MODULE 1:

1. Alphabet, Languages, and Grammars

Alphabet

An alphabet is a finite, non-empty set of symbols. It is denoted by the Greek letter Σ (Sigma).

 Each symbol in Σ is called a character or letter.

 Example:

o Binary alphabet: Σ = {0, 1}

o English alphabet: Σ = {A, B, C, ..., Z}

The alphabet forms the basic building blocks of strings and languages.

String

A string is a finite sequence of symbols from an alphabet.

 Example: Over Σ = {0, 1}, strings can be 0, 01, 1101, etc.

 Empty string (ε): A string with zero length.

Language

A language is a set of strings formed using an alphabet.

 It can be finite or infinite.

 Notation: If Σ = {a, b}, a language can be L = {a, ab, abb, abbb...}

 Languages can be:

o Regular (can be expressed by finite automata)

o Context-free (expressed by context-free grammar)

o Context-sensitive or recursively enumerable (higher complexity)

Grammar

A grammar is a set of rules that defines a language.

A grammar is formally represented as G = (V, Σ, P, S):

 V: Finite set of variables (non-terminal symbols)

 Σ: Alphabet or terminal symbols

 P: Set of production rules (used to replace variables)

 S: Start symbol (a member of V)

Example Grammar for L = {aⁿbⁿ | n ≥ 1}:

 V = {S}

 Σ = {a, b}

 P = {S → aSb, S → ab}

 S=S

Such grammars are fundamental to programming languages, compilers, and parsers.

2. Productions and Derivation

Productions

A production is a rule used in a grammar to replace a non-terminal with a string of terminals

and/or non-terminals.

 Denoted as A → α, where:

o A is a non-terminal

o α is a string of terminals and non-terminals

Example:

 In a grammar:
S → aSb
S → ab
These are production rules.

Derivation

Derivation refers to the sequence of applying production rules to generate strings in a

language starting from the start symbol.

 There are two types:

o Leftmost derivation: Always expand the leftmost non-terminal.

o Rightmost derivation: Always expand the rightmost non-terminal.

Example using Grammar G:

 S → aSb | ab

 Derive "aabb":
1. S → aSb

2. aSb → aaSbb

3. aaSbb → aabb (by using S → ab)

Derivation Tree / Parse Tree

 A tree representation showing how the start symbol leads to a string in the language.

 Helps in syntax analysis (used in compilers).

3. Chomsky Hierarchy of Languages

The Chomsky Hierarchy, introduced by Noam Chomsky in 1956, is a classification of formal

languages based on the complexity of their grammars.

Type Language Class Grammar Type Automaton

0 Recursively Enumerable Unrestricted Turing Machine

1 Context-Sensitive Context-Sensitive Linear Bounded Automaton

2 Context-Free Context-Free Grammar (CFG) Pushdown Automaton

3 Regular Regular Grammar Finite Automaton

Type 3: Regular Languages

 Defined using Regular Grammars.

 Accepted by Finite Automata (DFA/NFA).

 Examples: Strings with even number of 0s, email validation.

Type 2: Context-Free Languages (CFLs)

 Defined by Context-Free Grammars.

 Accepted by Pushdown Automata (PDA).

 Example: Balanced parentheses { (), (()), (()(())) }

Type 1: Context-Sensitive Languages

 Productions are of the form αAβ → αγβ where |γ| ≥ 1.

 Accepted by Linear Bounded Automata.

 Example: Language { aⁿbⁿcⁿ | n ≥ 1 }

Type 0: Recursively Enumerable Languages

 Most general class.

 No restrictions on production rules.

 Accepted by Turing Machines.

 Example: Languages recognized by programming languages.

Importance of Chomsky Hierarchy

 Provides a framework to understand the power and limitations of language

recognition models.

 Used in compiler construction, artificial intelligence, and natural language processing.

 MODULE 2:
1. Regular Expressions and Languages

Regular Expressions (RE)

A regular expression is a formal notation used to describe a regular language. It defines a

pattern for strings.

Basic Symbols

 ∅: Represents the empty language.

 ε: Represents the language containing the empty string.

 a ∈ Σ: Denotes the language {a}.

Operations

 Concatenation: If R and S are regular expressions, RS means strings formed by

concatenating strings from R and S.

 Union (alternation): R + S represents strings from R or S.

 Kleene Star: R* means zero or more repetitions of strings from R.

Examples

 (a + b)* — all strings over {a, b}

 a*b — strings with zero or more a’s followed by a single b

 (0+1)*1 — all binary strings ending in 1

Regular Languages
A language is regular if it can be described by a regular expression or recognized by a finite
automaton.

2. Deterministic Finite Automata (DFA)

A DFA is a finite state machine that accepts or rejects strings from a language based on a
unique computation path.

Definition

A DFA is a 5-tuple:
M = (Q, Σ, δ, q₀, F) where:

 Q: Finite set of states

 Σ: Input alphabet

 δ: Transition function (Q × Σ → Q)

 q₀: Start state

 F: Set of accepting (final) states

Working

 For each input symbol, the machine follows one unique transition.

 If the string ends in an accepting state, it is accepted.

Example

Accept strings ending in 1 over Σ = {0, 1}:

States: Q = {q0, q1}

Start: q0

Accepting: F = {q1}

Transition:

δ(q0, 0) = q0, δ(q0, 1) = q1

δ(q1, 0) = q0, δ(q1, 1) = q1

3. DFA and Equivalence with Regular Expressions

Every regular expression can be converted into an equivalent DFA and vice versa.

Conversions
 RE to NFA: Use Thompson’s construction.

 NFA to DFA: Subset construction.

 DFA to RE: State elimination method.

This equivalence proves that regular expressions and DFAs recognize the same class of
languages — the regular languages.

4. Nondeterministic Finite Automata (NFA)

An NFA is similar to a DFA but allows multiple transitions for the same input symbol or ε-
transitions.

Definition

An NFA is a 5-tuple:
M = (Q, Σ, δ, q₀, F) where:

 δ: Q × (Σ ∪ {ε}) → 2^Q (i.e., set of possible next states)

Properties

 Multiple transitions from a state for a symbol

 May include ε-moves (transitions without input)

 Acceptance: A string is accepted if at least one path leads to an accepting state.

Example

Recognize strings over {a, b} ending in ‘ab’:

States: Q = {q0, q1, q2}

Start: q0

Accepting: F = {q2}

Transitions:

δ(q0, a) = {q0, q1}

δ(q1, b) = {q2}

5. Equivalence of NFA and DFA

Subset Construction Algorithm

Every NFA has an equivalent DFA. Convert NFA to DFA using the power set (subset)
construction:

 Each DFA state represents a set of NFA states.

 The resulting DFA simulates all NFA paths in parallel.

Conclusion

NFA and DFA recognize the same class of languages — regular languages.

6. Regular Grammars and Equivalence with Finite Automata

Regular Grammar

A grammar is regular if production rules are of the form:

 A → aB or A → a (right-linear grammar)

 or A → Ba or A → a (left-linear)

Equivalence

 Every regular grammar can be converted to a finite automaton, and vice versa.

 Thus, regular grammars generate regular languages.

Example

Grammar:

 S → aA

 A → bB

 B→ε
Recognizes string "ab"

Equivalent to an NFA/DFA with transitions following the same pattern.

7. Properties of Regular Languages

Regular languages are closed under the following operations:

1. Union: If L₁ and L₂ are regular, so is L₁ ∪ L₂.

2. Intersection: L₁ ∩ L₂ is regular.

3. Complement: ¬L is regular.

4. Concatenation: L₁L₂ is regular.

5. Kleene Star: L* is regular.

6. Difference: L₁ - L₂ is regular.

7. Reversal: Reverse(L) is regular.

These properties are useful for proving language regularity or constructing complex
languages from simple ones.

8. Pumping Lemma for Regular Languages

Statement

string w ∈ L, with |w| ≥ p, can be divided as:

If L is a regular language, then there exists a constant p (pumping length), such that any

w = xyz, such that:

1. |y| > 0

2. |xy| ≤ p

3. For all i ≥ 0, xyⁱz ∈ L

Use

 Primarily used to prove that a language is not regular (proof by contradiction).

 Choose a string w in L, assume it’s regular, apply the lemma, and show contradiction.

Example

Prove L = {aⁿbⁿ | n ≥ 0} is not regular.

 Assume it’s regular. Let p be pumping length.

 Choose w = a^p b^p.

 According to pumping lemma, w = xyz, and y contains only a's.

 Pumping y ⇒ more a’s than b’s ⇒ not in L.

 Contradiction ⇒ L is not regular.

9. Minimization of Finite Automata

Minimization is the process of reducing the number of states in a DFA while preserving its
language.

Steps:
1. Remove unreachable states.

2. Merge equivalent states (states that cannot be distinguished by any input string).

Hopcroft’s Algorithm

Efficient algorithm to minimize DFA:

 Divide states into distinguishable groups.

 Iteratively refine partitions.

 Merge equivalent states.

Example

If two states q₁ and q₂ always lead to same behavior for all inputs, they are merged.

Why minimize?

 Simplifies implementation.

 Saves memory and computational resources.

 MODULE 3:
1. Context-Free Grammars (CFG) and Context-Free Languages (CFL)

Context-Free Grammar (CFG)

A CFG is a 4-tuple G = (V, Σ, P, S) where:

 V: Set of non-terminal symbols

 Σ: Set of terminal symbols (disjoint from V)

 P: Set of production rules of the form A → α, where A ∈ V and α ∈ (V ∪ Σ)*

 S: Start symbol (S ∈ V)

Example:

CFG for balanced parentheses:

 V = {S}

 Σ = {(, )}

 P = {S → SS | (S) | ε}
 S=S

This grammar generates: (), (()), ()(), (()()), etc.

Context-Free Languages (CFL)

A language L is context-free if there exists a CFG G such that L = L(G), i.e., all strings derivable
from G.

Applications of CFLs

 Syntax analysis of programming languages

 Language translation

 Natural language processing

2. Chomsky and Greibach Normal Forms

Chomsky Normal Form (CNF)

Every context-free grammar can be converted to an equivalent grammar in CNF, where all
productions are:

 A → BC (B, C ∈ V, A ∈ V)

 A → a (a ∈ Σ)

 S → ε (only if ε ∈ L)

Why CNF?

 Simplifies parsing algorithms like CYK (Cocke–Younger–Kasami)

 Helps in proving theoretical properties

Greibach Normal Form (GNF)

All productions in GNF are of the form:

 A → aα, where a ∈ Σ, and α ∈ V*

It ensures that derivation always begins with a terminal symbol, making it useful for top-
down parsing.

Conversion Process

CFG → Remove useless symbols → Eliminate ε-productions → Remove unit productions →

Convert to CNF/GNF.
3. Nondeterministic Pushdown Automata (PDA) and Equivalence with CFG

Pushdown Automaton (PDA)

A PDA is a 7-tuple:
M = (Q, Σ, Γ, δ, q₀, Z₀, F) where:

 Q: Set of states

 Σ: Input alphabet

 Γ: Stack alphabet

 δ: Transition function (Q × (Σ ∪ {ε}) × Γ → P(Q × Γ*))

 q₀: Start state

 Z₀: Initial stack symbol

 F: Set of final states

Working

 Input is read symbol-by-symbol.

 Stack is used to store intermediate symbols.

 Transitions depend on input symbol and top of stack.

Equivalence with CFG

 Every CFG has an equivalent PDA that accepts the same language.

 A PDA simulates a leftmost derivation in the CFG.

Conclusion:
CFLs = Languages accepted by PDAs

4. Parse Trees

A parse tree (derivation tree) shows how a string is derived from a CFG.

Properties

 Root node: Start symbol

 Internal nodes: Non-terminals

 Leaf nodes: Terminals or ε

 Left-to-right traversal gives the derived string.

Example
For grammar:

 S → aSb | ε
Parse tree for aabb:

/|\

a S b

/\

a S b

Parse trees help in understanding syntactic structure, essential in compiler syntax analysis.

5. Ambiguity in CFG

A CFG is ambiguous if there exists a string that can be generated by more than one parse
tree or leftmost derivation.

Example:

Grammar:

 E → E + E | E * E | id
String: id + id * id
Can be parsed as:

 (id + id) * id or

 id + (id * id)

Inherent Ambiguity

Some CFLs are inherently ambiguous — no unambiguous grammar exists for them.

Why it matters?

 Ambiguity causes confusion in meaning.

 Parsers must resolve ambiguity for correct syntax analysis.

6. Pumping Lemma for CFLs

Used to prove that certain languages are not context-free.

Statement

If L is an infinite CFL, then ∃ a constant p (pumping length), such that any string z ∈ L, |z| ≥
p, can be split into z = uvwxy such that:

1. |vwx| ≤ p

2. vx ≠ ε

3. ∀i ≥ 0: u vⁱ w xⁱ y ∈ L

Application:

To prove a language is not context-free, assume it is, apply the lemma, and derive
contradiction.

Example

L = {aⁿbⁿcⁿ | n ≥ 1}
This is not a CFL. Proof uses pumping lemma and shows imbalance after pumping.

7. Deterministic Pushdown Automata (DPDA)

Definition

A DPDA is a PDA where:

 For every (state, input symbol, top of stack), there is at most one possible transition
(i.e., δ is deterministic).

 No ε-moves allowed if input symbol is also specified.

Language Acceptance

 DPDAs can recognize only a subset of CFLs, called Deterministic CFLs (DCFLs).

 Example: L = {aⁿbⁿ | n ≥ 0} is DCFL.

 L = {aⁿbⁿcⁿ | n ≥ 1} is not deterministic.

Applications

 Deterministic parsing (LL, LR parsers)

 Syntax checking in compilers

8. Closure Properties of CFLs

Closure properties help in constructing new CFLs from existing ones.

CFLs are closed under:

 Union: If L₁ and L₂ are CFLs, then L₁ ∪ L₂ is CFL.

 Concatenation: L₁L₂ is CFL.

 Kleene Star: L₁* is CFL.

 Substitution

 Intersection with regular languages

CFLs are NOT closed under:

 Intersection: L₁ ∩ L₂ may not be CFL.

 Complement: ¬L may not be CFL.

 Difference

Example

L₁ = {aⁿbⁿcᵐ | n, m ≥ 0}, L₂ = {aᵐbⁿcⁿ | n, m ≥ 0}

Both are CFLs, but L₁ ∩ L₂ = {aⁿbⁿcⁿ | n ≥ 0} is not a CFL.

MODULE 4:
1. Context-Sensitive Grammars (CSG) and Languages
🔹 Context-Sensitive Grammar (CSG)

A context-sensitive grammar (CSG) is a formal grammar that generates context-sensitive

languages (CSLs). The productions in CSG are more powerful than those in context-free
grammars.

Definition:

A context-sensitive grammar is a 4-tuple:

G = (V, Σ, P, S) where:

 V is a finite set of variables (non-terminals)

 Σ is a finite set of terminals (input symbols)
 P is a set of production rules
 S is the start symbol
The rules in P are of the form:
αAβ → αγβ, where:

A∈V
α, β ∈ (V ∪ Σ)*


γ ∈ (V ∪ Σ)+ (γ ≠ ε)


 Length of RHS ≥ length of LHS

This restriction means no contraction (the output cannot be shorter than the input). The only
exception is the rule:

 S → ε is allowed only if ε ∈ L(G) and S doesn’t appear on the right-hand side of any
rule.

Key Property:

✔ Every context-sensitive grammar is non-contracting.

✔ Productions preserve or increase string length.

Example:

Generate the language L = {aⁿbⁿcⁿ | n ≥ 1}

Let’s define a grammar:

 S → abc | aSBC
 CB → BC
 aB → ab
 bB → bb
 bC → bc
 cC → cc

This grammar ensures that for each a, there’s a corresponding b and c. These rules simulate
counting.

Applications of CSGs:

 Describing natural languages (which may not be context-free)

 Some syntax specifications in advanced compilers
 Formal verification of complex protocols or biological models
Comparison with Other Grammars:

Grammar Type Production Form Language Type

Regular A → a or A → aB Regular languages
Context-Free A→α Context-free languages
Context-Sensitive αAβ → αγβ, αβ
Unrestricted α → β (no constraints) Recursively enumerable

2. Linear Bounded Automata (LBA) and Equivalence with

CSG
🔹 What is a Linear Bounded Automaton (LBA)?

A Linear Bounded Automaton is a type of Turing Machine with limited memory. It

recognizes exactly the context-sensitive languages.

Definition:

An LBA is a non-deterministic Turing Machine with the following constraints:

 It has a single tape.

 The tape head is not allowed to move beyond the input string bounds.
 It uses space linearly proportional to the input size.

That means:
If the input is of length n, the LBA can use only O(n) cells on the tape.

Formal Structure:

An LBA is a 7-tuple:
M = (Q, Σ, Γ, δ, q₀, q_accept, q_reject) where:

 Q: Finite set of states

Γ: Tape alphabet (Σ ⊂ Γ)
 Σ: Input alphabet

 δ: Transition function (Q × Γ → Q × Γ × {L, R})
 q₀: Start state
 q_accept: Accepting state
 q_reject: Rejecting state

With a restriction:
The machine never moves outside the segment of the tape where the input is written.
Example:

To recognize L = {aⁿbⁿcⁿ | n ≥ 1}, the LBA:

1. Marks an a, finds a b, then a c, and marks them.

2. Repeats until the input is fully marked.
3. Accepts if all letters are matched and none remain unmarked.

Unlike finite automata and PDA, an LBA can remember how many of each symbol exists
and ensure strict matching — hence suitable for CSLs.

🔁 Equivalence of CSG and LBA

Theorem:
A language is context-sensitive if and only if it is accepted by a linear bounded
automaton.

This means:

 Every CSG can be simulated by an LBA, and

 For every LBA, there exists a CSG generating the same language.

Why Important?

 Proves context-sensitive languages are machine-recognizable, with bounded

resources.
 Forms the basis for hierarchical complexity classes like PSPACE (problems
solvable using polynomial space).
 Strengthens the Chomsky hierarchy by showing theoretical equivalence of
grammars and machines.

Chomsky Hierarchy Revisited:

Grammar Type Automaton Equivalent Language Example

Type 3 (Regular) Finite Automaton (FA) a*b*
Type 2 (CFL) Pushdown Automaton (PDA) aⁿbⁿ
Type 1 (CSL) Linear Bounded Automaton (LBA) aⁿbⁿcⁿ
Type 0 (Unrestricted) Turing Machine {w
MODULE 5:
1. The Basic Model for Turing Machines (TM)
🔹 Definition

A Turing Machine (TM) is the most powerful computational model in automata theory,
capable of simulating any algorithm. It is an abstract machine introduced by Alan Turing
in 1936 to formalize the concept of computation.

Formal Model

A Turing Machine is a 7-tuple:

M = (Q, Σ, Γ, δ, q₀, □, F) where:

 Q: Finite set of states

 Σ: Input alphabet (does not include the blank symbol □)
 Γ: Tape alphabet (includes Σ and □)
 δ: Transition function
δ: Q × Γ → Q × Γ × {L, R}
(Read symbol → write new symbol, move left or right)
 q₀: Initial state
 □: Blank symbol
 F: Set of accepting (final) states

Working

 Infinite tape acts as memory.

 A read/write head reads one symbol at a time.
 Based on the current state and tape symbol, it writes, moves, and transitions states.
 It continues until it reaches an accept or reject state.

Power

 More powerful than DFA, NFA, and PDA.

 Can simulate any algorithm — equivalent to modern computers in theoretical power.
Example

For L = {aⁿbⁿ | n ≥ 1}, the TM can:

1. Replace an a with X, move right to find a b, replace with Y.

2. Return to the leftmost a and repeat.
3. Accept if all as and bs are matched.

2. Turing Recognizable (Recursively Enumerable) and

Turing-Decidable (Recursive) Languages and Their
Closure Properties

🔹 Turing-Recognizable (Recursively Enumerable) Languages (RE)

 A language L is Turing-recognizable if there exists a TM that accepts every string in

L, but:
o It may loop forever on strings not in L.

Key Points:

 Acceptance is guaranteed for strings in the language.

 No guarantee of halting for strings not in L.

🔹 Turing-Decidable (Recursive) Languages

 A language L is Turing-decidable if there exists a TM that:

o Accepts all strings in L.
o Rejects all strings not in L.
o Halts on all inputs (always terminates).

Difference:

Type Halts Always? Accepts All in L? Rejects All Not in L?

Recursive (Decidable) ✅ ✅ ✅
Recursively Enumerable ❌ (may loop) ✅ ❌ (may loop forever)

🔁 Closure Properties
Operation Decidable RE
Union ✅ ✅
Intersection ✅ ✅
Complement ✅ ❌
Concatenation ✅ ✅
Kleene Star ✅ ✅
Difference ✅ ❌
Homomorphism ✅ ✅
Inverse Homomorphism ✅ ✅

3. Variants of Turing Machines

Turing machines can be extended in many ways without changing their computational
power.

🔹 Variants:

1. Multi-tape TM: Multiple tapes and heads, but equivalent in power to single-tape
TMs (just faster).
2. Multi-track TM: A single tape with multiple tracks (parallel memory cells).
3. TM with stay option: Instead of moving L or R, head can stay (S).
4. Offline TM: Input tape is read-only, useful for compiler simulations.
5. Two-way infinite tape: Both sides of the tape are infinite (same power).
6. Non-deterministic TM: Multiple choices for a move — see next topic.

Theoretical Equivalence

All variants recognize exactly the recursively enumerable languages — only the efficiency
changes, not power.

4. Nondeterministic TMs and Equivalence with

Deterministic TMs

🔹 Nondeterministic Turing Machine (NTM)

 NTM allows multiple possible transitions for a given input and state.
 Think of NTM as "trying all possible computations in parallel."
Acceptance

 If at least one computation path accepts, the NTM accepts the string.
 If all paths reject or loop, the string is not accepted.

🔁 Equivalence

 Theorem: Every nondeterministic Turing Machine has an equivalent deterministic

Turing Machine.
 Proof involves simulating all possible branches using a breadth-first search over
configurations.

✅ Conclusion:

NTMs and DTMs recognize the same class of languages: RE languages.

5. Unrestricted Grammars and Equivalence with Turing

Machines

🔹 Unrestricted Grammar (Type-0 Grammar)

 Production rules are of the form:

o α ∈ (V ∪ Σ)+
α → β, where:

o β ∈ (V ∪ Σ)*

No restriction on the form of rules (can shrink, grow, or stay the same length).

Generative Power

 Most powerful grammar in the Chomsky hierarchy.

 Can generate any language that a Turing machine can recognize.

🔁 Equivalence Theorem

 For every unrestricted grammar, there is a Turing Machine that accepts the same
language.
 For every TM, there is an unrestricted grammar generating the same language.
Example

Grammar for L = {aⁿbⁿcⁿ | n ≥ 1}:

 S → aSBC | abc
 CB → BC
 aB → ab, bB → bb
 bC → bc, cC → cc

This can simulate any Turing machine computation step.

6. Turing Machines as Enumerators

🔹 What is an Enumerator?

A Turing Machine enumerator is a Turing machine with:

 A write-only output tape, and

 No input

It generates strings of a language one by one, possibly with repetitions or in infinite time.

Formal Definition:

An enumerator E is a TM that prints (outputs) strings such that:

 The language L(E) is the set of all strings it eventually outputs.

🔁 Theorem:

A language L is recursively enumerable (RE) iff there exists a Turing machine

enumerator that enumerates all strings in L.

Why It Matters

 Shows a constructive way to define RE languages.

 Important in computability theory and language generation.

Example Enumerator Logic

For L = {aⁿbⁿ | n ≥ 0}:

 Output ε, ab, aabb, aaabbb, and so on.

MODULE 6:
1. Church-Turing Thesis

🔹 What is the Church-Turing Thesis?

The Church-Turing Thesis is a hypothesis (not a formal theorem) which proposes that:

“Any function that can be effectively computed (intuitively, by any algorithm) can be
computed by a Turing machine.”

🔹 Key Historical Background:

 Proposed independently by Alonzo Church (using λ-calculus) and Alan Turing

(using Turing machines).
 Later shown that λ-calculus and Turing machines are equivalent in computational
power.

🔹 Why Important?

 It establishes Turing machines as the standard model of computation.

 All modern programming languages (Java, Python, C, etc.) are Turing complete —
they can simulate a Turing machine.
 It connects the intuitive concept of algorithms to a rigorous formalism.

🔹 Limitations:
 It’s a thesis, not a provable theorem.
 It doesn’t imply everything can be computed — only that what can be computed
can be done by a TM.

2. Universal Turing Machine

🔹 What is a Universal Turing Machine (UTM)?

A Universal Turing Machine is a Turing machine that can simulate any other Turing
machine.

It takes as input a description of another TM and an input string, and simulates the
computation.

Formal Input:

⟨M, w⟩, where:

UTM receives input in the form:

 ⟨M⟩ is the encoding of a Turing Machine.

 w is the input to that machine.

The universal machine U accepts ⟨M, w⟩ iff M accepts w.

🔁 Importance:

 Proves the existence of a general-purpose computer.

 Serves as the foundation for interpreters, compilers, and emulators.
 UTM is capable of executing code written for other machines.

🔹 Real-life Analogy:

Modern computers with software loaders or interpreters (like Python running on

Windows/Linux) are practical implementations of UTM.

3. The Universal and Diagonalization Languages

🔹 Universal Language (LU)

LU = { ⟨M, w⟩ | M is a TM and M accepts w }

Defined as:

 This language is recursively enumerable (RE) — there's a TM that accepts all

strings in LU.
 But it is not decidable — there's no TM that halts for all inputs and correctly
decides membership in LU.

🔹 Diagonalization Language (LD)

Defined as:
LD = { wᵢ | TM Mᵢ does not accept wᵢ }

Where:

 All TMs and strings are enumerated as M₁, M₂, ..., w₁, w₂, ...
 It is based on Cantor's diagonalization idea.

💥 Key Result:

 LD is not Turing-recognizable.
 It shows that there exist languages which are not even recursively enumerable, i.e.,
no TM can accept all strings in LD.

🔁 Why Important?

 Helps prove the existence of undecidable problems.

 Forms the foundation of diagonalization proofs in computability.

4. Reduction Between Languages and Rice’s Theorem

🔹 Reduction Between Languages

Reduction is a technique to prove undecidability or computational complexity by

converting one problem into another.
Formal Idea:

If A ≤ B (A reduces to B), then:

If B is decidable ⇒ A is also decidable.

If A is undecidable ⇒ B is undecidable.



x ∈ A ⇔ f(x) ∈ B
Reductions are done using a computable function f such that:

🔹 Use of Reductions

 To prove new problems are undecidable, we reduce from a known undecidable

problem (like the Halting Problem).
 Useful in NP-completeness proofs in complexity theory.

🔹 Rice’s Theorem

Any non-trivial property of the language recognized by a TM is undecidable.

Formal Statement:

Let P be a non-trivial property of TM languages. Then:

 The problem of determining whether a Turing machine’s language has property P is

undecidable.

🔹 Non-trivial Property

A property is non-trivial if:

 There exists at least one TM whose language has the property.

 There exists at least one TM whose language does not have the property.

Examples of Undecidable Properties by Rice’s Theorem:

 Is L(M) = ∅?
 Is L(M) = Σ*?
 Does L(M) contain only palindromes?
 Is L(M) finite or infinite?

✅ Trivial Properties (Decidable):

 Does M = M?
 Is q₀ the start state?

These don't depend on L(M).

5. Undecidable Problems About Languages

🔹 Examples of Classic Undecidable Problems:

Given ⟨M, w⟩, does M accept w? ❌

Problem Description Decidable?

Given ⟨M, w⟩, does M halt on w? ❌

Acceptance Problem (ATM)

Is L(M) = ∅?
Halting Problem
Emptiness Problem ❌
Universality Problem Is L(M) = Σ*? ❌
Equivalence Problem Is L(M₁) = L(M₂)? ❌
Finiteness Problem Is L(M) finite? ❌

🔁 Why Undecidable?

 These problems can’t be solved by any Turing machine for all possible inputs.
 Their solution would require solving the Halting Problem, which is impossible.

🔹 Use in Theoretical CS:

 Helps in language classification.

 Important for program verification, compiler design, and AI safety (e.g., halting
analysis of AI models).

📌 Summary Table
Concept Key Point
Church-Turing Thesis Every computable function = TM-computable
Universal TM TM that simulates other TMs
LU & LD LU is RE but not decidable; LD is not RE
Reduction Technique to transfer (un)decidability
Rice’s Theorem Any non-trivial property of L(M) is undecidable
Language Problems Halting, emptiness, universality, etc. are undecidable

📘 Introduction: Alphabets, Languages, Grammars, and

Chomsky Hierarchy
🔹 Important Questions

1 Define and differentiate between an alphabet, a string, and a languag. 2 Explain the
structure and components of a formal gramma. 3 Describe the process of derivation in the
context of formal grammar. 4 Illustrate the Chomsky hierarchy of languages with
examples for each typ. 5 Compare and contrast regular, context-free, context-sensitive,
and recursively enumerable language.

🔹 Practice Questions- Given a specific grammar, identify its type within the
Chomsky hierarcy.- Construct derivation trees for given strings using a
specified grammr.- Determine whether a particular language belongs to a
specific class in the Chomsky hierarcy.

🔁 Regular Languages and Finite Automata

🔹 Important Question
1. Define regular expressions and discuss their role in representing regular languges.
2. Explain the construction of a deterministic finite automaton (DFA) for a given
regular expresion.
3. Describe the equivalence between nondeterministic finite automata (NFA) andDFA.
4. Discuss the properties and closure operations of regular languges.
5. State and prove the pumping lemma for regular languges.
6. Outline the steps involved in minimizing aDFA.

🔹 Practice Questins

 Convert a given NFA to an equivalen DF.

 Use the pumping lemma to prove that a specific language is not reula.
 Minimize a provided DFA and compare it with the oriina.
 Design a DFA that accepts strings over {0,1} that contain an even number of
eros.

🧮 Context-Free Languages and Pushdown Automata

🔹 Important Questons

1. Define context-free grammars (CFG) and provide eampls.

2. Differentiate between Chomsky Normal Form (CNF) and Greibach Normal For
(GN).
3. Explain the relationship between CFGs and pushdown automat (PD).
4. Discuss the concept of ambiguity in CFGs and its impliatios.
5. State and prove the pumping lemma for context-free laguags.
6. Compare deterministic and nondeterministc PDs.
7. Describe the closure properties of context-free laguages.

🔹 Practice Quetions

 Convert a given CFG to CNFandGNF.

 Construct a PDA that recognizes a specified context-free angage.
 Identify whether a given CFG is ambiguous and justify you anwer.
 Use the pumping lemma to demonstrate that a particular language is not contxt-
free.

🧠 Context-Sensitive Languages and Linear Bounded

Automata
🔹 Important Qustions

1. Define context-sensitive grammars (CSG) and provid exaples.

2. Explain the structure and functioning of linear bounded autoata LBA).
3. Discuss the equivalence between CSG andLBAs.
4. Compare context-sensitive languages with other language classes in the
Chomskyhierarchy.
🔹 Practice uestions

 Design a CSG for a language where the number of a's equals the number of b's and
cs cmbined.
 Construct an LBA that accepts strings of the ormaⁿbⁿcⁿ.
 Determine whether a given language is context-sensitive and provide
jutification.

Turing Machines and Computability

🔹 ImportantQuestions

1. Describe the components and operation of a Turingmachne (TM).

2. Differentiate between Turing-recognizable (recursively enumerable) and Turing-
decidable (recursie) lnguages.
3. Discuss the closure properties of recursive and recursively enumerale lnguages.
4. Explain various variants of TMs, including multi-tape and nondeteminitic TMs.
5. Demonstrate the equivalence between unrestricted gramarsand TMs.
6. Describe how TMs can function as enumerators or languages.

🔹 Practie Questions

 Design a TM that accepts palindromes over the lphbet {0,1}.

 Construct a TM that decides whether a binary number is iviible by 3.
 Convert an unrestricted grammar into anequvalent TM.
 Illustrate how a TM can enumerate all strings in a partiular language.

🚫 Undecidability and Computability Limits

🔹 Importnt Questions

1. State the Church-Turing thesis and discuss ts sgnificance.

2. Explain the concept and construction of a universa Turng machine.
3. Define the universal language and the diagonalization language, and discuss
heirproperties.
4. Describe the method of reduction between languages and its role in provin
undcidability.
5. State Rice's theorem and explain its implications for lanuageproperties.
6. List and explain common undecidable problems related to ormal languages.

🔹 Pratice Questions

 Use reduction to prove that the problem of determining whether a TM accepts a

particular strig i undecidable.
 Apply Rice's theorem to show that the property of a TM accepting all strins i
undecidable.
 Demonstrate the undecidability of th Hating Problem.
 Construct a proof to show that a specific language is not recurively enumerable.
📘 Introduction: Alphabets, Languages, Grammars, and Chomsky Hierarchy

 Chomsky Hierarchy Diagram:A layered diagram illustrating the inclusion

relationships among the four types of grammars and languages (Type 0 to Type 3).
This Venn diagram helps visualize how each class of language is a subset of the more
general classes above it citeturn0search3

🔁 Regular Languages and Finite Automata

 Finite Automata Diagrams (DFA & NFA) State-transition diagrams showing

states as circles and transitions as arrows labeled with input symbols. These diagrams
help in understanding how automata process string.
 Regular Expression to Automaton Conversion Step-by-step diagrams
demonstrating how a regular expression is transformed into an NFA or DFA,
illustrating the construction proces.
 DFA Minimization Diagrams Visual representations of the DFA before and after
minimization, highlighting the merging of equivalent state.

🧮 Context-Free Languages and Pushdown Automata

 *Pushdown Automata (PDA) Diagrams: State diagrams similar to finite automata

but with annotations indicating stack operations (push, pop, no operation). These
diagrams help visualize how PDAs use the stack to recognize context-free
languags.
 **Parse Trees (Derivation Trees)*: Hierarchical tree structures representing the
derivation of strings from a context-free grammar. Each node corresponds to a
grammar symbol, and the tree illustrates how the start symbol derives a particular
strig.
 *Ambiguity Illustrations: Multiple parse trees for the same string, demonstrating
how a grammar can generate a string in more than one way, indicating ambiguiy.

🧠 Context-Sensitive Languages

 *Linear Bounded Automata (LBA) Diagrams: Similar to Turing machine diagrams

but with a tape bounded by the input length. These diagrams help in understanding
how LBAs operate within confined tape spce.

Turing Machines and Computability

 Turing Machine Diagram: State diagrams showing states, transitions, tape

movements (left or right), and read/write operations. These diagrams are essential for
visualizing how Turing machines process iput.
 Multi-Tape Turing Machine Diagram: Illustrations showing multiple tapes and
heads, demonstrating how multi-tape Turing machines operate and how they can be
simulated by single-tape machnes.
 Turing Machine as Enumerator Diagram: Flowcharts or state diagrams showing
how a Turing machine can systematically list all strings of a language, emphasizing
the enumeration proess.

🚫 Undecidability and Computability Limits

 Universal Turing Machine Diagras: Diagrams illustrating how a universal Turing
machine simulates other Turing machines, including representations of encoded
inputs and transition funcions.
 Reduction Diagras: Flowcharts or mappings showing how a problem A can be
reduced to problem B, helping to visualize the concept of reducibility in
undecidability poofs.
 Rice's Theorem Illustratios: Conceptual diagrams showing the set of all Turing
machines and highlighting the undecidable properties, aiding in the understanding of
Rice's Thorem.