Chapter 1 -Introduction to Networks

and Network Models

By
Bharati A. Patil
Topics
1.1 Data communication, components, data representation
1.2 Networks, network criteria, network types - LAN, WAN,
Switching, The Internet, Accessing the Internet
1.3 Network Software- Protocol hierarchies, Design Issues of the
layer, Connection Oriented and Connectionless Services,
1.4 Reference models - OSI Reference Models, TCP/IP Reference
model, Connection devices in different layers, Comparison of
OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models.
Introduction
➢ Data communication and computer networks are two fastest
growing technologies.
➢ Communication is derived from communicare which means to
share
➢ It is the process of establishing connection or link between two
entities for the transfer or exchange of information.
➢ When we communicate we share information.
➢ Sharing can be local or remote.
➢ A computer network provides the facility of information
exchange among computers connected to it.
Data Communication
➢ Communication is the basic process of information exchange.
➢ It involves transfer of information from a sender to receiver.
➢ Communication is defined as a process in which more than one
computer transfers information, instructions to each other and
for sharing resources.
➢ Or in other words, communication is a process or act in which
we can send or receive data
➢ The process of sending or receiving data between two
computers of a computer network is known as data
communication.
Data Communication
➢ The data plays an important role in networking.
➢ Data is raw facts and figures before they have been processed.
➢ Information can be defined as the meaningful, logical and
processed data.
➢ The term data communication can be defined as the process of
using computing and communication technologies to transfer
data from one place to another and vice versa.
➢ Data communication refers to exchange of data between a
sources and a receiver via form of transmission media such as a
wire cable (twisted pair or coaxial) or wireless.
Data Information
Data is unorganised and unrefined facts. Information comprises processed, organised
data presented in a meaningful context

Data is an individual unit that contains raw Information is a group of data that
materials which do not carry any specific collectively carries a logical meaning.
meaning.

Data doesn’t depend on information. Information depends on data.

Data is raw material for information. Information is the final product of data.

An example of data is a student’s test score The average score of a class is the
information derived from the given data.
Components of Data Communication
The purpose of data communication is to provide the rules and
regulations that allow computers with different operating systems,
languages, cabling and locations to share resources.
A data communication system has five components
1. Sender
2. Message
3. Receiver
4. Transmission medium
5. Protocol.
Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted
from one person to another. It could be a text file, an audio file, a video
file, etc.
Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a
computer, mobile, telephone, laptop, video camera, or workstation, etc.
Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer,
telephone mobile, workstation, etc.
Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication
channels are the medium that connect two or more workstations.
Workstations can be connected by either wired media or wireless
media.
Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender),
it should be understandable to the receiver also otherwise it is
meaningless. For example, Sai sends a message to Seema. If Sai
writes in Hindi and Seema cannot understand Hindi, it is a
meaningless conversation.
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four
fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.

1. Delivery- The system must deliver data to the correct destination.

Data must be received by the intended device or user and only by that
device or user.

2. Accuracy- The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that
have been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness- The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data
delivered late are useless. In the case of video and audio, timely
delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order
that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of
delivery is called real-time transmission.

4. Jitter- Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is

the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets. For
example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 3D ms. If
some of the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-ms
delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.
Data Representation
Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers,
images, audio, and video.
1. Text- In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a
sequence of bits (Os or Is).
Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text
symbols.
Each set is called a code, and the process of representing symbols is
called coding.
Today, the prevalent coding system is called Unicode, which uses 32
bits to represent a symbol or character used in any language in the
world.
2. Numbers-Numbers are also represented by bit patterns.
However, a code such as ASCII is not used to represent numbers; the
number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify
mathematical operations.
3. Images-Images are also represented by bit patterns.
n its simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix of pixels
(picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot.
The size of the pixel depends on the resolution.
For example, an image can be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000
pixels.
There are several methods to represent color images.
One method is called RGB,so called because each color is made of a
combination of three primary colors: red,green, and blue.
The intensity of each color is measured, and a bit pattern is assigned to
it. Another method is called YCM, in which a color is made of a
combination of three other primary colors: yellow, cyan, and magenta.
4. Audio-Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or
music. Audio is by nature different from text, numbers, or images. It is
continuous, not discrete. Even when we use a microphone to change
voice or music to an electric signal, we create a continuous signal.
5. Video-Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or
movie. Video can either be produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a
TV camera), or it can be a combination of images, each a discrete
entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion. Again we can change
video to a digital or an analog signal.
Data Flow
- Transmission mode refers to the mechanism of transferring of
data between two devices connected over a network.
- It is also called Communication Mode.
- These modes direct the direction of flow of information. There
are three types of transmission modes.
They are:
1. Simplex Mode
2. Half duplex Mode
3. Full duplex Mode
1. SIMPLEX Mode
- In this type of transmission mode, data can be sent only in one
direction i.e. communication is unidirectional.
- We cannot send a message back to the sender.
- Unidirectional communication is done in Simplex Systems where
we just need to send a command/signal, and do not expect any
response back.
- Examples of simplex Mode are loudspeakers, television
broadcasting, television and remote, keyboard and monitor etc.
2. HALF DUPLEX Mode

- Half-duplex data transmission means that data can be transmitted

in both directions on a signal carrier, but not at the same time.
- Half-Duplex is the data transmission mode in which the data can
flow in both directions but in one direction at a time.
- It is also referred to as Semi-Duplex.
- In other words, each station can both transmit and receive the data
but not at the same time. When one device is sending the other
can only receive and vice-versa.
- This type of data transmission mode can be used in cases where
there is no need for communication in both directions at the same
time.
- It can be used for error detection when the sender does not send
or the receiver does not receive the data properly. In such cases,
the data needs to be transmitted again by the receiver.

For Example, Walkie-Talkie

3. FULL DUPLEX Mode

- Full-Duplex is the data transmission mode in which the data can

flow in both directions at the same time.
- It is bi-directional in nature.
- It is two-way communication in which both the stations can
transmit and receive the data simultaneously.
- Full-Duplex mode has double bandwidth as compared to the half-
duplex.
- The capacity of the channel is divided between the two directions
of communication.
- This mode is used when communication in both directions is
required simultaneously.
For Example, a Telephone Network, in which both the persons can
talk and listen to each other simultaneously.
Network
A network is the interconnection of a set of devices like a host
desktop,laptop,smartphone and connecting devices like modem,router.
It is nothing more than two or more computers connected by a cable
or by a wireless radio waves connection so that they can exchange
information.
What Is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a system that connects two or more computing
devices for transmitting and sharing information. Computing devices
include everything from a mobile phone to a server. These devices are
connected using physical wires such as fiber optics, but they can also
be wireless.
● A computer network is a collection of two or more computer
systems that are linked together.
● A network connection can be established using either cable or
wireless media.
● Hardware and software are used to connect computers and tools
in any network.
● A computer network consists of various kinds of nodes.
● Servers, networking hardware, Personal computers, and other
specialized or general-purpose hosts can all be nodes in a
computer network.
Wired/Wireless Networking
On basis of physical medium, there are 2 types of networks:

(a) Wired Network: As we all know, “wired” refers to any physical

medium made up of cables.
Copper wire, twisted pair, or fiber optic cables are all options.
A wired network employs wires to link devices to the Internet or
another network, such as laptops or desktop PCs.
(b) Wireless Network: “Wireless” means without wire, media that is
made up of electromagnetic waves (EM Waves) or infrared waves.
Antennas or sensors will be present on all wireless devices.
Cellular phones, wireless sensors, TV remotes, satellite disc
receivers, and laptops with WLAN cards are all examples of wireless
devices.
For data or voice communication, a wireless network uses
radiofrequency waves rather than wires.
Here are some of the basic characteristics of computer networks:

1. Connectivity: The primary purpose of a computer network is to

enable devices to communicate with each other. Connectivity is
established through a variety of wired and wireless technologies, such
as Ethernet cables, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth.

2. Scalability: Computer networks must be scalable to accommodate

growth and changing needs. As the number of devices and users on
the network increases, the network must be able to handle the
additional traffic and data.
3. Security: Computer networks are vulnerable to security threats
such as hacking, viruses, and data breaches. Security measures such
as firewalls, encryption, and user authentication are essential to
protect network resources and data.

4. Reliability: Computer networks must be reliable to ensure that

data and resources are always available when needed. Redundancy
and backup systems can help to ensure that the network remains
operational in the event of a failure.

5. Performance: The performance of a computer network is

determined by factors such as bandwidth, latency, and throughput.
These factors affect the speed and responsiveness of the network and
6. Standards and protocols: Computer networks rely on standards
and protocols to ensure that devices can communicate with each
other. Standards such as TCP/IP and Ethernet, and
protocols such as HTTP and SMTP, are used to ensure
interoperability between devices and networks.

7. Management and administration: Computer networks require

ongoing management and administration to ensure that they continue
to function properly. This includes tasks such as monitoring
network performance, configuring devices, and troubleshooting
issues.
The major networking services are

1. File Services: includes file transfer, storage, data migration

2. Printing Services: shared access to printing devices.
3. Message Services: email, voice mail
4. Application Services: web services, resource sharing(Servers,
Printers, and Storage Media etc.)
5. Database Services: database managing
Network Criteria
There are a lot of criteria that make a network better than others, but;
there are three basic yet important criteria to be fulfilled for a
network:
1. Performance
It measures how well a network can support communication
between two nodes in the Network or with nodes of other
networks in the global scope.

To measure the performance of a network, here are the major

factors to be considered:
Transit time: The total time a node takes to transmit a message from the
beginning until the last character of the message. Transit stands for
Transmission.
Response time: The total time a node takes to process an inquiry or a request
from another node/ device and respond. It is the time between the inquiry's end
and the response's beginning.
Throughput: Throughput measures how much data is transferred successfully
from the sender node to the receiver node in a particular time frame. It is
measured in bits per second or data per second.
Bandwidth: The maximum possible throughput capacity of the Network. We
can measure it in bits, megabits, or gigabits per second. It defines the highest
limit.
Delay/ Latency: Delay is the measure of time taken to do the delivery.
Several other factors influence a network's performance:
1. Number of users
2. Hardware capability
3. Transmission media used.
4. Software efficiency
5. Jitter (disturbance)
2. Reliability
- It is the degree to which a network is trustworthy, consistent, and
dependable.
- The Reliability of a network is measured by the frequency of
failures it is undergoing and the time it takes to recover from the
failures.
- Overall, the Robustness of the Network at times of catastrophic
events is measured to check how reliable the Network is.
3. Security
- It measures how the Network secures the data amid failures and
attacks and the policies and procedures it implements to protect
itself from damages and unauthorized access.
- In Reliability, the frequency of failures is checked.
- In Security, network attacks and data breaches are checked.
Types of Connection in Computer Networks

A Network is nothing but a connection made through connection

links between two or more devices. Devices can be a computer,
printer or any other device that is capable to send and receive data.
There are two ways to connect the devices:
1. Point-to-Point connection
2. Multipoint connection
1. Point-To-Point Connection
It is a protocol which is used as a communication link between two
devices. It is simple to establish. The most common example
for Point-to-Point connection (PPP) is a computer connected by
telephone line. We can connect the two devices by means of a
pair of wires or using a microwave or satellite link.
Example: Point-to-Point connection between remote control and
Television for changing the channels
2. Multipoint Connection
- A multipoint connection is a link between three or more devices.
It is also known as Multi-drop configuration.
- The networks having multipoint configuration are called
Broadcast Networks.
- In broadcast network, a message or a packet sent by any machine
is received by all other machines in a network.
- The packet contains address field that specifies the receiver.
- Upon receiving a packet, every machine checks the address field
of the packet.
- If the transmitted packet is for that particular machine, it
processes it; otherwise it just ignores the packet.
Topology
- The term Network Topology defines the geographic Physical or
logical arrangement of computer networking devices .
- The term Topology refers to the way in which the various nodes
or computers of a network are linked together.
- It describes the actual layout of the computer network hardware.
Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a
topology.
- Topology determines the data paths that may be used between
any pair of devices of the network.
Types of Topologies
Bus Topology
- Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and
network device is connected to single cable.
- When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus
topology.
● All nodes are connected to a central cable which is called a bus.
● Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
● A drop line is a connection running between the device and main
cable.
● When one computer sends a signal up the wire, all computers on
network receive the information, but only one accept the
information.
● Rest regrets the message. One computer can send a message at a
time.
● A computer must wait until the bus is free before it can transmit.
Advantages of Bus Topology
1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
1. Cables fails then whole network fails.
2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of
the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.
Ring Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is
connected to another computer, with the last one connected to the
first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.
● In ring topology, the various nodes are connected in form of a
ring or circle (physical ring), in which data flows in a circle, from
one station to another station.
● It has no beginning or end that needs to be terminated.
● In this topology, each device or node has a dedicated point to
point line configuration with only two devices on either side of it.
● Signal is passed along the ring in one direction from one station
to another until it reaches destination.
● Each device in ring incorporates a repeater.
● When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its
repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.
The advantages of Ring Topology are:
1. They are very easy to troubleshoot because each device
incorporates a repeater.
2. A special internal feature called beaconing allows troubled
workstations to identify themselves quickly.
3. There is no master computer on controller. Every computer has
equal chance to place the data and access the token.
4. There are no collisions.
5. Data packets travel at greater speeds.
6. It is easier to locate the problems with device and cable i.e. fault
isolation is simplified. If one device does not receive a signal
within a specified time, it can issue an alarm. This alarm alerts the
network operator to the problem and its location.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. A ring network requires more cable than a bus network.

2. A break in cable ring brings down entire network.
3. Adding or removing the node disturbs the network activity.
4. Slow in speed.
5. It is considerably difficult to install and re-configure ring topology.
6. Traffic is unidirectional.
Star Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single
hub through a cable. This hub is the central node and all others nodes
are connected to the central node.
Features of Star Topology
1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can
work smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of installation is high.

2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the
nodes depend on the hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity
Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of installation is high.

2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the
nodes depend on the hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity
Mesh Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the
network nodes are connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2
physical channels to link n devices.
Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are

connected in the same fashion as mesh topology but
some devices are only connected to two or three devices.

2. Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are

connected to each other.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
1. It is robust as the failure of one node does not collapse the entire
system. If one link fails, the entire system continues to work.
2. There is no traffic congestion problem as dedicated links are being
used.
3. Dedicated links ensure faster transmission without any delay.
4. Dedicated links also ensure data privacy and security.
5. Point to point links makes fault identification and isolation easier.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.
Tree Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a
hierarchy. It is also called hierarchical topology.
It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.
Features of Tree Topology
1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
2. Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages of Tree Topology
1. Extension of bus and star topologies.
2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
3. Central hub fails, network fails.
Hybrid Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or
more topologies.
For example if in an office in one department ring topology is used
and in another star topology is used, connecting these topologies will
result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).
Features of Hybrid Topology
1. It is a combination of two or topologies
2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
1. Reliable as Error detecting and troubleshooting is easy.
2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.
Network Types
1) Local Area Network (LAN)
- LAN is a group of computers, that are connected in a small area
such as building, home, etc.
- Through this type of network, users can easily communicate with
each other by sending and receiving messages.
- LAN is generally used for connecting two or more personal
computers through some medium such as twisted pair, coaxial
cable etc.
- The number of computers connected in a LAN is limited, the data
is transferred at an extremely faster rate.
2) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
- MAN is a network of computers that covers a large area like city.
- The size of the MAN generally lies between LAN and WAN,
typically covering a distance of 5 km to 50 km.
- The geographical area covered by MAN is comparatively larger
than LAN but smaller than WAN.
- MAN is generally owned by private organizations. MAN is
generally connected with the help of optical fibers, copper wires
etc.
- One of the most common examples of MAN is cable television
network within a city, network device known as router is used to
connect the LANs together.
- The router directs the information packets to the desired destination
3) Wide Area Network (WAN)
- WAN is a group of computers that are connected in a large area
such as continent, country, etc.
- WAN is generally used for connecting two or more LANs through
some medium such as leased telephone lines, microwaves, etc.
- In WAN, data is transferred at slow rate compared to LAN and
MAN.
Switching

When a user accesses the internet or another computer network outside

their immediate location, messages are sent through the network of
transmission media.

This technique of transferring the information from one computer

network to another network is known as switching.

Switching in a computer network is achieved by using switches.

A switch is a small hardware device which is used to join multiple

computers together with one local area network (LAN).
Internet
● The Internet came in the year 1960 with the creation of the first
working model called ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects
Agency).
● It allowed multiple computers to work on a single network which
was their biggest achievement at that time.
● ARPANET uses packet switching to communicate multiple
computer systems under a single network.
● In October 1969, using ARPANET first message was transferred
from one computer to another. After that technology continues to
grow.
Accessing the Internet

Dial-up Connections
● In dial-up connection, computer uses its modem to dial a telephone
number given to the user by an Internet Service Provider.
● This launches a connection between personal computer and ISP
server. The process begins when the ISP server answers, and
ceases when your computer or the server "hangs up".
● This is similar to a traditional telephone call.
● Most ISP servers disconnect automatically after a certain period of
inactivity.
Broadband Connection
● Broadband connections are considered as high speed connections,
as they use modes that can handle several signals at once, such as
fiber optics, twisted pair cables, coaxial cable and other
technologies.
● Even with hundreds of users on the network, these connections
allow large files and complex web pages to download quickly.
● To be considered as a broadband, the connection must be able to
transmit data at a rate faster than is possible with the fastest dial-up
connection.
● Downloading and uploading content will be fast.
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) Service
● Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a digital service that
simultaneously transmits voice & data, and controls signals over a
single telephone line.
● ISDN service operates on a standard telephone line, but requires a
special modem and phone service, which adds to the cost.
● An ISDN data connection can transfer data up to 128,000 bits per
second (128 Kbps).
● It helps to connect a PC, telephone and fax to a single ISDN line
and use them simultaneously.
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
● Digital Subscriber Line is similar to that of ISDN in using
telephone network, but it uses more advanced digital signal
processing and algorithms to squeeze maximum number of signals
through telephone lines.
● DSL also requires changes in components of telephone network
before it can be offered in any area.
● Like ISDN, DSL provides simultaneous data, voice and fax
transmission on the same line.
● Several versions of DSL services are available for home and
business use; each version provides 24/7 full-time connection at
different levels of service, speed, bandwidth and distance.
Cable Modem Service
● Now-a-days many cable television companies use some percentage
of their network’s bandwidth to provide internet access through
prevailing cable television connections.
● Since this connection uses a special cable modem, it is called
"Cable Modem Service".
● Cable television systems transmit data via coaxial cable, which can
transmit data as much as 100 times faster than common telephone
lines.
● Coaxial cable allows transmission via several channels
simultaneously, i.e., the internet data can be transmitted on one
channel, while audio, video and control signals are transmitted
separately.
Wireless LAN (WLAN) Connections
Wireless LAN connections are very common these days, which are
based on the technology that is often cited as Wi-Fi (Wireless
Fidelity).
The distance covered by WLAN is usually measured in meters rather
than miles.
Therefore, this is not a technology that connects directly to an ISP but
can be used to connect to another LAN or device through which
internet access is achieved.
Wimax - Wireless Internet Connection

● Wireless means transmitting signals using radio waves as the

medium instead of wires.
● Wimax is a Wireless MAN(WMAN) technology.
● Can provide at home or mobile internet access across whole cities
or countries.
● Would operate similar to Wi-Fi but at higher speed over greater
distances and users.
● Used by businesses or organizations to provide reliable dedicated
service for internet access as well as other applications including e-
mail,file sharing, data backup ets.
Advantages of Computer Networking
● Resource Sharing: Resource sharing is one of the most significant
advantages of computer networks. By connecting devices, users can
share hardware devices such as printers, scanners, and storage capacity.
This eliminates the need for separate devices for each user, lowering
costs and increasing efficiency.
● Data Sharing and Communication: Computer networks enable real-
time sharing and communicating of data. Users can instantly share files,
documents, and information regardless of location. This tool has
transformed team collaboration, making remote work and worldwide
relationships more possible.
● Cost Efficiency: Implementing a computer network can result in
significant cost reductions. Organizations can centralize their IT
infrastructure instead of acquiring separate resources for each user,
lowering hardware and maintenance expenses.
● Data Management: Computer networks enable centralized data
management and backup. This means that vital data can be housed on
dedicated servers, ensuring data security and ease of retrieval in case of
hardware failures or accidental data loss.
● Improved Communication: Computer networks make organizational
communication more efficient. Email, instant messaging, and video
conferencing tools facilitate efficient communication, making
communicating ideas, resolving problems, and making informed
decisions easier.
● Remote Access and Mobility: Remote access is supported by modern
computer networks, allowing users to access resources and data from
anywhere with an internet connection. This mobility is especially useful
for professionals who need to work on the go or access company
resources when they are not in the office.
● Scalability: Computer networks are built to be scalable, allowing
businesses to extend their network infrastructure as their needs change.
New devices, users, and resources can seamlessly integrate into the
current network without causing substantial disturbances.
● Improved Security: While security worries abound, computer networks
provide sophisticated security features. Firewalls, encryption, and access
controls help safeguard sensitive data against unauthorized access and
cyber threats. Centralized security management ensures uniform network
protection.
● Efficient Resource Utilization: Computer networks allow for more
efficient resource utilization. Resources such as processing power and
storage can be dynamically assigned based on demand in a networked
environment, ensuring maximum user performance.
Disadvantages of Computer Networking
1. Expensive to Build: Building a network is complex and time
consuming for large organizations.
2. Virus and Malware: can spread on a network easily,.
3. Lack of Robustness: If main file server breaks down the entire
system becomes down and useless.
4. Needs an Efficient Handler: Technical skills and knowledge
required to operate and administer a computer network.
5. High Cost: Investment for hardware and software can be costly for
initial setup of network.
6. Security Threats: Hackers try to steal valuable data of organzation.
Applications of Computer Networking
Resource Sharing: Resource Sharing is one of the important
applications of Computer Networking. You can share a single software
among Multiple users. We can also share Hardware Devices via this
technique.
Communication: Communication Medium means various ways
through which we can communicate like Email Calls, broadcasts, etc.
Home Applications: Home Applications are an important application
of Computer Networking. Examples are User-to-User Communication,
Entertainment, E-Commerce, etc.
Business Applications: Business Application is also an important
application of Computer Networking. Almost all companies are doing
business online with the help of Computer Networking.
Social Media: Social Media is one of the recent and widely used
applications of Computer Networking. It helps people in getting news,
feed, current trending topics of all types, etc.
Access to Remote Information: Computer Networking helps in
accessing remote information from the end-users. For Example. details
required for train tickets, plane tickets, etc.
Cloud Computing: Computer Networking has facilitated the
development of cloud computing, which allows users to store and
access data and applications from remote servers via the internet.
Virtualization: Networking technologies also enable virtualization,
which allows multiple virtual machines to run on a single physical
machine, improving resource utilization and reducing costs.
● Remote Working: Networking technologies have enabled remote
working, allowing employees to work from home or other
locations outside of the office. This has become especially
important during the COVID-19 pandemic.
● E-commerce: Computer Networking has facilitated the growth of
e-commerce by allowing businesses to sell their products and
services online and reach a global market.
● Telemedicine: Networking technologies have also enabled
telemedicine, allowing doctors and healthcare providers to provide
remote medical consultations and diagnosis to patients in remote
locations.
● Real-time Collaboration: Networking technologies enable real-
time collaboration, allowing people to work together on projects
and share information in real-time, no matter where they are
Network Software

- Network software encompasses a broad range of software used for

design, implementation, and operation and monitoring of computer
networks.
- Traditional networks were hardware based with software
embedded.
- With the advent of Software – Defined Networking (SDN),
software is separated from the hardware thus making it more
adaptable to the ever-changing nature of the computer network.
Functions of Network Software
● Helps to set up and install computer networks
● Enables users to have access to network resources in a seamless
manner
● Allows administrations to add or remove users from the network
● Helps to define locations of data storage and allows users to access
that data
● Helps administrators and security system to protect the network
from data breaches, unauthorized access and attacks on a network
● Enables network virtualizations
Protocol
- A protocol is simply defined as a set of rules and regulations for
data communication.
- Rules are basically defined for each and every step and process at
time of communication among two or more computers.
- Networks are needed to follow these protocols to transmit the data
successfully.
- All protocols might be implemented using hardware, software, or
combination of both of them.
There are three aspects of protocols given below :
Syntax – It is used to explain data format that is needed to be sent or
received.
Semantics – It is used to explain exact meaning of each of sections of
bits that are usually transferred.
Timings – It is used to explain exact time at which data is generally
transferred along with speed at which it is transferred.
Protocol Hierarchies
● Generally, Computer networks are comprised of or contain a large number of
pieces of hardware and software.
● To just simplify network design, various networks are organized and arranged as
a stack of layers of hardware and software, one on top of another.
● The number, name, content, and function of each layer might vary and can be
different from one network to another.
● The main purpose of each of layers is just to offer and provide services to higher
layers that are present.
● Each and every layer has some particular task or function.
● The networks are organized and arranged as different layers or levels simply to
reduce and minimize complexity of design of network software.
Protocol Hierarchy
Example
- This diagram represents a five-layer network.
- The diagram shows communication between Host 1 and Host 2.
- The data stream is passed through a number of layers from one
host to other.
- Virtual communication is represented using dotted lines between
peer layers.
- Physical communication is represented using solid arrows between
adjacent layers. Through physical medium, actual communication
occurs.
- The layers at same level are commonly known as peers. The peer
basically has a set of communication protocols.
- An interface is present between each of layers that are used to
explain services provided by lower layer to higher layer.
Design Issues of the Layers

● Addressing: There are multiple processes running on one

machine. Every layer needs a mechanism to identify senders and
receivers. As multiple destinations are there some form of
addressing is needed in order to specify a pacific destination.
● Error Control: It is an important issue because physical
communication circuits are not perfect. Many error detecting and
error correcting codes are available. Both sending and receiving
ends must agree to use any one code.
● Flow Control: If there is a fast sender at one end sending data to a
slow receiver, then there must be flow control mechanism to
control the loss of data by slow receivers. There are several
mechanisms used for flow control such as increasing buffer size at
receivers, slow down the fast sender, and so on. Some process will
not be in position to accept arbitrarily long messages. This
property leads to mechanisms for disassembling, transmitting and
the reassembling messages.
● Multiplexing and De-multiplexing: If the data has to be
transmitted on transmission media separately, it is inconvenient or
expensive to setup separate connection for each pair of
communicating processes. So, multiplexing is needed in the
physical layer at sender end and de-multiplexing is need at the
receiver end.
● Scalability: When network gets large, new problem arises. Thus
scalability is important so that network can continue to work well
when it gets large.
● Routing: When there are multiple paths between source and
destination, only one route must be chosen. This decision is made
on the basis of several routing algorithms, which chooses
optimized route to the destination.
● Confidentiality and Integrity: Network security is the most
important factor. Mechanisms that provide confidentiality defend
against threats like eavesdropping. An eavesdropping attack occurs
when a hacker intercepts, deletes, or modifies data that is
transmitted between two devices. Mechanisms for integrity prevent
faulty changes to messages.
Connection-Oriented Service
- A connection-oriented service is a network service that was
designed and developed after the telephone system.
- A connection-oriented service is used to create an end to end
connection between the sender and the receiver before transmitting
the data over the same or different networks.
- In connection-oriented service, packets are transmitted to the
receiver in the same order the sender has sent them.
- It uses a handshake method that creates a connection between the
user and sender for transmitting the data over the network.
- Hence it is also known as a reliable network service.
There is a sequence of operations to be followed by the users of
connection-oriented service. These are:
1. The connection is established.
2. Information is sent.
3. The connection is released.
Types of Connection Oriented Service
Reliable Message Stream - Sequence of pages
Reliable Byte Stream - Song Download
Unreliable Connection - VoIP (Voice Over Internet Protocol)

Types of Connectionless Services :

Unreliable Datagram - Electronic Junk Mail
Acknowledged Datagram - Registered mail, text messages along
with delivery report, etc.
Request Reply - Queries from remote databases
Connectionless Service
- A connection is similar to a postal system, in which each letter takes
along different route paths from the source to the destination address.
- Connectionless service is used in the network system to transfer data
from one end to another end without creating any connection.
- So it does not require establishing a connection before sending the data
from the sender to the receiver.
- It is not a reliable network service because it does not guarantee the
transfer of data packets to the receiver, and data packets can be received
in any order to the receiver.
- Therefore we can say that the data packet does not follow a defined path.
- In connectionless service, the transmitted data packet is not received by
the receiver due to network congestion, and the data may be lost.
Comparison Connection-oriented Service Connectionless Service
Parameter

Related System It is designed and developed based on the It is service based on the postal
telephone system. system.

Definition It is used to create an end to end connection It is used to transfer the data
between the senders to the receiver before packets between senders to the
transmitting the data over the same or different receiver without creating any
network. connection.

Virtual path It creates a virtual path between the sender and It does not create any virtual
the receiver. connection or path between the
sender and the receiver.

Authentication It requires authentication before transmitting the It does not require authentication
data packets to the receiver. before transferring data packets.

Data Packets Path All data packets are received in the same order Not all data packets are received
as those sent by the sender. in the same order as those sent
by the sender.

Bandwidth It requires a higher bandwidth to transfer the It requires low bandwidth to

Comparison Connection-oriented Service Connectionless Service
Parameter

Data Reliability It is a more reliable connection service because It is not a reliable connection
it guarantees data packets transfer from one end service because it does not
to the other end with a connection. guarantee the transfer of data
packets from one end to another
for establishing a connection.

Congestion There is no congestion as it provides an end-to- There may be congestion due to

end connection between sender and receiver not providing an end-to-end
during transmission of data. connection between the source
and receiver to transmit of data
packets.

Examples Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is an User Datagram Protocol (UDP),

example of a connection-oriented service. Internet Protocol (IP), and Internet
Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
are examples of connectionless
service.
Reference Models
● In computer networks, reference models give a conceptual
framework that standardizes communication between
heterogeneous networks.
● Reference models define which functions should be performed at
each layer of the model and thus they promote standardization.

The two popular reference models are −

OSI Model
TCP/IP Reference Model
OSI Model
- OSI or Open System Interconnection model was developed by
International Standards Organization (ISO).
- It gives a layered networking framework that conceptualizes how
communication should be done between heterogeneous systems.
- It has seven interconnected layers.
- The seven layers of the OSI Model are a physical layer, data link
layer, network layer, transport layer, session layer, presentation
layer, and application layer.
Physical Layer – Layer 1
- The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer.
- It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the
devices.
- The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is
responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the
next.
- When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and
convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer,
which will put the frame back together.
Functions of the Physical Layer

Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the

bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus
providing synchronization at the bit level.
Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the
number of bits sent per second.
Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between
the two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are
Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2
- The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of
the message.
- The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is
error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer.
- When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the
DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
- The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:

1. Logical Link Control (LLC)

2. Media Access Control (MAC)
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
Logical Link Control (LLC) is a sublayer that generally provides the
logic for the data link as it controls the synchronization, multiplexing,
flow control, and even error-checking functions of DLL (Data Link
Layer).
1. Media Access Control (MAC)
To communicate or transfer data from one computer to another, we
need an address. In computer networks, various types of addresses are
introduced; each works at a different layer. A MAC address, which
stands for Media Access Control Address, is a physical address that
works at the Data Link Layer.
Functions of the Data Link Layer
Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender
to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished
by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical
addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each
frame.
Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which
it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get
corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before
receiving an acknowledgment.
Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple
devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device
has control over the channel at a given time.
Network Layer – Layer 3
- The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to
the other located in different networks.
- It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available.
- The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the
network layer.
Functions of the Network Layer

Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is

suitable from source to destination. This function of the network layer
is known as routing.
Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork
uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender
& receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network
layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and
universally.
Transport Layer – Layer 4
- The transport layer provides services to the application layer and
takes services from the network layer.
- The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is
responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete message.
- The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the
successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is
found.
- At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data
from the upper layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements
Flow & Error control to ensure proper data transmission.
- It also adds Source and Destination port numbers in its header and
forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.
Functions of the Transport Layer

Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from

the (session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of
the segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport
layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct
process, the transport layer header includes a type of address called
service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this address,
the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the
correct process.
Session Layer – Layer 5
- Session layer has the primary responsibility of beginning.
Maintaining and ending the communication between two devices,
which is called session.
- Provides orderly communication between devices by regulating the
flow of data.
- This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection,
maintenance of sessions, and authentication, and also ensures
security.
Functions of the Session Layer
Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer
allows the two processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that
are considered synchronization points in the data. These
synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-
synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.
Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
Note:
Presentation Layer – Layer 6
- The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer.
- The data from the application layer is extracted here and
manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the
network.
Functions of the Presentation Layer
Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into
another form or code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext
and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for
encrypting as well as decrypting data.
Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted
on the network.
Application Layer – Layer 7
- At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we
find the Application layer which is implemented by the network
applications.
- These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred
over the network.
- This layer also serves as a window for the application services to
access the network and for displaying the received information to
the user.
Functions of the Application Layer

Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote

host.
FTAM- File transfer access and management : This application
allows a user to
access file in a remote host, retrieve files in remote host and manage or
control files from a remote computer.
Mail Services : Provide email service.
Directory Services : This application provides distributed database
sources and access for global information about various objects and
services.
TCP/IP Reference Model
● TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense
(DoD) in the 1960s and is based on standard protocols.
● It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The
TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model.
● It contains four layers, unlike the seven layers in the OSI model.
● The number of layers is sometimes referred to as five or four.
● The Physical Layer and Data Link Layer are referred to as one
single layer as the ‘Physical Layer’ or ‘Network Interface Layer’
in the 4-layer reference.
● The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer
from one device to another.
How Does the TCP/IP Model Work?

Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the

TCP/IP Model, the TCP/IP Model divides the data into packets at the
sender’s end and the same packets have to be recombined at the
receiver’s end to form the same data, and this thing happens to
maintain the accuracy of the data.
The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model
Connection Devices in Different Layers

Network devices, also known as networking hardware, are physical

devices that allow hardware on a computer network to communicate
and interact with one another. For example Repeater, Hub, Bridge,
Switch, Routers, Gateway, Brouter, and NIC, etc.
1. Hub
- A hub is a basically multi-port repeater.
- A hub is a physical device used to join multiple devices on the
same LAN.
- For example, a laptop, desktop computer and printer can connect
into a hub's ports with Ethernet cables and be part of the same local
network.
- A hub must connect to a router or switch in order to communicate
outside its LAN. Hub devices can also connect to each other to
expand the overall network.
- A hub receives signal from the source amplifies it and sends it to
multiple destinations.
- A hub operates at Layer 1 of the OSI model -- the physical layer.
2. Repeater
- A repeater operates at the physical layer.
- Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network before the
signal becomes too weak or corrupted to extend the length to
which the signal can be transmitted over the same network.
- An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they not only
amplify the signal but also regenerate it.
- When the signal becomes weak, they copy it bit by bit and
regenerate it at its star topology connectors connecting following
the original strength.
3. Bridge
- A bridge operates at the data link layer.
- A network bridge acts as an interconnection between two or more
LANs, essentially creating a single domain from separate LANs.
- It can read only the outmost hardware address of the packet but
cannot read the IP address.
- It reads the outmost section of the data packet to tell where the
message is going.
- It reduces the traffic on other network segments.
4. Router
- Routers are small physical devices that operate at the network layer
to join multiple networks together.
- A router directs data requests from one network to another.
- Routers examine incoming packets to determine the appropriate
destination IP address and then forward the packet to that
destination.
- A router can also enable internet access through its connection to a
modem, or as a combined modem-router.
5. Gateway
- A gateway is an internetworking capable of joining together two
networks that use different base protocols.
- A network gateway can be implemented completely in software,
hardware, or a combination of both, depending on the types of
protocols they support.
- A network gateway can operate at any level of the OSI model.
- A broadband router typically serves as the network gateway,
although ordinary computers can also be configured to perform
equivalent functions.
6. Switch
- It is used in to send data point to point means directly from one
computer to another through a switch.
- Switches may operate at one or more layers of the OSI model.
- They may operate in the data link layer and network layer; a device
that operates simultaneously at more than one of these layers is
known as a multilayer switch.
- A Switch can check the errors before forwarding the data, which
makes it more efficient and improves its performance.
- A switch is the better version of a hub.
7. Modem
- Modem is a device that enables a computer to send or receive data
over telephone or cable lines.
- The modem works at Physical Layer of the OSI model.
- The main purpose of a modem is to modulate and demodulate -- or
convert -- signals between devices, such as analog to digital.
- Nowadays, the most common type of modem is an internet
modem, which facilitates internet access by receiving signals from
an ISP and converting them into a format that connected devices
can use, such as radio or digital signals.
8. Access Point
- An access point (AP) is a device that sends and receives data
wirelessly over radio frequencies, using 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz bands.
- Clients, such as laptops or mobile phones, connect to an AP using
a wireless signal, enabling them to join the wireless LAN created
by the AP.