Here's a clear and organized table explaining Phase 3: Syntax Analysis (Parsing) as per BTech 3rd year

syllabus:

Category Topic Description

Classification Top Down Parsers Parsers that build parse tree from root to leaves.

Recursive Descent Uses a set of recursive procedures for each non-

Parser terminal.

LL Parser Left-to-right scanning, Leftmost derivation.

LL(1) Grammar A subset of LL parsers using 1 lookahead symbol.

First and Follow Sets Used to build parsing table for LL(1) grammars.

Removes ambiguity by factoring common prefixes in

Left Factoring
grammar rules.

Steps to Construct LL(1) Involves computing First/Follow sets and filling the table
Table accordingly.

Predictive Parsing Uses LL(1) table to parse input without backtracking.

Classification Bottom Up Parsers Parsers that build parse tree from leaves to root.

Uses a stack to shift symbols and reduce them to non-

Shift Reduce Parsing
terminals.

Operator Precedence
Handles expressions using operator precedence rules.
Parsing

LR Parsing More powerful bottom-up parsing method.

SLR (Simple LR) Simplified LR using Follow sets for reduction.

CLR (Canonical LR) Uses full LR items, more powerful and precise.

Combines CLR states for efficiency; used in many

LALR (Look-Ahead LR)
compilers.

Sure! Here's a structured explanation of Classification of Parsers using points, subpoints, and short
paragraphs suitable for a BTech 3rd year level:

Classification of Parsers

Parsers are categorized based on how they analyze the input string and derive the parse tree. Broadly,
parsers are classified into two types:

1. Top-Down Parsers

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These parsers start constructing the parse tree from the root (start symbol) and try to derive the input
string by expanding non-terminals.

a. Recursive Descent Parser

This is a straightforward parsing technique where each non-terminal has a corresponding

recursive function.
It is easy to implement but can struggle with left-recursive grammars unless modified.

b. LL Parser

‘LL’ stands for scanning the input Left to right and constructing Leftmost derivation.
LL parsers can be constructed manually using grammar rules and are predictive in nature.

c. LL(1) Grammar

A type of LL parser that uses 1 lookahead symbol to make parsing decisions.

It requires the grammar to be free from left recursion and ambiguity.

d. First and Follow Sets

These sets help in constructing the LL(1) parsing table.

First set tells which terminals can begin a string derived from a non-terminal.
Follow set tells which terminals can appear immediately to the right of a non-terminal.

e. Left Factoring

A grammar transformation technique to remove common prefixes in alternatives.

It helps convert a grammar into LL(1) form and makes predictive parsing possible.

f. Constructing LL(1) Parsing Table

Steps:

1. Compute First and Follow sets.

2. Use them to fill entries in a parsing table.
3. Ensure there are no multiple entries (no ambiguity) for a single cell.

g. Predictive Parsing

A type of top-down parsing using the LL(1) table.

No backtracking is required; hence it's fast and efficient for suitable grammars.

2. Bottom-Up Parsers

These parsers start from the input symbols (leaves) and attempt to construct the parse tree upwards to
the root (start symbol).

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a. Shift-Reduce Parsing

The parser uses a stack to shift input symbols and reduce them to non-terminals using
grammar rules.
Four main actions: Shift, Reduce, Accept, and Error.

b. Operator Precedence Parsing

Specifically designed for arithmetic expressions.

Uses precedence relations between operators to decide shifts and reductions.
Cannot handle all types of grammars, but works well for expressions.

c. LR Parsing (Left-to-right, Rightmost derivation in reverse)

These are powerful bottom-up parsers that can handle a wider range of grammars than LL
parsers.

Types of LR Parsers:

SLR (Simple LR):

Simplest form of LR parser using Follow sets for reductions.
CLR (Canonical LR):
More accurate but complex, uses complete LR(1) items.
LALR (Look-Ahead LR):
A practical balance between SLR and CLR. Combines similar states of CLR to reduce
size.

This classification helps understand which parser is best suited for a given grammar, and which
techniques need to be applied to make parsing efficient and error-free.

Certainly! Here's a detailed explanation of the Recursive Descent Parser in points, subpoints, and small
paragraphs, structured for a BTech 3rd year understanding:

1. Recursive Descent Parser

A Recursive Descent Parser is a kind of top-down parser built using a set of recursive functions — one
for each non-terminal in the grammar. It is easy to implement and understand, making it ideal for small
language interpreters or educational compilers.

✅ How It Works

Each non-terminal in the grammar is represented by a recursive function.

The parser tries to match input symbols using grammar rules.

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If a rule is matched, the parser consumes the input and continues.
If no rule matches, it backtracks (unless predictive parsing is used).

🔁 Steps Involved

1. Start from the start symbol of the grammar.

2. Call the corresponding function for each non-terminal.
3. Match the terminal symbols with input string tokens.
4. Use recursion to expand non-terminals until the input is parsed completely.

⚠️ Limitations

Cannot handle left-recursive grammars (e.g., A → Aα).

Because it causes infinite recursion.

Needs grammar transformation to remove left recursion.

May involve backtracking, which makes it less efficient.

This can be avoided by using LL(1) parsing techniques.

📌 Example

For a grammar:

E → T E'
E' → + T E' | ε
T → int

We might write:

void E() {
T();
EPrime();
}

void EPrime() {
if (lookahead == '+') {
match('+');
T();
EPrime();
}
}

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Each function checks for a match and calls other functions based on the rule.

✅ Advantages

Simple and intuitive to implement.

Good for hand-written parsers for small and simple grammars.

❌ Disadvantages

Not suitable for complex or ambiguous grammars.

Requires transforming the grammar to remove left recursion and ambiguity.

This parser lays the foundation for understanding how parsing functions operate in compilers and
interpreters, especially when learning the LL parsing family.

Absolutely! Here’s a detailed explanation of the LL Parser in points, subpoints, and small paragraphs,
structured for BTech 3rd year level:

2. LL Parser

An LL Parser is a top-down parser that parses the input from Left to right and produces a Leftmost
derivation of the sentence. The name "LL" stands for:

First L → Scan input from Left to right

Second L → Construct Leftmost derivation

✅ Characteristics

Works predictively using grammar rules and lookahead tokens.

Suitable for parsing LL grammars, especially LL(1) grammars.
Operates without backtracking if the grammar is properly designed.

📚 How It Works

The parser uses a parsing table (in LL(1)) and a stack to decide which production rule to apply.

At each step, it looks at:

The top of the stack (which has a non-terminal or terminal),

The current input symbol (lookahead token),

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Then decides the next action based on the LL parsing table.

🧠 Key Concepts Involved

1. Leftmost Derivation

The parser always expands the leftmost non-terminal first.

This makes it easier to build parsers by hand.

2. Predictive Parsing

A non-backtracking parser that makes decisions using a parsing table (LL(1)).

Predicts which production to use by checking First and Follow sets.

🛠️ LL(1) Parsers

LL(1) is a special case where the parser uses only 1 lookahead symbol.

Grammar must be:

Free from left recursion.

Left factored to avoid ambiguity.

LL(1) grammars are deterministic and easier to parse.

📋 LL Parsing Table

A 2D table constructed using:

Non-terminals as rows
Terminals as columns

Filled using First and Follow sets of the grammar.

Used during parsing to decide which production to apply.

✅ Advantages

Easy to implement and debug.

Good for simple and small languages.
No backtracking needed (if using LL(1)).

❌ Disadvantages

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Cannot handle ambiguous or left-recursive grammars.
Less powerful than LR parsers (bottom-up parsers).

🧪 Example

For grammar:

E → T E'
E' → + T E' | ε
T → int

If the input is int + int , the LL parser will:

Match int with T ,

See + and expand E' → + T E' ,
Repeat the process.

The LL Parser is a foundational parsing approach in compiler design and helps understand the
importance of grammar structure in parsing.

Sure! Here's a clear and structured explanation of LL(1) Grammar in points, subpoints, and small
paragraphs, tailored for a BTech 3rd year level:

3. LL(1) Grammar

An LL(1) grammar is a special type of context-free grammar used by LL(1) parsers, where parsing is
done from Left to right, constructing the Leftmost derivation, using 1 lookahead symbol to make
decisions.

✅ Key Features

"LL" stands for Left-to-right scanning and Leftmost derivation.

The "(1)" indicates the parser uses one lookahead symbol to choose the correct production.
Grammar must be designed to eliminate ambiguity, left recursion, and ensure distinct parsing
decisions.

📋 Properties of LL(1) Grammar

1. Determinism

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At any point in parsing, the parser can unambiguously decide which production to use based
on the current input symbol.

2. No Left Recursion

LL(1) grammars must not have rules like A → Aα .

Left recursion leads to infinite loops in top-down parsers.

3. Left Factored

If multiple productions share a common prefix, they must be refactored so that the parser
can make decisions based on the first token.

🔍 Why LL(1)?

The 1 lookahead simplifies parser logic and reduces memory usage.

Predictive parsing with LL(1) grammars can be done without backtracking, making the parsing
faster and easier to implement.

🧠 Important Concepts

1. First Set

Set of terminals that begin the strings derivable from a non-terminal.

2. Follow Set

Set of terminals that can appear immediately to the right of a non-terminal in some
"sentential form".

3. Parsing Table

Constructed using First and Follow sets.

Each cell [Non-terminal][Terminal] holds exactly one production.
If a cell has more than one production, the grammar is not LL(1).

🛠️ Steps to Convert Grammar to LL(1)

1. Eliminate Left Recursion

2. Apply Left Factoring
3. Compute First and Follow Sets
4. Construct Parsing Table
5. Ensure Uniqueness in Each Cell

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✅ Advantages

Fast and efficient parsing.

Easy to write and debug manually.
Used in many hand-written and educational compilers.

❌ Disadvantages

Cannot parse all context-free grammars.

Struggles with ambiguity and complex language constructs.

🧪 Example

For the grammar:

E → T E'
E' → + T E' | ε
T → int

This is LL(1) because:

No left recursion,
Left factoring not required,
The First and Follow sets allow the parser to make a unique decision using only one
lookahead symbol.

Understanding LL(1) Grammar is essential for constructing reliable predictive parsers and is widely
used in simple compiler implementations.

Certainly! Here's a well-organized explanation of First and Follow Sets in points, subpoints, and small
paragraphs, suitable for a BTech 3rd year level:

4. First and Follow Sets

In syntax analysis (parsing), First and Follow sets are essential tools used to build LL(1) parsing tables.
They help determine which grammar rule to apply based on the current input symbol and the structure
of the grammar.

🅰️ FIRST Set

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The First set of a symbol (terminal or non-terminal) is the set of terminals that can appear at the
beginning of strings derived from that symbol.

✅ Definition

For a terminal:
FIRST(a) = { a }

For a non-terminal A :
FIRST(A) includes:

Terminals that begin strings derived from A

If A → ε is a production, then ε is in FIRST(A)

🔁 How to Compute FIRST Set

1. If the symbol is a terminal, add it directly.

2. If the symbol is a non-terminal:

Traverse all its productions.

Add the FIRST of the first symbol on the right-hand side.
If that symbol can derive ε, check the next symbol, and so on.

3. If all symbols in a production can derive ε, add ε to the FIRST set.

📌 Example

For grammar:

E → T E'
T → int | ( E )

FIRST(E) = FIRST(T) = { int , ( }

🅱️ FOLLOW Set
The Follow set of a non-terminal is the set of terminals that can appear immediately to the right of that
non-terminal in some sentential form.

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✅ Definition

FOLLOW(S)** (for start symbol) always includes $ (end of input).

For a rule A → αBβ , add FIRST(β) (excluding ε) to FOLLOW(B).
If β ⇒ ε or β is empty, add FOLLOW(A) to FOLLOW(B).

🔁 How to Compute FOLLOW Set

1. Start with FOLLOW(S) = { $ } (S = start symbol).

2. For every production:

If A → αBβ , then:

Add FIRST(β) to FOLLOW(B) (excluding ε).

If β ⇒ ε , or B is at the end, then:

Add FOLLOW(A) to FOLLOW(B).

3. Repeat the steps until no more changes occur.

📌 Example

Using:

E → T E'
E' → + T E' | ε
T → int | ( E )

FOLLOW(E) = { ) , $ }
FOLLOW(E') = { ) , $ }
FOLLOW(T) = { + , ) , $ }

🧠 Why Are These Important?

FIRST and FOLLOW sets help decide which rule to apply in LL(1) parsing.
They are used to fill the parsing table correctly.
They ensure there are no conflicts in the parsing table (no multiple rules for a cell).

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✅ Summary
FIRST(A) → What can appear first when deriving from A.
FOLLOW(A) → What can appear immediately after A in some derivation.
Together, they help build non-backtracking, efficient parsers.

Sure! Here's a structured explanation of Left Factoring using points, subpoints, and small paragraphs,
suitable for BTech 3rd year:

5. Left Factoring

Left Factoring is a grammar transformation technique used to make a grammar suitable for predictive
(LL(1)) parsing. It helps remove ambiguity when two or more productions of a non-terminal start with
the same prefix, making it hard for the parser to decide which production to use.

✅ Why is Left Factoring Needed?

In top-down parsers, especially LL(1), the parser must choose a production rule based on the
current input symbol (lookahead).
If multiple productions share a common prefix, the parser cannot decide which to choose
without backtracking.
Left factoring rewrites such productions to defer the decision until enough input is seen.

🔍 Problem Example (Ambiguous Grammar)

Suppose you have:

A → int a | int b

Both productions start with int .

The parser, after seeing int , can't decide whether to go with int a or int b .

🛠️ Solution: Left Factoring

Transform the grammar by factoring out the common prefix:

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A → int A'
A' → a | b

Now, the parser sees int and knows to go with A → int A' . It then looks at the next token to
decide between a and b .

✨ Steps for Left Factoring

1. Identify the common prefix in the productions of a non-terminal.
2. Extract the common prefix and create a new non-terminal for the remaining suffixes.
3. Rewrite the original productions using the factored form.

📌 General Form
If:

A → αβ₁ | αβ₂

Then left factored form is:

A → α A'
A' → β₁ | β₂

✅ Advantages
Makes the grammar suitable for LL(1) parsing.
Eliminates backtracking.
Makes the parsing table unambiguous.

❌ Disadvantages
May introduce more non-terminals.
Increases complexity of grammar slightly (though it simplifies parsing).

🧠 Summary
Left factoring is essential for building deterministic parsers.

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It rewrites ambiguous or conflicting rules into a structure where the parser can decide using just
one lookahead symbol.
Commonly used in tools like YACC, ANTLR, and in manual parser design.

Certainly! Here's a structured explanation of the Necessary Steps to Construct an LL(1) Parsing Table
using points, subpoints, and small paragraphs — suitable for BTech 3rd year students:

6. Necessary Steps to Construct LL(1) Parsing Table

An LL(1) Parsing Table is used by predictive parsers to parse the input string without backtracking. It
uses one lookahead symbol ( 1 ) and scans the input from Left to Right (L), constructing the Leftmost
derivation (L).

✅ Goal of the Table

To map:

Non-terminals (rows)
Terminals / $ (columns)

...to the correct production rule to apply during parsing.

🧭 Steps to Construct LL(1) Parsing Table

🔹 Step 1: Compute FIRST and FOLLOW Sets

FIRST(X): set of terminals that begin strings derived from X.

FOLLOW(A): set of terminals that can appear immediately after A.

These sets guide the placement of rules in the table.

🔹 Step 2: For each Production Rule A → α

Apply the following:

(i) For each terminal a in FIRST(α)

Add the production A → α to M[A, a]

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This means: if A is on top of the stack and a is the lookahead symbol, apply A → α .

(ii) If ε ∈ FIRST(α)

For each terminal b in FOLLOW(A), add the production A → ε to M[A, b]

This means: if A can derive ε, apply the ε-production when b is in the input.

(iii) If $ ∈ FOLLOW(A) and ε ∈ FIRST(α)

Add A → ε to M[A, $]

This ensures parsing handles the end of input correctly.

📌 Example

For grammar:

E → T E'
E' → + T E' | ε
T → int | ( E )

FIRST(E) = { int , ( }
FOLLOW(E) = { ) , $ }

Table rows: E, E', T

Columns: int, ( , + , ) , $

Use the above steps to fill entries like:

M[E, int] = E → T E'

M[E', +] = E' → + T E'
M[E', ) ] = E' → ε (because ) ∈ FOLLOW(E') and ε ∈ FIRST(E'))

❌ Conflict in Table?

If any cell in the parsing table contains more than one production, the grammar is not LL(1).

🧠 Summary

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Compute FIRST and FOLLOW sets.
Use them to decide where to place each rule in the LL(1) table.
Handle ε-productions carefully using FOLLOW.
Ensure there’s no ambiguity (no multiple entries in one cell).

Sure! Here's a structured explanation of Predictive Parsing using points, subpoints, and small
paragraphs, suitable for BTech 3rd year students:

7. Predictive Parsing

Predictive Parsing is a type of top-down parsing technique used in LL(1) parsers. It is called
"predictive" because it uses a single lookahead symbol to decide which production rule to apply next
without backtracking.

✅ Key Characteristics of Predictive Parsing

Top-down parsing: It starts from the start symbol and works its way down the derivation tree.
LL(1): The parser uses a Left-to-right scan of the input with 1 symbol of lookahead to predict the
next production.
No backtracking: Predictive parsers do not require backtracking because they always know the
next step based on the current input.

🧭 How Predictive Parsing Works

1. Start with the start symbol.

2. Look at the input symbol (lookahead) and choose the appropriate production using the LL(1)
parsing table.

3. Replace the non-terminal on top of the stack with the right-hand side of the chosen production.

4. Repeat the process until:

The stack is empty, and the input is fully processed (successful parse).
There is a mismatch between the expected input and the lookahead symbol (error).

🔹 Steps for Predictive Parsing

1. Initialize the stack with the start symbol and the input with the string to be parsed.

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Stack: [Start Symbol]
Input: [Input String]

2. Pop the stack: If the top symbol is a terminal:

Match it with the lookahead symbol of the input.

Consume the input symbol (advance the lookahead).

If the top symbol is a non-terminal, consult the LL(1) parsing table and select the appropriate
production rule.

3. Push the right-hand side of the production rule onto the stack in reverse order.

If the production is A → X Y Z , push Z , Y , and X (in that order) onto the stack.

4. Repeat until either:

The stack is empty and the input is fully processed (successful parse).
Or an error is encountered, meaning the grammar is not LL(1), or the input cannot be parsed.

📌 Example

For grammar:

E → T E'
E' → + T E' | ε
T → int | ( E )

Assume the input is int + int . The parsing steps are:

1. Stack: [E], Input: [int + int]

E → T E' (From table, since FIRST(E) contains int ).

Stack: [E', T], Input: [int + int]

2. Stack: [E', T], Input: [int + int]

T → int (From table, since FIRST(T) contains int ).

Stack: [E', int], Input: [+ int]

3. Stack: [E', int], Input: [+ int]

Match int with the lookahead symbol ( int ).

Stack: [E'], Input: [+ int]

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4. Stack: [E'], Input: [+ int]

E' → + T E' (From table, since FIRST(E') contains + ).

Stack: [E', T, +], Input: [int]

5. Repeat the process and parse until the input is fully processed.

❌ Error Handling in Predictive Parsing

Mismatch: If a non-terminal has no production for the lookahead symbol, or if the cell in the LL(1)
table is empty, an error occurs.
No backtracking: Unlike other parsers, predictive parsers do not retry, so they must be LL(1)-
compatible.

✅ Advantages of Predictive Parsing

Efficient: Since it uses only a single symbol of lookahead, it processes input quickly.
No backtracking: Predictive parsers do not need to explore multiple possibilities.
Simple implementation: The table-driven approach simplifies the parser construction.

❌ Disadvantages of Predictive Parsing

Limited to LL(1) grammars: It can only handle grammars that are LL(1)-compatible, meaning they
must not have left recursion and must have no ambiguity.
Error handling: Since no backtracking is allowed, errors may not be recoverable in certain cases.

🧠 Summary

Predictive Parsing is a top-down approach that uses a single lookahead symbol and a parsing
table to decide which production to apply.
It is efficient and simple, but only works for LL(1) grammars.
Predictive parsing requires careful grammar design to ensure there are no conflicts in the parsing
table.

Certainly! Here's a structured explanation of Shift-Reduce Parsing using points, subpoints, and small
paragraphs:

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8. Shift-Reduce Parsing

Shift-Reduce Parsing is a type of bottom-up parsing where the parser builds the parse tree starting
from the input symbols (leaves) and works its way towards the start symbol (root). This parsing method
is based on shift and reduce operations.

✅ Key Characteristics of Shift-Reduce Parsing

Bottom-up parsing: The parser works from the leaves (input symbols) and reduces them to the
start symbol.
Shift operation: Moves symbols from the input to the stack.
Reduce operation: Replaces a string of symbols on the stack with a non-terminal, based on the
production rules.
Handles LR(k) grammars: Shift-Reduce parsing is used for parsing LR(k) grammars, which are
more general than LL(k) grammars.

🧭 How Shift-Reduce Parsing Works

1. Shift Operation: The parser moves the next input symbol onto the stack.

Example: If the input is a + b , the parser shifts a onto the stack.

2. Reduce Operation: When a sequence of symbols on the stack matches the right-hand side of a
production, the parser applies the rule by replacing the symbols with the non-terminal from the
left-hand side of the production.

Example: If a + b matches the production A → a + b , the parser reduces the stack by

replacing a + b with A .

3. Continue: These operations continue until the entire input is processed and reduced to the start
symbol, or an error occurs.

🔹 Shift-Reduce Parsing Example

Consider the grammar:

E → E + T | T
T → int

Assume the input is: int + int .

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1. Start: Stack: [] , Input: int + int

2. Shift: Move int to the stack.

Stack: [int] , Input: + int

3. Reduce: Apply the rule T → int .

Stack: [T] , Input: + int

4. Shift: Move + to the stack.

Stack: [T, +] , Input: int

5. Shift: Move the second int to the stack.

Stack: [T, +, int] , Input: []

6. Reduce: Apply T → int .

Stack: [T, +, T] , Input: []

7. Reduce: Apply E → E + T .

Stack: [E] , Input: []

8. Success: The input is parsed successfully.

🔹 Shift-Reduce Parsing Operations

1. Shift: The action where the parser moves the next input symbol onto the stack. This step
increases the number of symbols on the stack.

2. Reduce: The action where the parser replaces a sequence of symbols on the stack with a non-
terminal. This reduces the stack size by applying a grammar rule.

3. Accept: If the stack contains the start symbol and the input is empty, the parser accepts the input
as a valid sentence of the grammar.

4. Error: If no valid operation (shift or reduce) can be applied and the input is not completely parsed,
the parser reports an error.

📌 Conflict in Shift-Reduce Parsing

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Shift-Reduce Conflict: Occurs when the parser cannot decide whether to shift or reduce based
on the current stack and input symbol.

Example: If the input is a + b and the parser has a + on the stack, it may not know
whether to shift or reduce if there are multiple valid rules.

Reduce-Reduce Conflict: Occurs when the parser has multiple production rules that could be
applied to the same sequence of symbols on the stack, leading to ambiguity.

✅ Advantages of Shift-Reduce Parsing

Efficient: It is relatively fast because it processes the input from left to right and only requires one
lookahead symbol.
Applicable to a wide range of grammars: Shift-Reduce parsers can handle a larger class of
grammars (LR(k) grammars) than predictive parsers (LL(k)).
Simple operations: The two primary operations (shift and reduce) are easy to implement.

❌ Disadvantages of Shift-Reduce Parsing

Complexity in handling conflicts: Shift-Reduce parsing can encounter conflicts (like shift-reduce
or reduce-reduce conflicts) that may require additional mechanisms to resolve, such as using
lookahead symbols or building more sophisticated parsers like LR parsers.
Need for parsing tables: It requires a parsing table for deciding whether to shift or reduce, which
can be large for complex grammars.

🧠 Summary

Shift-Reduce Parsing is a bottom-up parsing technique where the parser shifts symbols from the
input onto the stack and reduces sequences of symbols to non-terminals using production rules.
It’s efficient for LR(k) grammars but can face conflicts that need resolution.
The method is simple but requires careful management of parsing decisions and conflict
handling.

Certainly! Here’s an explanation of Operator Precedence Parsing in a structured way, using points,
subpoints, and small paragraphs:

9. Operator Precedence Parsing

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Operator Precedence Parsing is a type of bottom-up parsing specifically designed to handle
expression grammars that involve operator precedence. It uses precedence rules to decide how to
parse the operators and operands in expressions. This method is particularly useful for languages with
arithmetic expressions and operator precedence.

✅ Key Characteristics of Operator Precedence Parsing

Bottom-up parsing: Builds the parse tree starting from the leaves (input symbols) and works
towards the start symbol.
Operator precedence: Uses precedence relations between operators to determine the correct
parse.
Shift-reduce approach: Involves shifting symbols from the input to the stack and reducing
sequences based on precedence rules.
Handles infix expressions: Commonly used for parsing infix expressions (e.g., a + b * c ).

🧭 How Operator Precedence Parsing Works

1. Start with an empty stack and the input expression to be parsed.

2. Shift operation: Move symbols from the input to the stack.

3. Compare precedence: When there are two symbols on top of the stack (one being an operator),
compare their precedence.

If the operator on top of the stack has lower precedence than the incoming operator, shift.
If the operator on top of the stack has higher precedence, reduce.

4. Reduce operation: If the sequence on top of the stack matches a production rule and the
precedence conditions are satisfied, reduce it to the corresponding non-terminal.

5. Repeat the process until the entire input is consumed and reduced to the start symbol.

🔹 Operator Precedence Relation

Greater precedence ( > ) means that the operator on the stack should be reduced before the
operator in the input.
Equal precedence ( = ) means that the operators have the same precedence, and the parser
should choose based on associativity (left or right).
Less precedence ( < ) means the incoming operator should be shifted onto the stack.

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📌 Example of Operator Precedence Parsing

Consider a simple grammar for arithmetic expressions:

E → E + E
E → E * E
E → ( E )
E → id

Assume the input expression is id + id * id .

1. Stack: [] , Input: id + id * id

Shift id onto the stack.

Stack: [id] , Input: + id * id

2. Stack: [id] , Input: + id * id

Shift + onto the stack.

Stack: [id, +] , Input: id * id

3. Stack: [id, +] , Input: id * id

Shift id onto the stack.

Stack: [id, +, id] , Input: * id

4. Stack: [id, +, id] , Input: * id

Since + has lower precedence than * , shift * onto the stack.

Stack: [id, +, id, *] , Input: id

5. Stack: [id, +, id, *, id] , Input: []

Apply the E → id reduction for the top id .

Stack: [id, +, id, *] , Input: []

6. Reduce: Apply E → E * E .

Stack: [E, +, id] , Input: []

7. Reduce: Apply E → E + E .

Stack: [E] , Input: []

8. Success: The input has been successfully parsed.

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🔹 Precedence Table

In Operator Precedence Parsing, an operator precedence table is used to store precedence relations
between operators. The table contains:

< : Shift the operator onto the stack.

> : Reduce the operators in the stack.
= : Determine the order of reduction based on associativity.

Example Precedence Table for + and * :

+ * id

+ = < <

* > = <

id > > =

For example, + has lower precedence than * , so if the stack has + and the lookahead symbol is
* , the parser will shift.

✅ Advantages of Operator Precedence Parsing

Efficient for arithmetic expressions: It is particularly suited for parsing arithmetic expressions
with operators like + , - , * , / , etc.
No need for complex parsing tables: It does not require the extensive parsing tables used in
other methods like LR parsing.
Handles precedence directly: The parser can directly use operator precedence to decide the
parsing decisions.

❌ Disadvantages of Operator Precedence Parsing

Limited to certain grammars: It is designed primarily for expressions with operators and does
not handle all types of grammars.
Limited expressiveness: The method is not as flexible as LR parsing, which can handle more
complex grammars.

🧠 Summary

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Operator Precedence Parsing is a bottom-up parsing technique used to parse expressions with
operators.
It uses precedence relations between operators ( < , > , = ) to determine when to shift and when
to reduce.
This method is efficient for parsing infix expressions but is limited to handling only certain types
of grammars.

Certainly! Here’s an explanation of LR Parsing (SLR, CLR, LALR) in a structured way, using points,
subpoints, and small paragraphs:

10. LR Parsing (SLR, CLR, LALR)

LR Parsing is a powerful type of bottom-up parsing that works with a large class of grammars called
LR(k) grammars. It processes the input from left to right and constructs the parse tree in a bottom-up
manner, using shift and reduce operations. The L stands for Left-to-right scanning of the input, and R
stands for Rightmost derivation (in reverse).

✅ Key Characteristics of LR Parsing

Bottom-up parsing: Starts with the input symbols and reduces them to the start symbol.
LR(k) grammars: Works with a more general set of grammars than LL parsers, capable of
handling many context-free languages.
Shift-Reduce Parsing: Uses shift and reduce operations based on a parsing table.
Lookahead symbol: Typically uses one lookahead symbol (k=1), but more can be used for more
complex grammars.

🧭 How LR Parsing Works

1. Shift operation: The parser moves the current input symbol onto the stack.
2. Reduce operation: The parser checks if a sequence of symbols on the stack matches the right-
hand side of a production. If it does, the parser reduces the sequence to the corresponding non-
terminal.
3. Action Table: The parser uses an action table to decide whether to shift or reduce.
4. Goto Table: The parser uses a goto table to move to the next state after a reduction.
5. Repeat these operations until the entire input is processed and reduced to the start symbol.

🔹 Types of LR Parsers

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LR parsing can be divided into three primary types: SLR, CLR, and LALR.

1. SLR Parsing (Simple LR Parsing)

SLR (Simple LR) parsing is the simplest form of LR parsing.

LR(0) parsing: It does not use any lookahead symbols and is limited in its ability to handle complex
grammars.
Action Table: The SLR parsing table uses FIRST sets to build the action table and FOLLOW sets to
decide reductions.
Limitations: It cannot handle some ambiguous grammars or grammars that require more than a
single lookahead symbol.

SLR Parsing Example:

For a grammar:

S → A B
A → a
B → b

SLR uses the FIRST and FOLLOW sets to build the action and goto tables. This allows it to make
decisions about whether to shift or reduce based on the state and input symbol.

2. CLR Parsing (Canonical LR Parsing)

CLR (Canonical LR) parsing is a more powerful form of LR parsing.

LR(1) parsing: It uses one lookahead symbol for making parsing decisions, but it builds a more
complex parsing table.
Action and Goto Tables: It uses canonical collections of items to construct the action and goto
tables. These tables are larger than in SLR parsing but are capable of handling a larger class of
grammars.
More powerful than SLR parsing: CLR parsing can handle a broader range of context-free
grammars, including those with conflicts that SLR cannot resolve.

CLR Parsing Example:

For the same grammar:

S → A B
A → a
B → b

CLR will generate a more detailed set of item sets and transitions to handle more complex grammars,
compared to the simpler method used by SLR.

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3. LALR Parsing (Look-Ahead LR Parsing)

LALR (Look-Ahead LR) parsing is a compromise between SLR and CLR parsing.
Efficient: LALR parsing combines the simplicity of SLR with the power of CLR, creating a more
space-efficient parser while still handling a wider range of grammars.
Action and Goto Tables: LALR combines states in the CLR action table that have the same core
items, reducing the size of the table.
Balanced Approach: LALR is often preferred because it uses fewer states than CLR but can still
parse a larger set of grammars than SLR.

LALR Parsing Example:

For the same grammar:

S → A B
A → a
B → b

LALR parsing reduces the size of the parsing tables by merging states with the same core item but
different lookahead symbols. It is a more compact representation than CLR, yet still capable of handling
more grammars than SLR.

🔹 Comparison of SLR, CLR, and LALR Parsers

Feature SLR CLR LALR

Lookahead 1 symbol (LR(1)) 1 symbol (LR(1)) 1 symbol (LR(1))

Grammar Handles fewer Handles more complex

Handles more grammars than SLR
Handling grammars grammars

Table Size Smallest Largest Smaller than CLR, larger than SLR

Fast but limited Slower due to larger

Efficiency Faster and more compact than CLR
in scope tables

More prone to Resolves more Resolves conflicts while keeping table

Conflicts
conflicts conflicts smaller than CLR

✅ Advantages of LR Parsing (SLR, CLR, LALR)

Handles a broad class of grammars: LR parsers can handle many grammars that other parsers
(like LL parsers) cannot, especially ambiguous or context-sensitive grammars.
Efficient: LR parsers are efficient with one-symbol lookahead and handle large inputs quickly.

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Predictive: By using action and goto tables, LR parsers are deterministic and don't require
backtracking.

❌ Disadvantages of LR Parsing (SLR, CLR, LALR)

Large parsing tables: Especially in CLR parsing, the parsing tables can be large and complex.
Complex implementation: Constructing LR parsing tables, especially for CLR parsers, can be
computationally expensive and difficult to implement.
Memory intensive: The parsing tables can consume significant memory, particularly in CLR,
making it less suitable for resource-constrained environments.

🧠 Summary

LR Parsing is a bottom-up parsing technique that can handle a wide variety of grammars,
including LR(1) grammars.
SLR is a simple and efficient version of LR parsing but limited in grammar handling.
CLR is a more powerful but complex version, capable of handling more grammars at the cost of
larger parsing tables.
LALR strikes a balance between efficiency and power, offering a more compact table than CLR
while handling a wide variety of grammars.

Would you like to proceed with another parsing topic or explore something else?

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