Course Name: STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS I

Course Code: CIV2101

Course Level: Level 2

Credit Units: 4 CU

Course Description

This course introduces the student to methods of static analysis of linear statically
determinate elastic structures as well as an introduction to the solution of statically
indeterminate structures.

Objectives

 Apply basic mathematics, science and engineering principles to solve structural

engineering problems.
 Identify, formulate and solve statically determinate and simple statically
indeterminate problems using several basic methods.
 Introduces the basic use of other complex tools to solve more complicated structures
in the subsequent higher-level courses in structures.
Learning Outcomes

On completing the course the student should be able to:

 Apply basic mathematics, science and engineering principles to solve structural
engineering problems.
 Recognize, formulate and analyze statically determinate beams, frames and trusses
using several basic methods.
 Extend the acquired knowledge to statically indeterminate systems covered in the
subsequent course [Structural Analysis II].

Detailed Course Content

1. Definitions and Geometry [12 hours]
 Basic Definitions
 Types of Structures
 External equilibrium and internal forces in members,
 Stability and Determinacy,
 Principal of Virtual work & Superposition.

2. Statically Determinate Members [15 hours]

@NDU ~ CIV2101 Structural Analysis I Semester I ~ 2020-2021 Page 1 of 12

 Beams, Trusses, Arches and Frame analysis,
 Internal forces at cut sections.
 Moment, shear force and axial diagrams,

3. Deformation of Statically Determinate Members [15 hours]

 Moment Area method
 Castiglione Theorem
 Unit Load Method

4. Deflection analysis of statically determinate structure [12 hours]

 Displacements in beams and frames due to loads and temperature change,
 Differential equation of flexure,
 Macaulay’s methods [Double Integration Method]

5. Influence line analysis of statically determinate structures [6 hours]

 Statically determinate Beams and Trusses

Mode of Delivery
The mode of delivery is through lectures and tutorials.

Mode of Assessment
Course work [assignments and tests], final examination, and their relative contributions to
final grade are shown as follows:
Requirement Percentage contribution
Course work 40%[Assignments~25, Test ~12, Attendance~3]
Final examination 60%
Total 100%
Course Instructor;

 James Akuku [0773~109247, [email protected]]

References

1. Mau S. T.; Fundamentals of Structural Analysis, 2003

2. Alan Williams, 2009. Structural Analysis in Theory and Practice. Butterworth-
Heinemann; 1 edition, ISBN-13: 978-1856175500
3. R.C.Hibbler, 2014. Structural Analysis, 9th Edition. Pearson publishers. ISBN-13: 978-
0133942842.
4. Theory and Analysis of Structures by A. Zingoni, JA Mwakali and A. Salahuddin
5. Yuan-Yu Hsieh, 1995. Elementary Theory of Structures. 4th Edition.
6. S. Khurmi. 2000. Theory of Structures. S Chand & Co Ltd. ISBN-13: 978-8121905206

@NDU ~ CIV2101 Structural Analysis I Semester I ~ 2020-2021 Page 2 of 12

CHAPTER ONE: Definitions and Geometry
 Basic Definitions
 Types of Structures
[12]
 External equilibrium and internal forces in members,
 Stability and Determinacy,
 Principal of Virtual work,
 Principal of superposition.
DEFINITIONS
Structure;
It is a system of connected parts used to support a load or set of loads, examples include; bridges,
buildings and towers.

A structure therefore consists of various elements which a structural Engineer should be able to
categorise into their respective forms and functions so as to analyse them for the load cases as well as
design and size appropriately.

Structural System;
This refers to the combination of structural elements (inter-dependent elements) and the materials
from which they are composed. Structures are constituted from structural elements such as; brazing
struts, beams and columns.

These elements are defined as below;

i] Ties or brazing struts are structural elements subjected to tensile forces.

ii] Beams are usually straight horizontal members used mainly to carry vertical loads. They are
classified as cantilevered beams, simply supported beams, fixed supported beams and
continuous beams; that is according to the way they are supported.
iii] Columns are vertical structural elements or members which resist axial compressive loads and
sometimes bending.

TYPES OF STRUCTURES;

Structural systems are constituted of one or more of the following four types of structures;

a] Trusses
Trusses majorly consist of relatively slender members often formed in a triangular
configuration. They are ideal for longer spans due to the geometric arrangement of the
members. This arrangement tends to translate the bending and shear forces due to loads into
tensile and compressive forces within the truss members.

Note;

@NDU ~ CIV2101 Structural Analysis I Semester I ~ 2020-2021 Page 3 of 12

In truss structures, joints are pin connected and loads are applied at joints hence No shear force
& bending moment are produced, Only axial compression and axial tension is to be determined
while analysing a truss

Trusses are further classified into; planer and space trusses.

 Planer trusses are those whose members lie in the same plane and mostly used in roof
and bridge structures.
 Space trusses are those whose members lie in three dimensions and are ideal for
supporting mega structures like towers.

b] Cables and arches

These are also used for supporting loads and they span a longer distance.
Cables are usually suspended at their ends and are allowed to sag, the forces are then pure
tension and are directed along the axis of the cable.
Arches are similar to cables except that they are inverted, they carry compressive loads that
are directed along the axis of the arch.
Cables are usually flexible and carry their loads in tension. The main difference between cables
and tie members is that; cables take a form defined by sagging unlike tie members whose loads
are tensile along the central axis.
This state of cables has an advantage over beams and trusses in that they don’t become unstable
and collapse since they are always in pure tension.
Another advantage is that the cost requirement for cables is lesser compared to beams and
trusses. The use of cables is however limited by their sag, weight and the method of anchorage.
Arches however, are always rigid solely to maintain their shapes and this kind of shape results
into development of shear forces and moments within the arch structure.
They are commonly used in bridges and openings of masonry walls.

Arch
Cables

@NDU ~ CIV2101 Structural Analysis I Semester I ~ 2020-2021 Page 4 of 12

c] Frames
Frames basically consist of beams and columns that are either pinned or rigidly fixed at the
connections. They are also categorised into planer and space frames depending on their
configuration.
Planer frames are those that lie on one plane while space frames lie in three dimensions. Note
that the strength of frames is achieved by the interaction of the internal loadings in the beams
and frames constituting the framed structure.

d] Surface structures;
A surface structure is made from a material having a very smaller thickness compared to its
other dimensions. These materials can be very flexible such as for tents or air inflated
structures. They can also be made from rigid materials such as concrete or steel plates. In both
cases the material acts as a membrane that is subjected to pure tension.
Surface structures may also be made of rigid material such as reinforced concrete. As such they
may be shaped as folded plates, cylinders, or hyperbolic paraboloids, and are referred to as
thin plates or shells. These structures act like cables or arches since they support loads primarily
in tension or compression, with very little bending. In spite of this, plate or shell structures are
generally very difficult to analyse, due to the three-dimensional geometry of their surface. Such
an analysis is beyond the scope of this text and is instead covered in texts devoted entirely to
this subject.

LOADINGS ON A STRUCTURE

 Structures are primarily designed to carry loads and hence once the dimensional requirements
of a structure are defined, it is very vital to determine the loads it is exposed to.
The type of structure is also decided basing on the loads it is to carry.
 A structural Engineer always has to refer to building codes and design codes loads in order to
execute his work correctly. These codes basically provide for the minimum requirements for
loads on a structure and technical standards used in the design of structures. Structures should

@NDU ~ CIV2101 Structural Analysis I Semester I ~ 2020-2021 Page 5 of 12

be designed to safely withstand all the loads they are subjected to. The major actions /loads a
structure carries are; characteristic dead loads, characteristic imposed loads and wind loads.
 Dead loads consist of the weights of the various structural and weights of any objects that are
permanently attached to the structure for example; weights of beams, columns, ceilings, girders
etc.
 Live loads consist of the weights within a structure which vary in both magnitude and location
road etc.

EXTERNAL EQUILIBRIUM AND INTERNAL FORCES IN MEMBERS

For an object to be in equilibrium, the summation of all the actions on its members; that is forces and
moments must balance. Therefore, considering a single plane, the equilibrium condition equations
reduce to;

 ∑Fx = 0
 ∑Fy = 0
 ∑Mo = 0

It should also be noted that when a structure is in equilibrium, then all its constituent parts are in
equilibrium, this principle is used in determination of bending moments and shear forces along a
beam and frames.

For a truss member, it is in equilibrium when the two forces of the same magnitude act along the axis
in either tension or compression.

Compression member Tension member

In such a case, the internal force acting on any chosen section of the member is the same throughout
the entire member.

When a small section is cut from the member such as below, the force in this small section is the same
throughout the entire member.

Due to the force, each segment of the member will elongate or shorten, if the material is elastic as is
the case for most structures, the force in the members is directly proportional to the elongation.

@NDU ~ CIV2101 Structural Analysis I Semester I ~ 2020-2021 Page 6 of 12

Assuming that the material is linearly elastic with Young's Modulus E, cross sectional area A and
length L, then the force developed in the member is given by;

 F = 𝑘∆.
Where k = 𝐸𝐴/𝐿. [Constant]

Types of Equilibrium

i] Stable equilibrium
When a body is displaced from its equilibrium position, it returns to rest at that very positon
while re-attaining its equilibrium state.
ii] Unstable equilibrium
When a body is displaced from its equilibrium position, it doesn’t return to rest at that very
positon while re-attaining its equilibrium state, it rather continues to rest at another position.
iii] Neutral equilibrium
When a body is displaced from its equilibrium position, it rests at the new displaced positon
while re-attaining its equilibrium state.

STABILITY AND DETERMINACY

Prior to the analysis of a structure for the forces, it is important to establish its stability and
determinacy. All structures to be analysed should logically be stable for safety reasons which design
of structural aims at.

DETERMINACY

The determinacy of a structure is compared in relation to the static equations of equilibrium for
coplanar structural systems.

As seen earlier on, the three equations of static equilibrium provide both the necessary and sufficient
conditions of equilibrium, hence if all the forces/reactions in a structure can be determined completely
using the equations of static equilibrium; it is referred to as; statically determinate,

However, if the structure has more unknown forces than the available equations of static equilibrium,
it is referred to as; statically indeterminate

When determining the determinacy of a structure, the structure should first be isolated show all the
unknown forces and moments (free body diagram) and then comparing it with the equations of
equilibrium.

Note that for coplanar structures, each part has at most 3 equations of equilibrium for complete
analysis, therefore, its determinacy can be determined from the relation

∑𝑅 = 3𝑚 + 𝑐 ,

@NDU ~ CIV2101 Structural Analysis I Semester I ~ 2020-2021 Page 7 of 12

Where;

 𝑅 = 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

 𝑚 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟

If

i] ∑𝑹 = 𝟑𝒎 + 𝒄, The structure is statically determinate

ii] ∑𝑹 > 𝟑𝒎 + 𝒄 The structure is statically indeterminate.

The extra number of equilibrium conditions or equations required to analyse a statically

indeterminate structure is called degree of indeterminacy;

That is the difference between the unknowns and the number of parts; that is {∑𝑅 − (3𝑚 + 𝑐)}.

These equations are generated by relating the applied loads and reactions to the displacements at
different points on the structure, the equations are also referred to as Compatibility equations.

DETERMINACY OF BEAMS

A beam is statically determinate if it satisfies the condition;

∑𝑅 = 3𝑚 + 𝑐,

Where R is all the reactive forces and moments, m is the total number of members of the beam which
in this case is 1 and c is any condition such as internal hinge.

Hence the determinacy of a beam can be found using the relation; ∑𝑅 = 3 + 𝑐

Statically Indeterminate to the 1st Degree Statically Determinate

Free Body Diagram; [Case II]

Statically Determinate

 ∑𝑅 = 4 𝑚 = 1 𝑐 = 1
 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ∑𝑅 = 3 + 𝑐,
 4 = 3 + 1, 4 = 4,

ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒.

@NDU ~ CIV2101 Structural Analysis I Semester I ~ 2020-2021 Page 8 of 12

Statically
indeterminate to the 2nd Degree Statically indeterminate to the 2nd Degree

DETERMINACY OF FRAMES

Considering a coplanar frame, it should be noted that the nodal equilibrium has 3 equations for it to
be in static equilibrium. Therefore, if the frame has 𝑁 nodes, the total number of equations is 3𝑁 and
the total number of unknowns is given as 3𝑚 + ∑𝑅.

General approach

This approach is based on the same principle; that is comparing the unknowns with the available
equations for its complete analysis. The total number of unknowns is the sum of member unknowns
and the reactions, while the total number of equations is the sum of all the equations at the nodes with
any internal condition.

That is; 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑠 = 3𝑀 + ∑𝑅 and 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 3𝑁 + ∑𝐶

Where;

 R represents the external unknowns [Reactive forces and Moments],

 M represents the number of members,
 N represents the number of nodes and
 C represents the internal condition.

The above relation is applicable to both beams and frames.

In this approach, the determinacy is found by relating 3𝑀 + ∑𝑅 with 3𝑁 + ∑𝐶.

When

i] 3𝑀 + ∑𝑅 = 3𝑁 + ∑𝐶, the structure is statically determinate but if

ii] 3𝑀 + ∑𝑅 > 3𝑁 + ∑𝐶, it is statically indeterminate

The number of conditions for construction C at a particular point is got from the relation 𝐶 = 𝑀 − 1,

Where M represents all the number of members sharing the condition C

Case Example; Discuss the determinacy of the frames below;

@NDU ~ CIV2101 Structural Analysis I Semester I ~ 2020-2021 Page 9 of 12

a] Using the expression 3𝑀 + ∑𝑅 = 3𝑁 + ∑𝐶,

Where total 𝑅 = 6 ,𝑀 = 2 C= 2-1 =1

3𝑀 + ∑𝑅 = (3 𝑋 2) + 6 = 12 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝑁 + ∑𝐶 = (3 𝑋 3) + 1 =
10
Free body
Diagram 3𝑀 + ∑𝑅 > 3𝑁 + ∑𝐶 𝑇ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 12 > 10

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒

Alternatively; Compare

∑𝑅 = 3𝑀 ; Where R= Number of reactive forces and M is the

number of parts of the isolated frame. The number of parts is
considered from one joint to the next

∑𝑅 = 8 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝑀 = 3𝑋 2 = 6, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 8 > 6,

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒

b] 3𝑀 + ∑𝑅 = (3 𝑋 2) + 3 = 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝑁 + ∑𝐶 = (3 𝑋 3) = 9

3𝑀 + ∑𝑅 = 3𝑁 + ∑𝐶 𝑇ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 9=9

𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒

STABILITY

Structures have to be stable and also satisfy the equations of equilibrium in order to ensure its full
equilibrium. Structures encounter instability mainly due to two conditions; that is; instability due to
improper supports or partial constraints and instability due to improper constraints or connections.

1. Instability due to partial constraints;

This results from a state where the structure has fewer reactive forces than the equations of
equilibrium that must be satisfied. Examples of insufficient supports are shown below;

2. Instability due to improper constraints;

In some cases there may be as many unknown forces as there are equations of equilibrium;
however, instability or movement of a structure or its members can develop because of
improper constraining by the supports.

@NDU ~ CIV2101 Structural Analysis I Semester I ~ 2020-2021 Page 10 of 12

This can occur if all the support reactions are concurrent at a point. From the free-body diagram
of the beam it is seen that the summation of moments about point O will not be equal to zero
thus rotation about point O will take place.
Another way in which improper constraining leads to instability occurs when the reactive
forces are all parallel. Here when an inclined force P is applied, the summation of forces in the
horizontal direction will not equal zero. Examples of such cases are as below;
a] Parallel external Reactions

b] Concurrent external
reactions

3. Instability due to improper internal connection

Note; a structure is geometrically unstable;

 If there are fewer reactive forces than the available equation of equilibrium
 If the reactions are concurrent [intersect at a common point] or parallel.
We can hence generalise stability of a structure from the relations
𝑹 < 3𝒎, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹 ≥ 𝟑𝒎
𝑹 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒎 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

FURTHER READING AREAS

1. Differentiate between the following terms;

i. Statically determinate and statically indeterminate structures
ii. Geometrically unstable structures and statically unstable structures
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Statically determinate and statically
indeterminate structures
3. Discuss the stability and determinacy of the following structures

@NDU ~ CIV2101 Structural Analysis I Semester I ~ 2020-2021 Page 11 of 12

Reading assignment; Principle of Virtual work and Superposition. [Next Lecture]

PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK

CHAPTER TWO: Statically Determinate Members

 Beams, Trusses, Arches and Frame analysis,
[15]
 Moment, shear force and axial diagrams
 Internal forces at cut sections.

CHAPTER THREE: Deformation of Statically Determinate Members

 Moment Area method
[15]
 Castiglione Theorem
 Unit Load Method

CHAPTER FOUR: Deflection analysis of statically determinate structures

 Displacements in beams and frames due to loads and temperature change,
[12]
 Differential equation of flexure,
 Macaulay’s methods [Double Integration Method]

CHAPTER FIVE: Influence line analysis of statically determinate structures

 Statically determinate Beams and Trusses
[6]

@NDU ~ CIV2101 Structural Analysis I Semester I ~ 2020-2021 Page 12 of 12