CHAPTER 2 SINGLE PHASE PULSE WIDTH MODULATED INVERTERS 2.1 Introduction The de-ae converter, also known as the inverter, converts de power to ac power at desired output voltage and frequency. The de power input to the inverter is obtained from an existing power supply network or from a rotating alternator through a rectifier or a battery, fuel ‘cell, photovoltaic array or magneto hydrodynamic generator. The filter capacitor across the input terminals of the inverter provides a constant de link voltage. The inverter therefore is an adjustable-frequency voltage source. The configuration of ac to de converter and de to ac inverter is called a de- link converter Inverters can be broadly classified into two types, voltage source and current source inverters. A voltage-fed inverter (VFI) or more generally a voltage-source inverter (VSI) is one in which the de source has small or negligible impedance. The voltage at the input terminals is constant. A current-source inverter (CSI) is fed with adjustable current from the de source of high impedance that is from a constant de source. ‘A voltage source inverter employing thyristors as switches, some type of forced ‘commutation is required, while the VSIs made up of using GTOs, power transistors, power MOSFETs or IGBTs, self commutation with base or gate drive signals for their controlled turn-on and turn-off. © scanned with OKEN Scanneror current souree inverter ean be in the hall A standard single-phase volt bridge or full-bridge configuration. The single-phase units can be joined 10 have .. Some industrial applications of inverters are for three-phase or multiphase topologies induction heating, standby aircraft power supplies, UPS adjustable-speed ac drives, (uninterruptible power supplies) for computers, HVDC transmission lines, ete. In this chapter single-phase inverters and their operating principles are analyzed in detail. The concept of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) for inverters is described with analyses extended (o different kinds of PWM strategies. Finally the simulation results for a single-phase inverter using the PWM strategies described are presented. 2.2 Voltage Control in Single - Phase Inverters ‘The schematic of inverter system is as shown in Figure 2.1, in which the cr provides the de supply to the inverter. The inverter is used to bantery or ree control the fundamental voltage magnitude and the frequency of the ac output voltage. AC loads may require constant or adjustable voltage at their input terminals, when such loads are fed by inverters, it is essential that the output voltage of the inverters is so controlled as to fulfill the requirement of the loads. For example if the inverter supplies power to a magnetic circuit, such as a induction motor, the voltage to frequency ratio at the inverter output terminals must be Kept constant. This avoids the deviee fed by the inverter: saturation in the magnetic circuit of © scanned with OKEN ScannerBattery ae Voltage or Inverter Rectifier Figure 2.1; Schematic for Inverter System ‘The various methods for the contro! of output voltage of inverters can be classified as (a) External control of ae output vollage (b) External control of de input voltage (c) Internal control of the inverter. two methods require the use of peripheral components whereas the third The f ‘method requires no external components. Mostly the internal control of the inverters is dealt, and so the third method of control is discussed in great detail in the following section. 2.2.1 Pulse Width Modulation Control The fundamental magnitude of the output voltage from an inverter can be controlled to be constant by exercising control within the inverter itself that is no external control circuitry is required. The most efficient method of doing this is by scheme the Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) control used within the inverter. In this inverter is fed by a fixed input voltage and a controlled ac voltage is obtained by © scanned with OKEN ScannerPWM control scheme are [10]: a) The output voltage control can be obtained without addition of any external components. b) PWM minimizes the lower order harmonics, while the higher order harmonies can be eliminated using a filter. The disadvantage possessed by this scheme is that the switching devices used in the inverter are expensive as they must possess low tum on and tum off times, nevertheless PWM operated are very popular in all industrial equipments. PWM techniques are characterized by constant amplitude pulses with different duty cycles for each period. The width of these pulses are modulated to obtain inverter output voltage control and to reduce its harmonic content. There are different PWM techniques which essentially differ in the harmonic content of their respective output voltages, thus the choice of a particular PWM technique depends on the permissible harmonic content in the inverter output voltage. 2.2.2 Sinusoidal-Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM) The sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) method also known as the triangulation, sub harmonic, or suboscillation method, is very popular in industrial applications and is, extensively reviewed in the literature [1-2]. The SPWM is explained with reference to Figure 2.2, which is the half-bridge circuit topology for a single-phase inverter. © scanned with OKEN Scannerwis a CI Yo Va 2 Schematic diagram for Half-Bridge PWM inverter Figure 2, For realizing SPWM, a high-frequency triangular carrier wave vy. is compared with a sinusoidal reference v, of the desired frequency. The intersection of vy, and v, waves determines the switching instants and commutation of the modulated pulse. The PWM scheme is illustrated in Figure 2.3 a, in which y, is the peak value of triangular carrier wave and y, that of the reference, or modulating signal. The figure shows the triangle and modulation signal with some arbitrary frequency and magnitude. In the inverter of Figure 2.2 the switches 5,, and S,, are controlled based on the comparison of control signal and the triangular wave which are mixed in a comparator. When sinusoidal wave has magnitude higher than the triangular wave the comparator output is high, otherwise it is low. ¥,.> Vy §, ison, Vy = (2.1) and (2.2) ¥ 1,=—- and S29 is on => V,, = Vd V. Vy un) hence V,(0=- V0) (2.12) 25 © scanned with OKEN Scannerpov Rectifiers aaa 5.11 PWM RECTIFIERS In Chapter 3, we discussed diode and phase-controlled rectifiers. These converter circuits are simple, but the disadvantages are large distortion in line current and poor displacement power Factor (DPF) (in the latter case), which make the power Factor poor. To combat these prob- lems, various power factor correction (PEC) techniques based on active wave shaping of the line current have been proposed. In this section, only a few important methods will be discussed. 5.11.1 Diode Rectifier with Boost Chopper S.HL.L1 Single-Phase This type of converter consists of a diode rectifier cascaded with a PWM boost chopper, shown in Figure 5.57 fora single-phase supply. The boost chopper has essentially two functions: (1) it controls the line current to be sinusoidal at unity power factor, and (2) it regulates the capacitor voltage Vg, which should always be higher than the peak line voltage. Note that the converter system permits power flow to the load, but reverse power flow, that is, regeneration is, not possible. The circuit operation is simple, Assume, for example, the operation in the positive hallf- cycle of supply voltage v,, and consider a small time segment when v, can be represented by a de ae machine Pn bovet chopper ve Figure 6.56 Single-phase diode recttier with boost chopper for line current wave shaping © scanned with OKEN ScannerChapter § + Voltage-Fed Converters 258 voltage. When the IGB'T Q is tured on, the current will low in diodes 1, and Ds through the boost inductor L. The current increment +4 i, is given as +i 691 change in inductor current during the on interval ,,) of @. When Q is turned off. where +4 itor through the diode D and decrease, The expression for the current iz, will charge the caps decrement is 5.92) id Ai, L fof off time of the chopper. The slope of the current jj, will vary depending on the volt- where fyy= |4iz). the switching frequency of the age impressed across the inductance L, Since |+4i, chopper is given as 1 (Ya="s) (593) fon tag LEM fo = ak ripple current. The equation indicates that for the same ripple current ss inductance, but the switching loss will be hig! are to be considered against the advantages for any where Ai, = peak-to-pea higher switching frequency will require le: The additional cost and loss of efficiency rh application. ‘The control principle of the circuit is simple, and is included in Figure 5.57, The desired capacitor voltage ¥,' is compared with the actual voltage Vj and the error through @ propor- tional integral (P-D controller is multiplied by the absolute supply voltage wave [| 10 generate the boost chopper input current command i, » The line is assumed as an ideal voltage source The command i,* is compared with the actual current jj, within a hysteresis band (hysteresis- und PWM) to generate the chopper gate drive signal. The actual line current follows the sane profile, but it is an ac wave. Commercial IC (integrated ireuit) chips are available for such control “There are a few additional advantages of the circuit beyond what were mentioned above. ctor of line current is very poor because Ina traditional diode-rectifier capacitor filter, the form fa y ofits pulsating nature. Therefore, the voll-amp requirement of the 60 Hz source should be high compared with that of the sinusoidal fine current, This means that a UPS system or houschold power outlet can be more effectively utilized with this circuit. The utility system has the usual boost chopper, the de link voltage can ~brownout,” or voltage sag, problem, With the help o be maintained constant, thus adding reliability to the system. The PWM harmonic characteristics nk ripple is less. Besides, constant and regulated V,. of the inverter will improve because the de irrespective of line voltage fluctuation, improves the drive performance by extending its constant torque region. Although the circuit is seldom used in motor drives, it is expected that as the cost © scanned with OKEN ScannerE } / i i P eco’: pat 237 poner eletonics decreases and utility harmon standards ane stetly enforced. its applica gon will inorease S.U12 Three-Phase phase units, as described above, can be used lowever, the scheme shown in ance. Fora three-phase power supply, three single- and their outputs can be paralleled across the output capacitor. H ‘much simpler and more economical [16). Note that the boost chopper induct nsferred to the fine side and is distributed equally in the phases. &s frequency, but with variable duty cycle to GBT @ is wrned on, a symmetrical of Figure 5.58, in this case, has been rat shown, The chopper operates at constant switchit fabricate the phase current wave is as shown, When the I short creuit occurs at the rectifier inpt, the phase cortents build UP linearly, independently ach other, and the magnitude is proportional ro the respective phase voltage amplitude, This means thatthe positive phase voltages cause positive currenis through the upper diodes. which ‘rrents through the lower diodes that are caused by the negate phase volt- flow to the output capacitor until they fall (0 rrent pulses at high PWM frequency and the «ofthe peak values canbe filtered with a small LC filter (0 ideally obtain a sinu power factor, The line-side leakage inductance (not shown) and The duty cycle of the chopper can be modulated to control led in the outer loop as scussed before. Note ly pulsating current wav relum as negative cl ages. When the IGBT turns off, the phase currents ero linearly as shown. The discontinuous phase cu sinusoidal loc soidal average current with unity capacitor C constitute the LC filter the sine current, and the voltage V can be control that each diode carries high peak current, and a high EMI problem. fe may create serious Pw inverter egos ‘fe 3 7% chine Pen eat oop jave shaping ure 5.57 Three-phase diode rectifier with boost chopper for line current ws © scanned with OKEN Scanner> Fe 8 5.11.2 PWM Converter as 5112.1 iu vay mentioned before that a PWM inverter (either single phan visa PWM rectifier: in other words. the power on the 3 ported Therefore. a similar unit 45,59 shows a PWM converter system using @ single-phase H-! swell as on the load side be operated as an invert Note that from the view ripple. which can be red The PWM rectifier basically \with bipolar voltage (ae idal line current, as shown. The ¥ »PV,). The control prin is shown in the lower pi Chapter § » Voltage-Fed Converters e-Side Rectifier ingle-Phase or three-phase) can be side ean be converted to de asa PWM rectifier, Figure 1 on the Fine side as also je to Function idge converte! as arrectifier, but it can astant dc link voltage ¥y contain a 120 Hz t can be connected to the line sic Normally. the line-side converter functions rolled to maintain co” cr In either case. itis con age will point of a 60 Hz power balance, the dc link volt luced by karge capacitor size operates: as a boost chopper (often called (de) at the output, maintaining sinuso- nan the peak supply voltage (V4> at unity power factor a boost rectifier) ) atthe input, but unipolar voltage cltage V, should be higher t jal line current ciple of a PWM ectifier fr sinusoid Vv, is compared with Figure 5,59, The command de link volta art of pwn inverter Figure 5. - igure 5.58 Double-sided PWM converter system using single-phase H-bridge converters © scanned with OKEN Scanneranes ae error signal through a P-L controller is multiplied with the fine voltage wave rent i, can De c sand current. A phitsor is bas and the the Hine current command i," The rectitier line cur PWM method so that the actual current tracks the COmE ne side is given for unity power factor operation. The CEMF voltage ‘ave fabricated from the de link voltage Wy (imma FO inverter PWM). magnitude and phase of the fundamental and /, 0 be co-phasal, as shown the phasor diagram. With higher can be decreased 80 generative aa tual Ya controlled by the enerle and ay “i PWM voltage ance L hes to smoath the Hine curren, The aan be controlled by the retifier. For Vs pe CEME Vas 1 be larger and ain pase to satisfy the catching Frequet the value of and the corresponding reactive drop fe ene Ve phasor approaches the Ys phasor, For anity power factor OPE in re ame. he, phasor reverses: which Cause The reversal of the ZX), phasor so that the S angle ‘unity fine power factor operation is vigeussed here. the power factor can 380 na and his willbe discussed Inter Fort three-phase system. The H-bridge laced «will remain the idge converters, and the operation principle’ jie induct component OF Ye reverses. Althoug te leading oF koe n be replaced by half-br units €@ same, 31 ‘The principle of a single-phas be extended to a three-phase system application using three ‘a single-phase system (Fi Most of the discussions for phase system. The drive configuration extremely import ye summarized as Follows ‘Three-Phase e, double-sided converter system. 28 discussed above. call Figure 5.60 shows a doubles Jhase, two-level converters. ‘igure 5.59) are a tant for industrial app ded PWM converter system Iso valid for a three tications. The fora motor drive essential features can b « Four-Quadrant Operation ~ In normal motoring mode of the drive, power flows to the motor. and the line-side converter operales 28 3 rectifier, whereas! regenerative braking mode, theit roles are reversed. that is. the ‘rectifier, whereas the Hine-side converter operates 2S an the machine will be determined by the phase ihe Joad-side converter an inverter. In operates i Joad-side converter operates a inverter. The direction of rotation of Figure 5.59 Double-side ster system using three-phase, two-level converters .d PWM converter system usin 9 pt Jevel converter © scanned with OKEN Scannerage-Fed Converters ence of the load-side converter. The system can continuously regenerate Power if the sequ spachine is @ generator, such as ina wind generation system ‘onverter operates in boost recti- of line voltage, the con- stem improves reliability ofthe drive by line voltage Sts compensation. «Line Voltage Sag Compensation ~ Since the line-side c fier mode fo maintain the de link voltage Vy constant irrespective verter 8 « Programmable Line Power Factor ~ In addition 0 unity line power f discussed for Figure 5.59, the power factor can be made programmable leading or lagging. ‘This requires further explanation, Figure 5.61 shows the line-side phasor diagram at lead- condition, From the figure. the active and reactive power expressions 00 {actor operation, as ing power factor the line side can be given, respectively. #s P= Wil, c0sd oe Q=3V,1,sing (5.95) phasors. and = leading power factor angle #8 indicated in Fig- where V, and fare the line-side sions ure 5.61. From the phasor diagram, we can write the expres 9 rn (5.96) spsn{ Jo ants cy) (598) | -| B=V,cosd -V, Figure 5.60. Line-side phasor diagram at leading power factor © scanned with OKEN Scanner261 yee BIHEAC Acro Patel a vee 'M converter system using three-phase three-level converters (24-switch) Figure 5.61 Double-sided Pwi = line frequency, V; = CEMF phasor. and 5 = angle (5.94) and (5.95) yields nx smoothing inductor © where L= ine curte reneen Vand V, phasors. Subsiuting Equations (5 96)-(5.98) in po Mesind (5.99) ol (5.100) (V, cox -Y,) «the inverter CEMF ¥, and the Bangle ci be vimain @ as constant ut vary the wetive Powe! 1. This is indicated by the dotted phasor VAR jis higher than that of the Tine n for the lagging power Equations (5.99) and (5.100) indicate that controlled to control P and QI itis desired 10 m8 id V, cos 5 should remain const that the rectifier input leading lagging VAR. The phasor diag P, phasors J, sin gan an soram in Figure 5.61. Note side because the inductor L absorbs factor condition can be drawn easily. The discussion indicates thi abo be operated for satieVAR compensation, which wil be discussed later age Vj should be adequately high for sinusoidal P the line-side converter can Note that the de link volta WM synthe- sis of a CEMF wave. This means G.101) RV, £ 0.5¥y which means 1.63V, Vy (5.102) | where the line voltage Vj, = VV, i age V;,= 03V,. For any saturation of PWM, the line curre! e hea distorted with lower order harmonics. a -power drives, three-level converters can substitute for the two-level For high-voltage, 5.62 3 ae re §.62 shows such a converter system using GTOs. As the GTO converters in Figure 5.60, Fi power level is increasing, n ng, multi-megawatt, three-level converter systems are being developed 10 © scanned with OKEN Scanneree Chapter § + Vollge-Fed Conveners rie prseconrale eycloconverters for applications such as roling mil eee sided PWM converter systems have also been considered for utlily ystems asyneBron0us inter tie between 60 Hz and 50 Hz systems. 5.12 STATIC VAR COMPENSATORS AND ACTIVE HARMONIC FILTERS indicates that a PWM rectifier can ‘The analysis with the phasor diagram in Figure 5.6) i setive power P=0, then from a ata programmable leading of lagging power factor. Ifthe quations (5,99) and (5.100), the reactive power expression i g1VeR 8S WV, (5.103) Moy. -y ot! o¥) Q=3YJ) leading and lagging VAR conditions This Figure 5,63 shows the phasor diagrams for I red, the means that in Figure $60, i the inverter is disconnected ‘and the rectifier loss is igno PWM rectifier with de link capacitor voltage can act a8 2 Stale VAR compensator (SVC). The circuit is shown in Figure 5.64 with a thyristor phase-controlled rectifier (nonlineat Joad). ‘Asa leading VAR compensator, the circuit acts like a three-phase variable capacitor load, whereas as a lagging VAR compensator, it acts like & three-phase variable inductor loud: is well-known that ideally at no-load operation of a synchronous ‘machine, the excitation current can be controlled to operate it as a leading oF lagens VAR compensator. The PWM rectifier is @ static version of a synchronous machine VAR compensator In this mode, large current will cir= culate in the PWM rectifier circuit, but the capacitor ‘current will remain Zero (except harmon- ics), that is, voltage Vy will remain constant ‘This is because in a three-phase balanced and sinusoidal system, instantaneous power is Zero with reactive load. A finite power loss in the con- verter will be supplied by the Line, making its power factor non-zero. In Figure 5.64, the Ieading VAR compensator compensates the lagging current Ig taken by the phase-controlled converter so that the line displacement factor is unity. Figure 5.65 shows a simplified control block diagram of an SVC for induction motor reac- tive current compensation. The control is somewhat complex and will be explained in detail in Chapter 8. Basically, the capacitor voltage V, is controlled in the outer loop by feedback control orthe compensator loss component of current Alp The motor reactive current Igy" is measured. —— i Figure 5.62 Phasor diagrams (a) Leading VAR, (b) Lagging VAR © scanned with OKEN Scanner