LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

S.No Name of the Experiment

Implementation of DDL commands of SQL with suitable examples
1. ●​ Create table
●​ Alter table
●​ Drop Table
Implementation of DML commands of SQL with suitable examples

2. ●​ Insert
●​ Update
●​ Delete
Implementation of different types of function with suitable examples
●​ Number function
3. ●​ Aggregate Function
●​ Character Function
●​ Conversion Function
●​ Date Function
Implementation of different types of operators in SQL
●​ Arithmetic Operators
4. ●​ Logical Operators
●​ Comparison Operator
●​ Special Operator
●​ Set Operation
Implementation of different types of Joins
5. ●​ Inner Join
●​ Outer Join
●​ Natural Join etc..
Study and Implementation of
6. ●​ Group By & having clause
●​ Order by clause
●​ Indexing
Study& Implementation of
7. ●​ Sub queries
●​ Views

8 Study & Implementation of different types of constraints.

Study & Implementation of PL/SQL.

9

Study & Implementation of PL/SQL.

10
Experiment No: 1
Title: Implementation of DDL commands of SQL with suitable examples
●​ Create table
●​ Alter table
●​ Drop Table

Objective:
To understand the different issues involved in the design and implementation of a
database system
To understand and use data definition language to write query for a database
Theory:
Oracle has many tools such as SQL * PLUS, Oracle Forms, Oracle Report Writer, Oracle
Graphics etc.

❖​ SQL * PLUS: The SQL * PLUS tool is made up of two distinct parts. These are

●​ Interactive SQL: Interactive SQL is designed for create, access and

manipulate data structures like tables and indexes.
●​ PL/SQL: PL/SQL can be used to developed programs for
different applications.

❖​ Oracle Forms: This tool allows you to create a data entry screen along with the

suitable menu objects. Thus it is the oracle forms tool that handles data gathering and
data validation in a commercial application.

❖​ Report Writer: Report writer allows programmers to prepare innovative reports

using data from the oracle structures like tables, views etc. It is the report writer tool
that handles the reporting section of commercial applications.

❖​ Oracle Graphics: Some of the data can be better represented in the form of pictures.
The oracle graphics tool allows programmers to prepare graphs using data from oracle
structures like tables, views etc.
SQL (Structured Query Language):
Structured Query Language is a database computer language designed for managing
data in relational database management systems (RDBMS), and originally based upon
Relational Algebra. Its scope includes data query and update, schema creation and
modification, and data access control.
SQL was one of the first languages for Edgar F. Codd's relational model and became the
most widely used language for relational databases.
●​ IBM developed SQL in mid of 1970’s.
●​ Oracle incorporated in the year 1979.
●​ SQL used by IBM/DB2 and DS Database Systems.
●​ SQL adopted as standard language for RDBS by ASNI in 1989.

DATA TYPES:

1.​CHAR (Size): This data type is used to store character strings values of fixed length.
The size in brackets determines the number of characters the cell can hold. The
maximum number of character is 255 characters.

2.​VARCHAR (Size) / VARCHAR2 (Size): This data type is used to store variable length
alphanumeric data. The maximum character can hold is 2000 character.

3.​NUMBER (P, S): The NUMBER data type is used to store number (fixed or floating
point). Number of virtually any magnitude may be stored up to 38 digits of precision.
124
Number as large as 9.99 * 10 . The precision (p) determines the number of places to

the right of the decimal. If scale is omitted then the default is zero. If precision is
omitted, values are stored with their original precision up to the maximum of 38 digits.

4.​DATE: This data type is used to represent date and time. The standard format is DD-
MM-YY as in 17-SEP-2009. To enter dates other than the standard format, use the
appropriate functions. Date time stores date in the 24-Hours format. By default the time
in a date field is 12:00:00 am, if no time portion is specified. The default date for a date
field is the first day the current month.

5.​LONG: This data type is used to store variable length character strings containing up to
2GB. Long data can be used to store arrays of binary data in ASCII format. LONG
values cannot be indexed, and the normal character functions such as SUBSTR cannot
be applied.

6.​RAW: The RAW data type is used to store binary data, such as digitized picture or
image. Data loaded into columns of these data types are stored without any further
conversion. RAW data type can have a maximum length of 255 bytes. LONG RAW data
type can contain up to 2GB.

SQL language is subdivided into several language elements, including:

▪​ Clauses, which are in some cases optional, constituent components of statements and queries.

▪​ Expressions, which can produce either scalar values or tables consisting of columns and

rows of data.

▪​ Predicates which specify conditions that can be evaluated to SQL three-valued logic

(3VL) Boolean truth values and which are used to limit the effects of statements and

queries, or to change program flow.

▪​ Queries which retrieve data based on specific criteria.

▪​ Statements which may have a persistent effect on schemas and data, or which may ​

control transactions, program flow, connections, sessions, or diagnostics.

▪​ Insignificant white space is generally ignored in SQL statements and queries, making it
easier to format SQL code for readability.

There are five types of SQL statements. They are:

1.​DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE (DDL)

2.​DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE (DML)

3.​DATA RETRIEVAL LANGUAGE (DRL)

4.​TRANSATIONAL CONTROL LANGUAGE (TCL)

5.​DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE (DCL)

1.​ DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE (DDL): The Data Definition Language (DDL)
is used to create and destroy databases and database objects. These commands will primarily
be used by database administrators during the setup and removal phases of a database project.
Let's take a look at the structure and usage of four basic DDL commands:
1. CREATE​ 2. ALTER​ 3. DROP​ 4. RENAME

1.​CREATE:
(a)​CREATE TABLE: This is used to create a new relation (table)

Syntax: CREATE TABLE <relation_name/table_name >

(field_1 data_type(size),field_2 data_type(size), .. .
);

Example:
SQL> CREATE TABLE Student (sno NUMBER (3), sname CHAR (10), class CHAR (5));

2.​ALTER:
(a)​ ALTER TABLE ...ADD...: This is used to add some extra fields into existing
relation.
Syntax: ALTER TABLE relation_name ADD (new field_1 data_type(size), new field_2
data_type(size),..);
Example: SQL>ALTER TABLE std ADD (Address CHAR(10));

(b)​ ALTER TABLE...MODIFY...: This is used to change the width as well as

data type of fields of existing relations.

Syntax: ALTER TABLE relation_name MODIFY (field_1 newdata_type(Size), field_2

newdata_type(Size),... field_newdata_type(Size));

Example:SQL>ALTER​ TABLE​ student​ MODIFY(sname​

VARCHAR(10),class VARCHAR(5));

c)​ALTER TABLE..DROP​ This is used to remove any field of existing relations.

Syntax: ALTER TABLE relation_name DROP COLUMN (field_name);

Example:SQL>ALTER TABLE student DROP column (sname);

d)​ ALTER TABLE..RENAME...: This is used to change the name of​ fields
in existing relations.

Syntax: ALTER TABLE relation_name RENAME COLUMN (OLD field_name)

to (NEW field_name);

Example: SQL>ALTER TABLE student RENAME COLUMN sname to stu_name;

3.​ DROP TABLE: This is used to delete the structure of a relation. It permanently
deletes the records in the table.
Syntax: DROP TABLE relation_name;
Example: SQL>DROP TABLE std;

4.​ RENAME: It is used to modify the name of the existing database

object. Syntax: RENAME TABLE old_relation_name TO
new_relation_name; Example: SQL>RENAME TABLE std TO std1;
LAB PRACTICE ASSIGNMENT:

1.​ Create a table EMPLOYEE with following schema:

(Emp_no, E_name, E_address, E_ph_no, Dept_no, Dept_name,Job_id , Salary)

CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (

Emp_no INT PRIMARY KEY,
E_name VARCHAR(100),
E_address VARCHAR(255),
E_ph_no VARCHAR(15),
Dept_no INT,
Dept_name VARCHAR(100),
Job_id VARCHAR(10),
Salary NUMERIC(10,2)
);

SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE

​ 2. Add a new column; HIREDATE to the existing relation.​

​ ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE

​ ADD COLUMN HIREDATE DATE;
​ SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE
​

​
​

​ 3. Change the datatype of JOB_ID from char to varchar(20).

​ ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE

​ ALTER COLUMN JOB_ID TYPE VARCHAR(20);
​ SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE
​ 4. Change the name of column/field Emp_no to E_no.

​ ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE

​ RENAME COLUMN Emp_no TO E_no;
​ SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE

​ 5. Modify the column width of the job field of emp table.

​ ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE

​ ALTER COLUMN JOB_ID TYPE VARCHAR(30);
​ SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE
Experiment No:2

Title : Implementation of DML commands of SQL with suitable examples

●​ Insert table
●​ Update table
●​ Delete Table

Objective :
To understand the different issues involved in the design and implementation of a
database system
To understand and use data manipulation language to query, update, and manage a
database

Theory :

DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE (DML): The Data Manipulation Language

(DML) is used to retrieve, insert and modify database information. These commands will be
used by all database users during the routine operation of the database. Let's take a brief look
at the basic DML commands:
1. INSERT​ 2. UPDATE​ 3. DELETE
1.​ INSERT INTO:​ This is used to add records into a relation. These are three type
of INSERT INTO queries which are as
a)​Inserting a single record
Syntax: INSERT INTO < relation/table name>
(field_1,field_2……field_n)VALUES (data_1,data_2,​ data_n);
Example: SQL>INSERT INTO student(sno,sname,class,address)VALUES
(1,’Ravi’,’M.Tech’,’Palakol’);
b)​Inserting a single record
Syntax: INSERT INTO < relation/table name>VALUES (data_1,data_2,​ data_n);
Example: SQL>INSERT INTO student VALUES (1,’Ravi’,’M.Tech’,’Palakol’);

c)​Inserting all records from another relation

Syntax: INSERT INTO relation_name_1 SELECT Field_1,field_2,field_n
FROM relation_name_2 WHERE field_x=data;
Example: SQL>INSERT INTO std SELECT sno,sname FROM
student WHERE name = ‘Ramu‘;

d)​Inserting multiple records

Syntax: INSERT INTO relation_name field_1,field_2,​ field_n) VALUES
(&data_1,&data_2,​ &data_n);
Example: SQL>INSERT INTO student (sno, sname, class,address)
VALUES (&sno,’&sname’,’&class’,’&address’);
Enter value for sno: 101
Enter value for name: Ravi
Enter value for class: M.Tech
Enter value for name:
Palakol

2.​UPDATE-SET-WHERE: This is used to update the content of a record in a relation.

Syntax: SQL>UPDATE relation name SET Field_name1=data,field_name2=data,
WHERE field_name=data;
Example:​ SQL>UPDATE student SET sname = ‘kumar’ WHERE sno=1;

3.​ DELETE-FROM: This is used to delete all the records of a relation but it will
retain the structure of that relation.
a)​DELETE-FROM: This is used to delete all the records of relation.
Syntax:​ SQL>DELETE FROM relation_name;
Example:​ SQL>DELETE FROM std;
b)​DELETE -FROM-WHERE: This is used to delete a selected record from a relation.
Syntax:​ SQL>DELETE FROM relation_name WHERE condition;
Example:​ SQL>DELETE FROM student WHERE sno = 2;

5.​ TRUNCATE: This command will remove the data permanently. But structure will
not be removed.
Difference between Truncate & Delete:-

✔​ By using truncate command data will be removed permanently & will not get back

where as by using delete command data will be removed temporally & get back by
using roll back command.

✔​ By using delete command data will be removed based on the condition where as by

using truncate command there is no condition.

✔​ Truncate is a DDL command & delete is a DML command.

Syntax:​ TRUNCATE TABLE <Table name>

Example TRUNCATE TABLE student;

●​ To Retrieve data from one or more tables.

1.​ SELECT FROM: To display all fields for all

records. Syntax :​ SELECT * FROM relation_name;
Example :​ SQL> select * from dept;
DEPTNO​ DNAME​ LOC
--------​ -----------​ ----------
10​ ACCOUNTING​ NEW YORK
20​ RESEARCH​ DALLAS
30​ SALES​ CHICAGO
40​ OPERATIONS​ BOSTON

2.​ SELECT FROM: To display a set of fields for all records of

relation. Syntax:​ ​ SELECT a set of fields FROM
relation_name; Example:​ SQL> select deptno, dname from dept;
DEPTNO​ DNAME

10​ ACCOUNTING
20​ RESEARCH
30​ SALES

3.​ SELECT - FROM -WHERE: This query is used to display a selected set of
fields for a selected set of records of a relation.
Syntax:​ SELECT a set of fields FROM relation_name WHERE condition;
Example: SQL> select * FROM dept WHERE
deptno<=20; DEPTNO​ DNAME​
LOC
------​ -----------​ ------------
10​ ACCOUNTING​ NEW YORK
20​ RESEARCH​ DALLAS
LAB PRACTICE ASSIGNMENT:

Create a table EMPLOYEE with following schema:

(Emp_no, E_name, E_address, E_ph_no, Dept_no, Dept_name,Job_id , Salary)

Write SQL queries for following question:

​ 1.Insert at least 5 rows in the table.
CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (
Emp_no INT PRIMARY KEY,
E_name VARCHAR(100),
E_address VARCHAR(255),
E_ph_no VARCHAR(15),
Dept_no INT,
Dept_name VARCHAR(100),
Job_id VARCHAR(10),
Salary NUMERIC(10,2)
);
INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (Emp_no, E_name, E_address, E_ph_no, Dept_no,
Dept_name, Job_id, Salary)
VALUES
(10, 'Alice', 'Mumbai', '9876543210', 101, 'D10', 'J01', 50000.00),
(11, 'Bob', 'Delhi', '9123456780', 102, 'MECH', 'J02', 55000.00),
(12, 'Charlie', 'Pune', '9988776655', 101, 'D10', 'J03', 60000.00),
(13, 'David', 'Chennai', '9876501234', 103, 'CIVIL', 'J04', 45000.00),
(14, 'Eva', 'Kolkata', '9123409876', 102, 'MECH', 'J05', 70000.00);

​ 2. Display all the information of EMP table.

​ SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE;
​ 3. Display the record of each employee who works in department D10.

​ SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE Dept_name = 'D10';

​ 4. Update the city of Emp_no-12 with current city as Nagpur.

​ UPDATE EMPLOYEE
​ SET E_address = 'Nagpur'
​ WHERE Emp_no = 12;
​ 5. Display the details of Employee who works in department MECH.

​ SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE Dept_name = 'MECH';

Experiment No: 3

Title: Implementation of different types of functions with suitable examples.

▪​ Number Function

▪​ Aggregate Function

▪​ Character Function

▪​ Conversion Function

▪​ Date Function

Objective:
NUMBER FUNCTION:

Abs(n) :Select abs(-15) from dual;

Exp(n): Select exp(4) from dual;
Power(m,n): Select power(4,2) from
dual; Mod(m,n): Select mod(10,3) from
dual;
Round(m,n): Select round(100.256,2) from
dual; Trunc(m,n): ;Select trunc(100.256,2) from
dual; Sqrt(m,n);Select sqrt(16) from dual;

Develop aggregate plan strategies to assist with summarization of several data entries.

Aggregative operators: In addition to simply retrieving data, we often want to perform some
computation or summarization. SQL allows the use of arithmetic expressions. We now
consider a powerful class of constructs for computing aggregate values such as MIN and
SUM.

1.​ Count: COUNT followed by a column name returns the count of tuple in that column. If the
DISTINCT keyword is used then it will return only the count of unique tuples in the column. Otherwise,
it will return count of all the tuples (including duplicates) count (*) indicates all the tuples of the column.
Syntax: COUNT (Column name)
Example: SELECT COUNT (Sal) FROM emp;

​ SUM: SUM followed by a column name returns the sum of all the values in that column.
Syntax: SUM (Column name)
Example: SELECT SUM (Sal) From emp;

AVG: AVG followed by a column name returns the average value of that column values.
Syntax: AVG (n1, n2...)
Example: Select AVG (10, 15, 30) FROM DUAL;

MAX: MAX followed by a column name returns the maximum value of that column.
Syntax: MAX (Column name)
Example: SELECT MAX (Sal) FROM emp;
SQL> select deptno, max(sal) from emp group by deptno;

DEPTNO​ MAX (SAL)

10 5000
20 3000
30 2850
SQL> select deptno, max (sal) from emp group by deptno having max(sal)<3000;
DEPTNO​ MAX(SAL)

30​ 2850

MIN: MIN followed by column name returns the minimum value of that column.
Syntax: MIN (Column name)
Example: SELECT MIN (Sal) FROM emp;

SQL>select deptno,min(sal) from emp group by deptno having min(sal)>1000;

DEPTNO MIN (SAL)

10​ 1300
CHARACTER FUNCTION:

initcap(char) : select initcap(“hello”) from dual;

lower (char): select lower (‘HELLO’) from

dual; upper (char) :select upper (‘hello’) from

dual;

ltrim (char,[set]): select ltrim (‘cseit’, ‘cse’) from

dual; rtrim (char,[set]): select rtrim (‘cseit’, ‘it’) from

dual;

replace (char,search ): select replace(‘jack and jue’,‘j’,‘bl’) from dual;

CONVERSION FUNCTIONS:
To_char: TO_CHAR (number) converts n to a value of VARCHAR2 data type, using the
optional number format fmt. The value n can be of type NUMBER, BINARY_FLOAT, or
BINARY_DOUBLE.

SQL>select to_char(65,'RN')from dual;

LXV

To_number : TO_NUMBER converts expr to a value of NUMBER data type.

SQL>Select to_number ('1234.64') from Dual;
1234.64

To_date:TO_DATE converts char of CHAR, VARCHAR2, NCHAR, or

NVARCHAR2 data type to a value of DATE data type.
SQL>SELECT TO_DATE('January 15, 1989, 11:00 A.M.')FROM DUAL;

TO_DATE

15-JAN-89
STRING FUNCTIONS:
Concat: CONCAT returns char1 concatenated with char2. Both char1 and char2 can be any of the
data types.

SQL>SELECT CONCAT(‘ORACLE’,’CORPORATION’)FROM DUAL; ORACLECORPORATION

Lpad: LPAD returns expr1, left-padded to length n characters with the sequence of characters
in expr2.
SQL>SELECT LPAD(‘ORACLE’,15,’*’)FROM DUAL;
*********ORACLE
Rpad: RPAD returns expr1, right-padded to length n characters with expr2, replicated as many times
as necessary.
SQL>SELECT RPAD (‘ORACLE’,15,’*’)FROM DUAL;
ORACLE*********

Ltrim: Returns a character expression after removing leading blanks.

SQL>SELECT LTRIM(‘SSMITHSS’,’S’)FROM DUAL;
MITHSS

Rtrim: Returns a character string after truncating all trailing blanks SQL>SELECT
RTRIM(‘SSMITHSS’,’S’)FROM DUAL;
SSMITH

Lower: Returns a character expression after converting uppercase character data to lowercase.
SQL>SELECT LOWER(‘DBMS’)FROM DUAL;
dbms

Upper: Returns a character expression with lowercase character data converted to uppercase
SQL>SELECT UPPER(‘dbms’)FROM DUAL;
DBMS
Length: Returns the number of characters, rather than the number of bytes, of the given string
expression, excluding trailing blanks.
SQL>SELECT LENGTH(‘DATABASE’)FROM DUAL; 8
Substr: Returns part of a character, binary, text, or image expression. SQL>SELECT
SUBSTR(‘ABCDEFGHIJ 3,4)FROM DUAL;
Instr: The INSTR functions search string for substring. The function returns an integer
indicating the position of the character in string that is the first character of this occurrence.
SQL>SELECT INSTR('CORPORATE FLOOR','OR',3,2)FROM DUAL;
14
DATE FUNCTIONS:
Sysdate:
SQL>SELECT SYSDATE FROM
DUAL; 29-DEC-08
next_day:
SQL>SELECT NEXT_DAY(SYSDATE,’WED’)FROM
DUAL; 05-JAN-09
add_months:
SQL>SELECT ADD_MONTHS(SYSDATE,2)FROM
DUAL; 28-FEB-09
last_day:
SQL>SELECT LAST_DAY(SYSDATE)FROM
DUAL; 31-DEC-08
months_between:
SQL>SELECT MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,HIREDATE)FROM EMP;
4
Least:
SQL>SELECT LEAST('10-JAN-07','12-OCT-07')FROM
DUAL; 10-JAN-07
Greatest:
SQL>SELECT GREATEST('10-JAN-07','12-OCT-07')FROM
DUAL; 10-JAN-07
Trunc:
SQL>SELECT TRUNC(SYSDATE,'DAY')FROM
DUAL; 28-DEC-08

Round:
SQL>SELECT ROUND(SYSDATE,'DAY')FROM
DUAL; 28-DEC-08
to_char:
SQL> select to_char(sysdate, "dd\mm\yy") from
dual; 24-mar-05.
to_date:
SQL> select to date (sysdate, "dd\mm\yy") from
dual; 24-mar-o5.

LAB PRACTICE ASSIGNMENT:

Create a table EMPLOYEE with following schema:

(Emp_no, E_name, E_address, E_ph_no, Dept_no, Dept_name,Job_id, Designation , Salary)

CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (

Emp_no INT PRIMARY KEY,
E_name VARCHAR(100),
E_address VARCHAR(255),
E_ph_no VARCHAR(15),
Dept_no INT,
Dept_name VARCHAR(100),
Job_id VARCHAR(10),
Designation VARCHAR(50),
Salary NUMERIC(10,2)
);

SELECT *FROM EMPLOYEE

Write SQL statements for the following query.

1.​ List the E_no, E_name, Salary of all employees working for MANAGER.

SELECT E_no, E_name, Salary

FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE Designation = 'MANAGER';

2.​ Display all the details of the employee whose salary is more than the Sal of any IT PROFF.

​ SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE

WHERE Salary > ANY (

SELECT Salary

FROM EMPLOYEE

WHERE Designation = 'IT PROFF'

);

​
3.​ List the employees in the ascending order of Designations of those joined after 1981.

SELECT *

FROM EMPLOYEE

WHERE Hire_date > '1981-12-31'

ORDER BY Designation ASC;

4.​ List the employees along with their Experience and Daily Salary.

SELECT E_name,

EXTRACT(YEAR FROM AGE(CURRENT_DATE, Hire_date)) AS Experience_Years,

ROUND(Salary / 365, 2) AS Daily_Salary FROM EMPLOYEE;

5.​ List the employees who are either ‘CLERK’ or ‘ANALYST’ .

SELECT *

FROM EMPLOYEE

WHERE Designation IN ('CLERK', 'ANALYST');

Experiment No: 4

Title : Implementation of different types of operators in SQL.

●​ Arithmetic Operator
●​ Logical Operator
●​ Comparision Operator
●​ Special Operator
●​ Set Operator

Objective:
To learn different types of operator.

Theory:

ARIHMETIC OPERATORS:

(+) : Addition - Adds values on either side of the operator .

(-):Subtraction - Subtracts right hand operand from left hand operand .

(*):Multiplication - Multiplies values on either side of the operator .

(/):Division - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand .

(^):Power- raise to power of .

(%):Modulus - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand and returns remainder.

LOGICAL OPERATORS:

AND : The AND operator allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL statement's
WHERE clause.

OR: The OR operator is used to combine multiple conditions in an SQL statement's

WHERE clause.
NOT: The NOT operator reverses the meaning of the logical operator with which it is used.
Eg: NOT EXISTS, NOT BETWEEN, NOT IN, etc. This is a negate operator.

COMPARISION OPERATORS:

(=):Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if yes then condition becomes true.

(!=):Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if values are not equal then condition
becomes true.

(< >):Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if values are not equal then condition
becomes true.

(>):Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value of right operand, if yes then
condition becomes true

(<):Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value of right operand, if yes then condition
becomes true.

(>=):Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the value of right
operand, if yes then condition becomes true.

(<=):Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value of right operand, if
yes then condition becomes true.

SPECIAL OPERATOR:

BETWEEN: The BETWEEN operator is used to search for values that are within a set of values, given the
minimum value and the maximum value.

IS NULL: The NULL operator is used to compare a value with a NULL attribute value.

ALL: The ALL operator is used to compare a value to all values in another value set

ANY: The ANY operator is used to compare a value to any applicable value in the list according
to the condition.

LIKE: The LIKE operator is used to compare a value to similar values using wildcard operators.It
allows to use percent sign(%) and underscore ( _ ) to match a given string pattern.
IN: The IN operator is used to compare a value to a list of literal values that have been
specified.

EXIST: The EXISTS operator is used to search for the presence of a row in a specified table
that meets certain criteria.

SET OPERATORS:

The Set operator combines the result of 2 queries into a single result. The following
are the operators:
●​ Union
●​ Union all
●​ Intersect
●​ Minus

Union: Returns all distinct rows selected by both the queries

Union all: Returns all rows selected by either query including the duplicates.
Intersect: Returns rows selected that are common to both queries.
Minus: Returns all distinct rows selected by the first query and are not by the second

LAB PRACTICE ASSIGNMENT:

1.​ Display all the dept numbers available with the dept and emp tables avoiding duplicates.

SELECT deptno FROM DEPT

UNION
SELECT deptno FROM EMP;
2.​ Display all the dept numbers available with the dept and emp tables.
SELECT deptno FROM DEPT
UNION ALL
SELECT deptno FROM EMP;

3.​ Display all the dept numbers available in emp and not in dept tables and vice versa.
SELECT deptno FROM EMP
EXCEPT
SELECT deptno FROM DEPT;
​​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
SELECT deptno FROM DEPT
EXCEPT
SELECT deptno FROM EMP;
Experiment No: 5

Title : Implementation of different types of Joins

●​ Inner Join
●​ Outer Join
●​ Natural Join..etc

Objective :
To implement different types of joins

Theory :
The SQL Joins clause is used to combine records from two or more tables in a
database. A JOIN is a means for combining fields from two tables by using values common
to each.The join is actually performed by the ‘where’ clause which combines specified rows
of tables.
Syntax:
SELECT column 1, column 2, column
3... FROM table_name1, table_name2
WHERE table_name1.column name = table_name2.columnname;

Types of Joins :
1.​Simple Join
2.​Self Join
3.​Outer Join

Simple Join:
It is the most common type of join. It retrieves the rows from 2 tables having a common
column and is further classified into
Equi-join :
A join, which is based on equalities, is called equi-join.
Example:
Select * from item, cust where item.id=cust.id;

In the above statement, item-id = cust-id performs the join statement. It retrieves rows
from both the tables provided they both have the same id as specified by the where clause.
Since the where clause uses the comparison operator (=) to perform a join, it is said to be
equijoin. It combines the matched rows of tables. It can be used as follows:

✔​ To insert records in the target table.

✔​ To create tables and insert records in this table.

✔​ To update records in the target table.

✔​ To create views.

Non Equi-join:
It specifies the relationship between columns belonging to different tables by
making use of relational operators other than’=’.

Example:
Select * from item, cust where item.id<cust.id;
Table Aliases
Table aliases are used to make multiple table queries shorted and more readable. We give
an alias name to the table in the ‘from’ clause and use it instead of the name throughout
the query.

Self join:
Joining a table to itself is known as self-join. It joins one row in a table to another.
It can compare each row of the table to itself and also with other rows of the same table.

Example:
select * from emp x ,emp y where x.salary >= (select avg(salary) from x.emp
where x. deptno =y.deptno);

Outer Join:

It extends the result of a simple join. An outer join returns all the rows returned by simple
join as well as those rows from one table that do not match any row from the table. The
symbol(+) represents outer join.

–​ Left outer join

–​ Right outer join
–​ Full outer join
LAB PRACTICE ASSIGNMENT:
Consider the following schema: ​
Sailors (sid, sname, rating, age) ​
Boats (bid, bname, color) ​
Reserves (sid, bid, day(date))

1.​ Find all information of sailors who have reserved boat number 101.
SELECT s.*
FROM Sailors s
JOIN Reserves r ON s.sid = r.sid
WHERE r.bid = 101;

2.​ Find the name of the boat reserved by Bob.

SELECT DISTINCT b.bname
FROM Sailors s
JOIN Reserves r ON s.sid = r.sid
JOIN Boats b ON r.bid = b.bid
WHERE s.sname = 'Bob';
3.​ Find the names of sailors who have reserved a red boat, and list in the order of age.
SELECT DISTINCT s.sname, s.age
FROM Sailors s
JOIN Reserves r ON s.sid = r.sid
JOIN Boats b ON r.bid = b.bid
WHERE b.color = 'red'
ORDER BY s.age;
4.​ Find the names of sailors who have reserved at least one boat.
SELECT DISTINCT s.sname
FROM Sailors s
JOIN Reserves r ON s.sid = r.sid;

5.​ Find the ids and names of sailors who have reserved two different boats on the
same day.

SELECT DISTINCT s.sid, s.sname

FROM Sailors s

JOIN Reserves r1 ON s.sid = r1.sid

JOIN Reserves r2 ON s.sid = r2.sid

WHERE r1.bid <> r2.bid AND r1.day = r2.day;

Experiment No: 6

Title : Study & Implementation of

●​ Group by & Having Clause
●​ Order by Clause
●​ Indexing

Objective:
To learn the concept of group functions

Theory:

●​ GROUP BY: This query is used to group to all the records in a relation together for each
and every value of a specific key(s) and then display them for a selected set of fields the
relation.

Syntax:​ SELECT <set of fields> FROM

<relation_name> GROUP BY <field_name>;

Example: SQL> SELECT EMPNO, SUM (SALARY) FROM EMP GROUP BY

EMPNO;

GROUP BY-HAVING : The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE
keyword could not be used with aggregate functions. The HAVING clause must follow the
GROUP BY clause in a query and must also precede the ORDER BY clause if used.

Syntax:​ SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name) FROM

table_name WHERE column_name operator value
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator value;
Example : SELECT Employees.LastName, COUNT(Orders.OrderID) AS NumberOfOrders
FROM (Orders
INNER JOIN Employees
ON Orders.EmployeeID=Employees.EmployeeID) GROUP BY LastName
HAVING COUNT (Orders.OrderID) > 10;

JOIN using GROUP BY: This query is used to display a set of fields from two relations by
matching a common field in them and also group the corresponding records for each and
every value of a specified key(s) while displaying.

Syntax: SELECT <set of fields (from both relations)> FROM relation_1,relation_2

WHERE relation_1.field_x=relation_2.field_y GROUP BY field_z;
Example:
SQL> SELECT empno,SUM(SALARY) FROM emp,dept
WHERE emp.deptno =20 GROUP BY empno;

●​ ORDER BY: This query is used to display a selected set of fields from a relation in an
ordered manner base on some field.

Syntax:​ SELECT <set of fields> FROM

<relation_name> ORDER BY <field_name>;

Example: SQL> SELECT empno, ename, job FROM emp ORDER BY job;

JOIN using ORDER BY: This query is used to display a set of fields from two relations by
matching a common field in them in an ordered manner based on some fields.
Syntax: SELECT <set of fields (from both relations)> FROM relation_1,
relation_2 WHERE relation_1.field_x = relation_2.field_y ORDER BY
field_z;
Example: SQL> SELECT empno,ename,job,dname FROM emp,dept
WHERE emp.deptno = 20 ORDER BY job;
●​ INDEXING: An index is an ordered set of pointers to the data in a table. It is based on
the data values in one or more columns of the table. SQL Base stores indexes separately
from tables.
An index provides two benefits:
●​ It improves performance because it makes data access faster.
●​ It ensures uniqueness. A table with a unique index cannot have two rows
with the same values in the column or columns that form the index key.

Syntax:
CREATE INDEX <index_name> on <table_name> (attrib1,attrib 2….attrib n);

Example:
CREATE INDEX id1 on emp(empno,dept_no);

LAB PRACTICE ASSIGNMENT:

Create a relation and implement the following queries.

1.​ Display total salary spent for each job category.

SELECT job_category, SUM(salary) AS total_salary
FROM employees
GROUP BY job_category;
2.​ Display lowest paid employee details under each manager.
SELECT e.*
FROM employees e
JOIN (
SELECT manager_id, MIN(salary) AS min_salary
FROM employees
GROUP BY manager_id
)m
ON e.manager_id = m.manager_id AND e.salary = m.min_salary;

3.​ Display number of employees working in each department and their department name.
SELECT department_id, department_name, COUNT(*) AS employee_count
FROM employees
GROUP BY department_id, department_name;
4.​ Display the details of employees sorting the salary in increasing order.
SELECT *
FROM employees
​ ORDER BY salary ASC;

5.​ Show the record of employees earning salaries greater than 16000 in each department.
SELECT *
FROM employees
WHERE salary > 16000
ORDER BY department_id;
Experiment No: 7

Title : Study & Implementation of

●​ Sub queries
●​ Views

Objective:

–​ To perform nested Queries and joining Queries using DML command

–​ To understand the implementation of views.

Theory:
SUBQUERIES: The query within another is known as a sub query. A statement
containing sub query is called parent statement. The rows returned by sub query are
used by the parent statement or in other words A subquery is a SELECT statement that is embedded
in a clause of another SELECT statement
You can place the subquery in a number of SQL clauses:
●​ WHERE clause
●​ HAVING clause
●​ FROM clause
●​ OPERATORS( IN.ANY,ALL,<,>,>=,<= etc..)

Types
1.​Sub queries that return several values
Sub queries can also return more than one value. Such results should be made use
along with the operators in and any.
2.​Multiple queries
Here more than one sub query is used. These multiple sub queries are combined by
means of ‘and’ & ‘or’ keywords.
3.​Correlated subquery
A subquery is evaluated once for the entire parent statement whereas a correlated
Subquery is evaluated once per row processed by the parent statement.
VIEW: In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement.
A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are
fields from one or more real tables in the database.
You can add SQL functions, WHERE, and JOIN statements to a view and present the data as
if the data were coming from one single table.
A view is a virtual table, which consists of a set of columns from one or more tables. It is
similar to a table but it does not store in the database. View is a query stored as an object.

Syntax:​ CREATE VIEW <view_name> AS SELECT <set of

fields> FROM relation_name WHERE (Condition)
Example:
SQL> CREATE VIEW employee AS SELECT empno,ename,job FROM EMP
WHERE job = ‘clerk’;
SQL>​ View created.

Example:

CREATE VIEW [Current Product List]

AS SELECT ProductID, ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE Discontinued=No;

UPDATING A VIEW : A view can updated by using the following syntax :

Syntax : CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM
table_name
WHERE
condition

DROPPING A VIEW: A view can deleted with the DROP VIEW command.

Syntax: DROP VIEW <view_name> ;

LAB PRACTICE ASSIGNMENT:

Consider the following schema: ​

Sailors (sid, sname, rating, age) ​
Boats (bid, bname, color) ​
Reserves (sid, bid, day(date))
Write a subquery statement for the following queries.

1.​ Find all information of sailors who have reserved boat number 101.

SELECT *
FROM Sailors
WHERE sid IN (
SELECT sid
FROM Reserves
WHERE bid = 101
);

2.​ Find the name of the boat reserved by Bob.

SELECT bname
FROM Boats
WHERE bid IN (
​ SELECT bid
FROM Reserves
WHERE sid = (
SELECT sid
FROM Sailors
WHERE sname = 'Bob'
)
);

3.​ Find the names of sailors who have reserved a red boat, and list in the order of age.
SELECT sname
FROM Sailors
WHERE sid IN (
SELECT sid
FROM Reserves
WHERE bid IN (
SELECT bid
FROM Boats
WHERE color = 'red'
)
)
ORDER BY age;

4.​ Find the names of sailors who have reserved at least one boat.
SELECT sname
FROM Sailors
WHERE sid IN (
SELECT DISTINCT sid
FROM Reserves
);
5.​ Find the ids and names of sailors who have reserved two different boats on the
same day.

SELECT s1.sid, s1.sname

FROM Sailors s1

WHERE s1.sid IN (

SELECT r1.sid

FROM Reserves r1, Reserves r2

WHERE r1.sid = r2.sid

AND r1.day = r2.day

AND r1.bid <> r2.bid

);
Experiment No: 8

Title : • Study & Implementation of different types of constraints

Objective:
To practice and implement constraints

Theory:
CONSTRAINTS:
Constraints are used to specify rules for the data in a table. If there is any violation between
the constraint and the data action, the action is aborted by the constraint. It can be specified
when the table is created (using CREATE TABLE statement) or after the table is created
(using ALTER TABLE statement).

1.​ NOT NULL: When a column is defined as NOTNULL, then that column becomes a
mandatory column. It implies that a value must be entered into the column if the record is to
be accepted for storage in the table.

Syntax:
CREATE TABLE Table_Name (column_name data_type (size) NOT NULL, );
Example:
CREATE TABLE student (sno NUMBER(3)NOT NULL, name CHAR(10));

2.​ UNIQUE: The purpose of a unique key is to ensure that information in the column(s)
is unique i.e. a value entered in column(s) defined in the unique constraint must not be
repeated across the column(s). A table may have many unique keys.
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE Table_Name(column_name data_type(size) UNIQUE, ….);
Example:
CREATE TABLE student (sno NUMBER(3) UNIQUE, name CHAR(10));
3.​ CHECK: Specifies a condition that each row in the table must satisfy. To satisfy the
constraint, each row in the table must make the condition either TRUE or unknown (due to a
null).
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE Table_Name(column_name data_type(size) CHECK(logical
expression), ….);
Example:
CREATE​ TABLE​ student​ (sno​ NUMBER​ (3),​ name​
CHAR(10),class CHAR(5),CHECK(class IN(‘CSE’,’CAD’,’VLSI’));

4.​ PRIMARY KEY: A field which is used to identify a record uniquely. A column or
combination of columns can be created as primary key, which can be used as a reference from
other tables. A table contains primary key is known as Master Table.

✔​ It must uniquely identify each record in a table.

✔​ It must contain unique values.

✔​ It cannot be a null field.

✔​ It cannot be multi port field.

✔​ It should contain a minimum no. of fields necessary to be called unique.

Syntax:
CREATE TABLE Table_Name(column_name data_type(size) PRIMARY KEY,
….);
Example:
CREATE​ TABLE​ faculty​ (fcode​ NUMBER(3)​ PRIMARY​ KEY,​ fname
CHAR(10));

5.​ FOREIGN KEY: It is a table level constraint. We cannot add this at column level. To
reference any primary key column from other table this constraint can be used. The table in
which the foreign key is defined is called a detail table. The table that defines the primary
key and is referenced by the foreign key is called the master table.
Syntax: CREATE TABLE Table_Name(column_name data_type(size)
FOREIGN KEY(column_name) REFERENCES table_name);
Example:
CREATE TABLE subject (scode NUMBER (3) PRIMARY KEY, subname
CHAR(10),fcode NUMBER(3), FOREIGN KEY(fcode) REFERENCE faculty );

Defining integrity constraints in the alter table command:

Syntax:​ ALTER TABLE Table_Name ADD PRIMARY KEY (column_name);

Example:​ ALTER TABLE student ADD PRIMARY KEY
(sno); (Or)

Syntax:​ ALTER TABLE table_name ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name

PRIMARY KEY(colname)
Example:​ ALTER TABLE student ADD CONSTRAINT SN PRIMARY KEY(SNO)

Dropping integrity constraints in the alter table command:

Syntax:​ ALTER TABLE Table_Name DROP constraint_name;
Example:​ ALTER TABLE student DROP PRIMARY KEY;

(or)

Syntax:​ ALTER TABLE student DROP CONSTRAINT constraint_name;

Example:​ ALTER TABLE student DROP CONSTRAINT SN;

6.​ DEFAULT : The DEFAULT constraint is used to insert a default value into a
column. The default value will be added to all new records, if no other value is specified.
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE Table_Name(col_name1,col_name2,col_name3
DEFAULT ‘<value>’);
Example:
CREATE TABLE student (sno NUMBER(3) UNIQUE, name CHAR(10),address
VARCHAR(20) DEFAULT ‘Aurangabad’);
LAB PRACTICE ASSIGNMENT:

1.​ Create a table called EMP with the following structure. Name Type

EMPNO NUMBER (6)

ENAME VARCHAR2 (20)
JOB VARCHAR2 (10)
DEPTNO NUMBER (3)
SAL NUMBER (7,2)

●​ Allow NULL for all columns except ename and job.

●​ Add constraints to check, while entering the empno value (i.e) empno > 100.
●​ Define the field DEPTNO as unique.
●​ Create a primary key constraint for the table(EMPNO).

CREATE TABLE EMP (

EMPNO INTEGER CHECK (EMPNO > 100),
ENAME VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL,
JOB VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL,
DEPTNO INTEGER,
SAL NUMERIC(7,2),
PRIMARY KEY (EMPNO),
CONSTRAINT deptno_unique UNIQUE (DEPTNO)
);
2.​ Write queries to implement and practice constraints.

-- Valid Insert
INSERT INTO EMP (EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, DEPTNO, SAL)
VALUES (101, 'John Doe', 'Manager', 10, 50000.00);

-- Invalid Insert: ENAME is NULL

INSERT INTO EMP (EMPNO, JOB, DEPTNO, SAL)
VALUES (102, 'Analyst', 20, 45000.00);
-- Invalid Insert: EMPNO is less than or equal to 100
INSERT INTO EMP (EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, DEPTNO, SAL)
VALUES (99, 'Jane Smith', 'Clerk', 30, 40000.00);

-- Invalid Insert: Duplicate DEPTNO

INSERT INTO EMP (EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, DEPTNO, SAL)
VALUES (103, 'Alice Brown', 'Salesman', 10, 35000.00);

​
-- Invalid Insert: Duplicate EMPNO
INSERT INTO EMP (EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, DEPTNO, SAL)
VALUES (101, 'Bob White', 'Salesman', 40, 35000.00);
Experiment No: 9
Implementation of PL/SQL.
Write a code in PL/SQL to print a number using a for loop.
DO $$
DECLARE
i INTEGER;
BEGIN
FOR i IN 1..10 LOOP
RAISE NOTICE 'Number: %', i;
END LOOP;
END $$;

Output:
Experiment No: 10

Write a code in PL/SQL to print the sum of two numbers

DO $$

DECLARE

num1 INTEGER := 10; -- first number

num2 INTEGER := 20; -- second number

sum_result INTEGER;

BEGIN

sum_result := num1 + num2;

RAISE NOTICE 'The sum of % and % is %', num1, num2, sum_result;

END $$;

Output:
LAB PRACTICE ASSIGNMENT:

1.​ Create a user and implement the following commands on relation (Emp and Dept).​

CREATE ROLE new_user LOGIN PASSWORD 'securepassword';

2.​ Develop a query to grant all privileges of employees table into departments table.

GRANT ALL PRIVILEGES ON TABLE Emp TO new_user;

3.​ Develop a query to grant some privileges of employees table into departments table.

GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON TABLE Emp TO new_user;

4.​ Develop a query to revoke all privileges of employees table from departments table.

REVOKE ALL PRIVILEGES ON TABLE Emp FROM new_user;

5.​ Develop a query to revoke some privileges of employees table from departments table.

REVOKE SELECT ON TABLE Emp FROM new_user;