheduling of work into temporal shifts. Common in particular
occupational groups such as nurses, blue collar workers, and public
safety personnel
Flex-time Schedule in which individual workers are given discretion over the
time they report to work and the time they leave work on a given day
Compressed Schedule that permits an employee to work for longer than eight hours
workweek per day and fewer than five days per week. Most common is the 4-10
plan, which permits the worker to accumulate the 40 hours of the
workweek in 4 days
Circadian cycle The 24-hour physiological cycle in which humans tend to be active
during hours of light and inactive (e.g., sleeping or resting) during
hours of darkness
Fixed shift Workers are permanently assigned to a particular shift
Rotating shift Workers are moved from shift to shift over a certain period of time
Motivational Approach to work design and redesign that is used to increase worker
approach satisfaction and reduce turnover through modification of motivational
levels
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Perceptual- Approach to work design and redesign that is used to reduce errors or
motor accidents through knowledge of perceptual motor skills and abilities
approach
Biological Approach to work design and redesign that is used to reduce injuries
approach and increase the physical comfort of the workers through the reduction
of fatigue and discomfort
CHAPTER ELEVEN
What affects could working memory have on an individual’s ability to successfully use a
mobile device or application? Well, when it comes to mobile applications such as speech-
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based mobile phone services, one can see the importance of taking into consideration the
limitations of an individual’s working memory. For example, when you are interacting with
a speech-based mobile phone service (such as a cinema listings service) you have a single
channel of serial information that cannot be scanned or browsed. As a user, you must try to
remember the service structure, the menu options, and their location within the service
hierarchy.
This serial presentation of auditory information has been found to place great demands on
working memory (Tun and Wingfield, 1997), especially in systems that have many menu
options and levels. This point relates to what I said earlier in the section on spatial ability of
the need for mobile application developers to reduce the complexity of the information they
present to users in order to prevent problems of working memory overload and people
feeling ‘lost’ whilst they are using the service or application.
2. Working memory
3. Sensory memory
Perceptual
Motor
Cognitive
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Memory (WM)
Working memory is a short term memory with small capacity and chunked into many
parts (Miller 1956) this means that
• Reduce the need for users to “carry” more than 7 things at once
Memory (LTM)
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Memory in use: in and out of LTM
• Tn = T1 n-a, where a = .4
• This means that things (especially motor) become “automatic”, even when you
don’t want them to.
CASE STUDY
Problem: freezer too cold, but fresh food just right and Don Norman’s Fridge: Controls are:-
• Memory takes the form of “schema” which provide a mental framework for
understanding and remembering information.
So, if someone tells you a story about eating in a restaurant, they don't have to provide all
of the details about being seated, giving their order to the waiter, leaving a tip at the end,
etc., because your schema for the “restaurant experience” can (does) fill in these missing
details.
1. Schema modification
2. Accretion
3. Tuning
4. Restructuring
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visit, but since they match my existing schema, they don't really alter that schema in any
significant way.
• For example, when I first encountered a bookstore with a coffee bar, I had to modify
my bookstore schema to accommodate this experience. (And think about some of the
examples from Assignment One – coffee bar in library, “bag-it” method of ordering
sandwiches).
Features of schemata
3. A schema is often formed and used without the individual's conscious awareness.
(So as designers, we more-or-less unintentionally define the users conceptual model
as well as the interface we intentionally design).
4. Although schemata are assumed to reflect an individual's experience, they are also
assumed to be shared across individuals. (There are cultural implications here).
References
• Expert Judgement on Markers to Deter Inadvertent Human Intrusion into the Waste
Isolation Pilot Plant, Sandia National Laboratories report SAND92-1382 / UC-721,
p. F-49, November 1993 (pdf available from course webpage)
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DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN METHODOLOGIES
There are many different elicitation and usability/accessibility evaluation techniques
(Cooke, 1i994) and selecting the “right” technique in a particular situation is not trivial.
In addition, usability and accessibility evaluation techniques are often grouped into two
broad areas:
User-based (that often include user testing) and expert based (that often include
heuristic evaluation and cognitive walkthrough) techniques.
King et al. (2004) presented what they called “An incremental usability and
accessibility evaluation Framework for digital libraries”. Their framework is broken
down into seven key activities and addresses all stages of a design of a system.
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USABILITY PARADIGMS AND PRINCIPLES,
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environment which consists of both real world and virtual reality. For instance, a surgeon might be
wearing goggles with computer generated medical data projected on it. The goggles are said to
augment the information the surgeon can see in the real world through computer visualization.
Therefore, it is not difficult to see the connection of augmented reality with ubiquitous computing
and wearable computers. Since its inception, augmented reality has had an impact on various
application domains. The most common use is probably the support of complex tasks in which users
need to perform a series of complicated actions while having access to large amount of information
at the same time, such as surgery, assembly and navigation. Apart from these, augmented reality is
also used for learning and training, such as flight and driving simulations.
Augmented reality implementation usually requires additional devices for input and output in order
to integrate computer generated data into real world: A Cave Automatic Virtual Environment multi-
user, room-sized, high-resolution, 3D video and audio immersive environment in which the virtual
reality environment is projected onto the walls. The user wearing a location sensor can move within
the display boundaries, and the image will move with and surrounds the user.
A head-up display (HUD) is transparent display that presents data without obstructing the user’s
view. It is usually implemented on vehicles in which important information is projected directly in
the driver’s viewing field. Thus the user does not need to shift attention between what is going on in
the real world and the instrumental panel.
A head-mounted display is a display device, worn on the head or as part of a helmet that has a small
display optic in front of one or both eyes. Some of these devices have become commercially
available and increasingly affordable. The challenge of HCI lies in the design of information
visualisation which is not obtrusive to the users’ tasks.
2. Computer–Based Learning
A lot of effort has been put in coupling learning and technology to design effective and enjoyable
learning.
Various areas, namely e-learning, computer-based learning, serious games, etc have emerged,
hoping to utilize the interactive power of computers to enhance teaching and learning experience. A
myriad of design strategies have been proposed, implemented and evaluated, these include the early
use of computer in presentation, drill and practice (the behaviourist paradigm), tutorials (cognitive
paradigm), games, storytelling, simulations (constructivist paradigm), and so forth. As we progress
from behaviourist to constructivist, we notice an explosion of user interface complexity. For
instance, drill and practice programs usually consist on a couple of buttons (next, previous buttons,
buttons for multiple choice, etc) while simulations could involve sophisticated visualization
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(outputs) and various user interface elements for manipulating parameters (input). Recently
computer-based learning has moved from single user offline environments to online network spaces
in which a massive number of users can interact with each other and form a virtual learner
community. This social constructivist learning paradigm requires not only traditional usability
treatment, but also sociability design in which the system includes not only the learning tools, but
other sociability elements such as rules and division of labours.
3. Information Visualization
Information visualization is an area in HCI which can be related to many other areas such as
augmented reality just described before. Most modern computer applications deal with visual
outputs. Graphical user interface has almost entirely replaced command-based interaction in many
domains. Information visualization can be defined as “the use of computer supported, interaction,
visual representations of abstract data to amplify cognition” (Shneiderman, 1992). To amplify
cognition means that visualization shifts cognitive loads to the perceptual system, thus expanding
working memory and information storage.
Visualization provides a more perceptually intuitive way of viewing raw data, thus allowing users to
identify relevant patterns which would not have been identified in raw data.
Therefore, it has a huge impact on many applications domains, ranging from engineering, education,
various fields in science, and so forth.In HCI, the most obvious application is the use of visualization
is in the design of graphical user interface that allows more intuitive interaction between human and
computers. Various innovative interaction styles have been developed such as WIMP (window, icon,
menu, pointing device) which is so familiar in today’s software. Three-dimensional graphics are also
emerging although currently they are mostly used in computer games and computer-aided design.
One recent example of 3D graphical interface is the new windows navigation and management
known as Windows Flip 3D in Windows Vista which allows the user to easily identify and switch to
another open window by displaying 3D snapshot thumbnail preview of all windows in stack.
Today, Information visualization is not only about creating graphical displays of complex
information Structures. It contributes to a broader range of social and collaborative activities.
Recently, visualization techniques have been applied on social data to support social interaction,
particularly in CMC. This area is known as social visualization by (Donath, Karahalios, & Viégas,
1999). Other technique such as social network analysis has also become increasingly important in
visualization social data.
Other areas where HCI plays an important role include: Intelligent and agent systems; Interaction
design; Interaction through wireless communication networks; Interfaces for distributed
environments; Multimedia design; Non–verbal interfaces; Speech and natural language interfaces;
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Support for creativity; Tangible user interfaces; User interface development environments and User
support systems.
The expansion of the Internet has resulted in an increase in the usefulness of Computer Mediated
Communication (CMC) and the popularity of online communities. It is estimated that 25% of
Internet
users have participated in chat rooms or online discussions (Madden & Rainie, 2003). It is by now
no secret how vital the Internet was, is, and will continue to be in our lives. One of the most
important characteristics of this medium is the opportunities it offers for human-human
communication through computer networks. As Metcalfe (1992) points out, communication is the
Internet’s most important asset. E-mail is just one of the many modes of communication that can
occur through the use of computers. Jones (1995) points out that through communication services,
like the Internet, Usenet and bulletin boards, online communication has for many people supplanted
the postal service, telephone and even the fax machine. All these applications where the computer is
used to mediate communicationare called Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC).
December (1997) defines CMC as “the process by which people create, exchange, and perceive
information using networked telecommunications systems (or non-networked computers) that
facilitate encoding, transmitting, and decoding messages”. He emphasizes that studies of CMC view
this process from different interdisciplinary theoretical perspectives (social, cognitive/psychological,
linguistic, cultural, technical, and political) and often draw from fields such diverse as human
communication, rhetoric and composition, media studies, human-computer interaction, journalism,
telecommunications, computer science, technical communication and information studies.
Online communities emerge through the use of CMC applications. The term online community is
Multidisciplinary in nature, means different things to different people, and is slippery to define
(Preece,2000). For purposes of a general understanding of what online communities are, Rheingold’s
definition of online communities is presented:
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[Online] communities are social aggregations that emerge from the Net when enough people carry
on those public discussions long enough, with sufficient human feeling, to form Webs of personal
relationships in cyberspace.
Online communities are also often referred to as cyber societies, cyber communities, Web groups,
virtual communities, Web communities, virtual social networks and e-communities among several
others. The cyberspace is the new frontier in social relationships, and people are using the Internet to
make friends, colleagues, lovers, as well as enemies (Suler, 2004). As Korzeny pointed out, even as
early as 1978, online communities are formed around interests and not physical proximity (Korzeny,
1978).In general, what brings people together in an online community is common interests such as
hobbies, ethnicity, education, beliefs. As Wallace (1999) points out, meeting in online communities
eliminates prejudging based on someone’s appearance, and thus people with similar attitudes and
ideas are attracted to each other.
Preece et al. (2002) states that an online community consists of people, a shared purpose, policies
and computer systems. She identifies the following member roles:
• Moderators and mediators: who guide discussions/serve as arbiters
• Professional commentators: who give opinions/guide discussions
• Provocateurs: who provoke
• General Participants: who contribute to discussions
• Lurkers: who silently observe
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• Structure affects substantive outcomes.
• Emergent effects.
“The aim of social network analysis is to describe why people communicate individually or in
groups”(Preece, 2000, pp. 183), while the goals of SNA are (Dekker, 2002):
i. To visualize relationships/communication between people and/or groups using diagrams.
ii. To study the factors which influence relationships and the correlations between them?
iii. To draw out implications of the relational data, including bottlenecks.
iv. To make recommendations to improve communication and workflow in an organisation.
v. Preece (2002) and Beidernikl & Paier (2003) list the following as the limitations of SNA:
vi. More theory that speaks directly to developers of online communities is needed
vii. The data collected may be personal or private.
viii. The analysis of the data is quantitative and specific to the particular network, while common
survey data are qualitative and generalize answers on the parent population.
It is also worth pointing out that network analysis is concerned about dyadic attributes between pairs
of actors (like kinship, roles, and actions), while social science is concerned with monadic attributes
of the actor (like age, sex, and income). There are two approaches to SNA:
I. Ego-centred analysis: Focuses on the individual as opposed to the whole network, and only a
random sample of network population is normally involved (Zaphiris, Zacharia, & Rajasekaran,
2003). The data collected can be analyzed using standard computer packages for statistical
analysis like SAS and SPSS (Garton, Haythornthwaite, & Wellman, 1997).
II. Whole network analysis: The whole population of the network is surveyed and this facilitates
conceptualization of the complete network (Zaphiris et al., 2003). The data collected can be
analyzed using microcomputer programs like UCINET and Krackplot (Garton et al., 1997).The
following are important units of analysis and concepts of SNA (Garton et al., 1997;
Wellman,1982; Hanneman, 2001; Zaphiris et al, 2003; Wellman, 1992):
• Nodes: The actors or subjects of study.
• Relations: The strands between actors. They are characterized by content, direction, and
strength.
• Ties: Connect a pair of actors by one or more relations.
• Multiplexity: The more relations in a tie, the more multiplex the tie is.
• Composition: This is derived from the social attributes of both participants.
• Range: The size and heterogeneity of the social networks.
• Centrality: Measures who is central (powerful) or isolated in networks.
• Roles: Network roles are suggested by similarities in network members’ behaviour.
• Density: The number of actual ties in a network compare to the total amount of ties that
the network can theoretically support.
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• Reachability: In order to be reachable, connections that can be traced from the source to
the required actor must exit.
• Distance: The number of actors that information has to pass through to connect the one
actor with another in the network.
• Cliques: Sub-sets of actors in a network, who are more closely tied to each other than to
the other actor who are not part of the subset.
• Social Network Analysis is a very valuable technique when it comes to analyzing online
communities as it can provide a visual presentation of the community and more
importantly it can provide us with qualitative and quantitative measures of the dynamics
of the community.
Summary
human factors (human Approach that uses knowledge of human capabilities and
factors engineering or limitations to design systems, organizations, jobs, machines,
human factors tools, and consumer products for safe, efficient, and
psychology) comfortable human use
Ergonomics The study of the physical demands of work such as
reaching, stretching, lifting, and carrying
User friendliness Positive characteristic of machines, tools, and consumer
products that are designed to be comfortable, easy to use,
and compatible with human capacities and limitations
Input component Component that provides information to a human or
computer
Output component Component that receives information from a human or
computer and converts that information to action
Display Device such as a computer screen that provides an
individual with information
Control Device such as a keyboard or mouse that permits an
individual to take actions
Musculoskeletal disorders Disorders of the lower back and upper extremities
(arm/shoulder/wrist). They are the most commonly studied
injuries related to workplace safety
Human-computer The interaction between a human and a computer
interface
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CHAPTER FOURTEEN
EMERGING TRENDS IN HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION
Computer Game, Play and Immersion
Researchers from various areas have begun exploring the role of emotion in human activities. This
research has proven to yield important results that not only deepen our understanding on human
emotion, but potentially improves the design and development of artefacts. This goes without saying
that the topic of emotion is becoming increasingly important in HCI. Probably one of the most
studied domains in emotional design is the computer game. Computer games have been widely
recognized as the software which is potentially addictive due to their capability to engage and
immerse the players for hours of game play. Therefore, it can be claimed that emotion is vital to
maintain players’ focus and to create enjoyable experiences. Unlike work-oriented activity (and thus
work-oriented software that mediate them), game play traditionally does not focus on productive
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outcome. In this case, usability of game play cannot be understood in a traditional sense. Already
new metrics of usability (or playability) have been proposed for designing playful artefacts/software.
Some effort has also been taken to incorporate game elements into productive activities. For
instance, a project has been carried out to use games to label the contents of images meaningfully.
Others have used games for education and training. An area of research, known as serious games, is
expanding quickly to study productive games. Recently, playability design has undergone a major
transformation as games are becoming increasingly collaborative with the emergence of massively
multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs).
These games are becoming one of the most interesting interactive media of computer-mediated
communication and networked activity environments (Taylor, 2002). Understanding the pattern of
participation in these game communities is crucial, as these virtual communities function as a major
mechanism of socialization of the players. Some usability studies have shown that MMORPG design
should incorporate what is known associability. For instance research has found that game locations
can be designed to encourage different styles of social interactions
One of the studied issues in this research topic is the use of non-verbal cues in the CMC technology.
Some newer CMC media have attempted to address this issue through the implementation of video
streaming, although a more common way is the use of “emoticons” that allows the users to express
their emotions through graphical icons that show symbolic facial expressions.
Identity and anonymity is another popular topic regarding CMC since it is possible for users to hide
their real identity simply by choosing a different name. In most cases, even the administrators do not
know their real identity. Furthermore, users may treat CMC as an experimental environment and
thus “play” with their identity and try out different personalities (Turkle, 1995). Some studies have
been carried out to compare the nature of friendship in conventional CMC and offline
communication. Wellman and Gulia (1999) for instance found that people have a higher number of
online friends because it is easier to make friends online than offline. However, the quality of the
relationship is weaker in an online setting. Although Walther (1995) contended that it is possible to
develop strong online friendship, it takes longer than in offline communication.
New technologies such as 3D Virtual spaces, such as MMORPGs and Second Life (Linden Lab,
2003) offer a much richer form of social interactions where users can not only communicate through
text-based chat, but also interact with each other through virtual artefacts. Furthermore, these
technologies not only mediate social interaction, but also support group formation, which leads to
community building. As such, user interaction is considerably more complicated than the
conventional CMC tool.
These 3D worlds often feature a large number of virtual locations users can visit and a variety of
virtual artefacts users can use to interact with, with each other. In some cases, they can even
construct new artefacts and locations utilising simple modelling tools and scripting languages.
Whilst some 3D virtual worlds are designed with game-like goal structures that impose obstacles or
challenges, some are completely open, meaning that the users are free to do as they please.
Although sociability issues of conventional CMC are well studied and documented, we have very
little understanding on social interactions in 3D CMC. Therefore, it is worth investigating user
activities in such environments in order to cast some light on the group formation process and other
sociability issues. It might be potentially more challenging in researching this 3D CMC, in which
communication takes place both through texts and other “virtual actions” users can perform with
their 3D avatars. Unlike the avatar in conventional CMC which is often a static graphical or
animated representation of the user, in 3D CMC, the avatar can interact with other avatars directly in
the virtual space. A 3D avatar can perform a wide range of actions on the 3D world and other
avatars. For instance, it is not uncommon that avatars can hug, kiss or wave to each other. There is
also research on the facial expression of 3D avatars (Clarkson et al., 2001), implemented in the 3D
CMC context with the intention to enhance non-verbal communication. Moreover, given the fantasy
theme of some 3D CMC environments, new sets of rules for virtual communication which are
completely different from physical communication might arise. This is worth investigating as well as
groups open operate within the boundary of norms and rules that emerge through user interaction.
Ubiquitous Computing
Another exciting future trend in HCI is the emergence of ubiquitous computing, in which
information processing is thoroughly diffused into objects and experiences of everyday life. In
another word, computers are disappearing. Users are no longer consciously engaged in using the
computers. Instead they are operating these devices which are so well integrated into artefacts of
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everyday activities without being aware of using the computers. Perhaps the most obvious example
is the mobile phone, and indeed mobile computing has witnessed an explosion of research interest
within and beyond HCI community. Other less obvious examples could include computerized
refrigerators which are able to detect their contents, plan and recommend a variety of recipes,
automatically shop according to the users’ needs. The focus of ubiquitous computing from the point
of view of HCI suggests a shift from tool-focused design to activity-focused design. The primary
objective is thus to design tools which can be seamlessly mediate everyday activities without
interfering with users’ tasks. One such area is wearable computing which has the potential to support
human cognitions, facilitate creativity and communication. Unlike mobile devices, wearable
computers are attached to human, thus reducing the possibility of interruption or displacement.
This requires consideration of the needs and requirements of individuals with disabilities, older
persons, people for whom English is a second language, people whose cultures and backgrounds are
dissimilar to those of Web developers, and those using outdated hardware and software, to name a
few. For that reason, the key objective of this research direction is to look at various aspects of
universal Web design and evaluation in a new perspective by focusing on the user aspect of
universal Web design and interaction and to present the wide range of advanced technology that can
help disadvantaged users get access to Web information.
The same idea also applies to software design. For instance, child-computer interaction has emerged
as a sub-field of HCI that deals with designing particularly multimedia learning software for
children.
Other active areas of research include wed design for elderly people, gender differences, cultural
issues, and so forth.
All these efforts in accessibility design no longer contribute to the development of ease-of-use
applications for specific user groups, but also improve interaction experiences for main stream users
in general.
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• The changeability or malleability of system behaviour
• The abstraction and intangibility of software products
• The requirement of varying problem domain knowledge
• The non-deterministic and polysolvability in design
• The polyglotics and polymorphism in implementation
• The dependability of interactions among software, hardware, and human beings
The above list forms a set of fundamental constraints for software engineering, identified as the
cognitive constraints of intangibility, complexity, indeterminacy, diversity, polymorphism,
inexpressiveness, inexplicit embodiment, and unquantifiable quality measures (Wang, 2006g).
A set of psychological requirements for software engineers has been identified, such as:
(a) Abstract-level thinking; (b) Imagination of dynamic behaviours with static descriptions; (c)
Organization capability; (d) Cooperative attitude in team work; (e) Long-period focus of attentions;
(f) Preciseness; (g) Reliability; and (h) Expressive capability in communication.
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do what you want, but you can't make it happen because the user interface is too difficult.
“If the user can’t find it, the functionality’s not there”
Phases of Heuristic Evaluation
1. Pre-evaluation training gives evaluators needed domain knowledge (and scenario, if
necessary - not necessary if product is for walk-up use)
2. Evaluation individuals evaluate and then aggregate results
3. Severity rating determine how severe each problem is (priority) can do this first
individually and then as a group
4. (Optional) Debriefing from evaluators discusses the outcome with design team.
Way of getting additional design advice
How to Perform Evaluation
At least two passes for each evaluator
1. First to get feel for flow and scope of system second to focus on specific elements
If system is walk-up-and-use (or evaluators are domain experts) no assistance
needed otherwise might supply evaluators with scenarios.
2. Each evaluator produces list of problems explains why with reference to heuristic or
other information which are specific and list each problem separately
3. Severity Rating: Used to allocate resources to fix problems.
4. Estimates of need for more usability efforts combination of
• Frequency
• Impact
• Persistence (one time or repeating)
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GLOSSARY
Accessibility: The measure of whether person can perform an interaction, access information, or do
anything else. It does not measure how well he or she can do it, though.
Content: The information, such as thoughts, ideas, and so forth, that someone wishes to
communicate. Examples of content could be the ideas and concepts conveyed through this article,
the fact that you must stop when a traffic light is red, and so on. Importantly, content is what into be
communicated but not how it is to be communicated.
Encoding: Encoding is the process by which the content and meaning that is to be communicated is
transformed into a physical form suitable for communication. It involves transforming thoughts and
ideas into words, images, actions, and so forth, and then further transforming the words or images
into their physical form.
Object Orientation: A view of the world based on the notion that it is made up of objects
classified by a hierarchical super class-subclass structure under the most generic super class (or
root) known as an object. For example, a car is a (subclass of) vehicle, a vehicle is a moving object,
and a moving object is an object. Hence, a car is an object as the relationship is transitive and,
accordingly, a subclass must at least have the attributes and functionality of its super class (es).Thus,
if we provide a generic user-presentation object with a standard interface, then any of its subclasses
will conform to that standard interface. This enables the plug and play of any desired subclass
according to the user’s encoding and decoding needs.
Physical Form: The actual physical means by which thoughts, meaning, concepts, and so forth are
conveyed. This, therefore, can take the form of any physical format, such as the writing or displaying
of words, the drawing or displaying of images, spoken utterances or other forms of sounds, the
carrying out of actions (e.g., bodily gestures), and so forth.
Software Architecture: Rather like the architecture of a building, software architecture describes
the principled, structural design of computer software. Contemporary software architectures are
multitier (or n-tier) in nature. Essentially, these stem from a two-tier architecture in which user-
presentation components are separated from the information-content components, hence the two
overall tiers. Communication occurs through standard interface between the tiers. This enables the
easy swapping in and out of presentation components, thus enabling information to be encoded into
the most appropriate physical form for a given user at any given time.
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Usability: A measure of how well someone can use something. Usability, in comparison to
accessibility, looks at factors such as ease of use, efficiency, effectiveness, and accuracy. It
concentrates on factors of an interaction other than whether someone can perform something, access
information, and so forth, which are all handled by accessibility.
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS
BIT 4103 HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION EXAMINATION
a) Explain the following two principles that help in the design of HCI. 2 marks
(i) Visibility
(ii) Affordance
b) “Usability is the major goal of HCI”. Define the term “usability” in the context of HCI.
4 marks
c) State two tangible and two intangible benefits of good HCI. 4 marks
d) State and explain any two factors that should be considered in the analysis and design of HCI.
4 marks
e) Explain briefly how the following two disciplines have contributed to HCI. 4 marks
(i) Cognitive Psychology
(ii) Engineering.
f) Discuss the concept human factors as a dynamic force in both technology design and
information society 6 marks
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Discuss
g) State and explain the types of memories in human beings. 6 marks
QUESTION 2: 20 MARKS
b) State and explain three guidelines to catching user’s attention when structuring information at the
interface. 3 marks
c) State and explain the five types of icons. 5 marks
c) State and explain three guidelines for using color at the interface
3 marks
d) Explain five differences between knowledge (information) in the head and knowledge in the
world. 5 marks
QUESTION 3: 20 MARKS
d) (i) Explain what is meant by Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW). 2 marks
e) Explain briefly two design characteristics of HCI design model and with the help of a diagram
explain the “star lifecycle model” of HCI design. 4marks
QUESTION 4: 20 MARKS
a) Explain the concept of “user-centered design” and List and explain the principles of
“user-centered design.” 6 marks
b) Define the term “perception”. State and briefly explain the assumptions of the two
theories of perception. 6 marks
c) Differentiate a verbal metaphor from an interface metaphor. Giving an example for each.
4 marks
d) Explain the following styles of interaction between human and a computer system, an
advantage and disadvantage for each. 4 marks
(i) Menus navigation.
(ii) Command entry.
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QUESTION 5: 20 MARKS
e) Explain the GOMS (Goals, Operations, Methods, and Selection Rules) approaches as applied
“internal representation and information processing” and in “task analysis”. 4 mark
Cards have to be removed before the cash appears. Change HCI design by prompting user to
remove card before cash is given out.
A command-driven interface is appropriate for a technical user or a user who will undergo
training and use the same software all the time.
Data entry for people affected by RSI (Repetitive strain injury); military aircraft, lifts (elevators)
i)WIMP interface: Touch sensitive screen or concept keyboard or mouse (accept keyboard),
because easy to use or appropriate reason e.g. child cannot read.
(ii) Command driven interface: Keyboard (Braille) or voice I/O, Braille printer, because
cannot see screen
(iii) WIMP; graphics pad, high resolution screen, digitiser, plotter. Must respond to sensitivity of
touch/resolution (or any reasoned alternative)
7. User interfaces have gradually become more and more oriented to the needs of
users over recent years.
a) Briefly describe three features of user interfaces which have been developed and
explain how each has benefited the user (3 marks)
b) Describe two ways in which user interfaces need to be developed further to make
computers more accessible and friendly to untrained users. (2 marks)
(a) We would like to see a 3-3 split here but accept up to 4-2 in either direction.
Physical factors: Max. 4 @ 1 each from : position of screen, lighting conditions, seating
conditions, choice of colour schemes, etc., ergonomics/design of mouse/keyboard
ventilation/room temperature
Psychological factors: Max. 4 @ 1 each from: user friendly interface (qualified), help
available for novice users, short cuts for expert users, make use of human long term
memory to maximise efficiency, functionality, technophobia
NB: More than one of the resource implications: a greater demand for memory/IAS/backing
store and processor functionality and time/speed, might apply to the same factor of the H.C.I.
However, candidates can only gain 1 mark for the resource implications of each factor.
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on-line help availability- increased need for backing store (2,1,0)
complexity of interface/ multiplicity of menu routes adds to size of resultant code thus
increased IAS demands (2,1,0)
use of GUI- increased IAS demands (2,1,0)
need for multi-tasking/ability to switch between applications/tasks - processor functionality overhead
(2,1,0)
Faster searching of help file -processor speed overhead. (2,1,0)
Q8 Many machines now offer graphical user interfaces such as Windows and the Mac OS.
i) Describe two features of such interfaces, which are likely to be helpful to a non-technically
minded user. (2 marks)
a) Features include:
icons which indicate their meaning pointer controlled by mouse
Q9 A school runs two versions of the same word processing package on its network. Both
versions allow users to type in text, but Version A accepts only keyed commands whereas with
Version B the user may use a mouse as well as the keyboard.
a) Describe how the use of a mouse can be helpful during Word Processing operations. Give a
range of examples to justify your answer. (6 marks)
b) At some point in the future it seems likely that computers will be able to receive input in
spoken form. Discuss, with examples, how this development could affect the design and use
of word processing packages. (6 marks)
a) A mouse is helpful because it is faster to perform tasks and easier to see what you are operating
on (selected text highlighted). e.g. moving round text is faster with point and click, selecting
text is faster using point and drag. Option selection is easier using dialogue boxes, or pop up
menus using right mouse button.
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b) At the simplest level text could be entered in spoken form rather than being typed in. or
punctuation, could use icons on a tool bar which could be selected and placed where required
or there could be a punctuation button to accept the next word as punctuation e.g. “full stop” in a
similar way there could be a command button which when selected would take the next word as a
command.
e.g. speak the text to be highlighted, press command button then say “Centre”
or could have the three mouse buttons mapped to text Punctuation Command
Other commands such as page set-up could be spoken, and the dialogue box could appear on the
screen and the required settings spoken.
Q10 Considerable efforts have been made to provide powerful yet intuitive user interfaces to a
wide range of application packages, operating systems and programming languages.
a) Identify a range of facilities that could be provided and discuss the perceived need for such
facilities. (4 marks)
b) Describe how you might assess the effectiveness of such interfaces. (1 mark)
a) An operating system could provide icons representing software packages and mouse support so
that the user can load software by clicking on the icon. It could provide easier ways of copying files,
by using a mouse to move a file from one directory list to another.
Editing facilities in all types of software could be provide to so that the mouse is used, for example,
to highlight text, and a menu of options allows the user to select, cut and paste. These facilities are
need because it is hard to remember the correct syntax for performing infrequently used commands.
Computers are no longer the province if the trained expert; people from many different skill areas
want to use, for example word processors, spreadsheets and databases and do not want to learn
complex operating system commands.
b)The effectiveness of such interfaces could be assessed by the number of copies of a package
like Microsoft Windows, which uses these techniques, which are sold worldwide.
11. A particular institution uses a range of software packages from different suppliers, each with
a different user interface. You are asked to advise the institution on the advantages of using
software packages with a common user interface.
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A user interface which has already been configured by an IT expert may not have been customised
to the exact needs of the user. This can result in poor use of the package by the user who may not
know how to reconfigure the interface.
(a)
common commands increased speed of learning - training not needed
12. The choice of a user interface has been described as ‘one of the most critical areas of
software consideration’. Many machines now offer a front end GUI (Graphical User
Interface) or WIMP environment.
(a)
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gets in the way’, more time consuming/greater number of operations to do a simple task, may be
several levels of menu before the one required, direct example contrasts to command line, provides
consistent environment, easier to data exchange using ‘clipboard’, device management globally
set, multi-tasking, DDE (dynamic data exchange)
(b) data exchanged wp-dtp... raw text for formatting/page layout
sp-dtp or wp sheets for inclusion
easier environment takes care of formatting changes of file transfer between the packages
automatically.
13
a) Give six of the physical and psychological factors which govern how people interact with
computer systems. (6 marks)
b) Give three factors which should be considered when providing a sophisticated human computer
interface, explaining the impact of each one on the system’s resources (6 Marks)
14.
A university uses a complex CAD (computer aided design) package. The package has a
sophisticated human-computer interface which also places considerable demands on the system’s
resources.
(a) Give two examples of a system’s resources that would be affected by such a package and explain
the demands placed upon them (4)
(b) Describe three features you would expect to find in the human-computer interface which would
merit the description ‘sophisticated’. (6)
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(a) In each of 2 examples: 1 for the resource and 1 for the demand on it.
Backing storage (1) - requires sufficient capacity to cope with large graphics files / large help-
files/ size of application code (1)
IAS (1) requires sufficient capacity to cope with multiple graphical user windows (1)
Processor (1) : needs sufficient clock speed to cope with additional processing involved in
smooth presentation of Graphics display (1)
etc. Avoid repetition any 2 x (1+1)=4
(b) In each case give 1 for naming the feature and then 1 for describing it. Descriptions must
make it clear that some level of sophistication exists.
on-line help (1) with context sensitive searching of different topics (1)
effective use of colour (1) to highlight on screen message e.g. warning messages in red,
suggestions in a different colour (1)
well designed command/menu structures taking into account skills of CAD designer (1) with shot
cut keys for experienced users (1)
use of a range of input/ output devices appropriate to CAD design work (1) e.g. graphics tablet,
plotter, etc. (1) – 2 examples gets 2 marks
user friendliness (1) takes account of design skills and terminology used by designers (1)
GUI (1) – presents complex information in graphical/icon format (1)
– features must be appropriate to CAD e.g. not voice recognition.
Max. 3x (1+1)=6
15. The workstations on a particular company network are set up to allow each user to change
software, menus, icons and color schemes to suit his or her own preferences. These variations make
support for users difficult to manage.
The network manager wants to change to a standard user interface, so that all the users will be given
the same set of menus, icons and color schemes.
(a) (i) Describe two benefits for the users of this standardized approach, other than improved
support.(4marks)
(ii) Describe two of the disadvantages for the users of this standardized approach. (4marks)
(b) What are the resource implications for planning this standardized interface? (4marks)
16. A mail order music company has decided to expand and has established a retail outlet in a
busy shopping centre.An important feature of the mail order system is the interface for the staff who
use it.
a) State three features you would expect the human/computer interface to have in such
a system and give a different reason for each one. (6 marks)
b)
i. Name an appropriate device for capturing data on each item that is sold via the
retail outlet. (1 mark)
ii. Describe one advantage for the company of using this device. (2 marks)
a.
Consistency with other systems (1) so that users are less likely to make errors (1)
Automated data entry (1) to reduce errors (1)
Cater for different levels of user expertise (1) workers may not be very ICT literate (1)
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Cater for different end user’s physical abilities (1) e.g. for partially sighted (1)
Consistent at both sites (1) so staff do not have to learn two systems (1)
Sensible use of colour (1) as the system will be used fairly intensively (1)
Help features accessible (1) so that users are able to assist themselves when they need to (1)
Menu based system (1) so that input choices are restricted to items sold (1)
Graphical user interface (1) to build on users previous experience/ to avoid language issues/ etc
(1)
Credit any feature related to interface that fits within the given context.
Second mark is given for expansions that can be justified within context.
3 x (2,1,0) marks
b.
i.
Bar Code Scanner (1)
Key Board (1)
1 mark
ii. This description must relate to the answer to (i) in order to get the marks
e.g. Bar Code Scanner
simple method (1) needs minimal training so staff can be working quickly (1)
stock is already provided with bar code from supplier (1) so little extra work required in
preparation (1)
Speed of data capture c/w other methods (1) so that store increases productivity (1)
Etc.
e.g. Key Board
cheap method c/w bar code scanner (1)
simple method (1) needs minimal training so staff can be working quickly (1)
Etc.
17. A school has approached you for advice as it plans to develop a computer-based learning
environment for its pupils aged from 6 to 10.
(a) Describe two factors the school should consider whilst designing the interface for the computer
system. (4 marks)
(b) State, with a reason:
(i) One example of a suitable input device that could be used by the pupils; (2 marks)
(ii) One example of a suitable output device that could he used by the pupils. (2 marks)
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18. There are several types of human/computer interface.
(a) (i) Describe one feature of a command line interface. (2 marks)
(ii) Name, giving one reason, one application where this interface would be appropriate.
(2 marks)
(b) (i) Describe one feature of a menu driven interface. (2 marks)
(ii) Name, giving one reason, one application where this interfaces would he appropriate.
(2 marks)
a. (i) Describe one feature of a graphical user interface. (2 marks)
(ii) Name, giving one reason, one application where this interface would be appropriate. (2 marks)
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