CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS

Objectives

• To understand the defination of signals.

• To identify the classification of signals.

1.0 Introduction

A signal can be considered to be a function of time that represents a physical variable, carries
information and associated with a system.

Figure 1.0(a): A voltage signal

For example, oscilloscope is an instrument used to screening signals.

Figure 1.0(b): Oscilloscope

The signals can be displayed in different forms as:
A(t) A(t) A(t)

10 10 10

t t t
0 1 2 0 1 2 3 0 1 2

(i) (ii) (iii)

Figure 1.0(c): Examples of different forms of signals

The signals displayed in oscilloscope are generated by function generator or frequency

generator. These signals can be in terms of voltage, current or frequency.

1.1 Classifications of Signals

Generally, signals can be classified according to their own characteristics. There are 6 types of
signals that are commonly generated such as:
• Deterministic
• Random
• Continuous Time (Analog)
• Discrete Time
• Periodic
• Aperiodic (Non Periodic)

1.1.1 Deterministic versus Random

A Deterministic Signal is a signal that can be represented by known mathematical

equations and its future values can be predicted. As an example are the following signals
with its mathematical equation:
Figure 1.1.1(a): Deterministic Signals

A Random Signal is a signal that cannot be represented by mathematical equations and its
future values cannot be predicted. As an example is the following signal that has no
mathematical equation:

Figure 1.1.1(b): Random Signal

Notice that Deterministic Signal and Random Signal is exactly opposite of each other.

1.1.2 Continuous Time versus Discrete Time

A Continuous Time Signal or also called as analog signal is a signal that defined for all instant
of time. The following example is a signal that is continuously propagated with time, t:
π π

Figure 1.1.2(a): Continuous Time Signal

A Discrete Time Signal is a signal that defined at specific instant of time only. The following
example is a signal that is specifically propagated at time, t:

π π
Figure 1.1.2(b): Discrete Time Signal

The above signal is called frequency spectrum and this is how cellular phone signal is being
transmitted. Notice that Continuous Time Signal and Discrete Time Signal is exactly
opposite of each other.

1.1.3 Periodic versus Aperiodic (Non Periodic)

A Periodic Signal is a signal that repeats itself within a specific time. Any continuous time
signal x (t ) that satisfies the condition:

x (t ) = x( t + nT )
where n = 1,2,3,.....
t = time which can be any number
T = constant known as the fundamental period or period in one cycle signal
f(t)

…… ……

t
-2 π 0 2π 4π
T0

Figure 1.1.3(a): Periodic Signal with fundamental period T0

An Aperiodic (Non Periodic) Signal does not repeat itself and therefore does not have a
period of time.

π π π

Figure 1.1.3(b): Aperiodic Signal with non fundamental period T0

The sum of two periodic signals is periodic only if the ratio of their respective periods can be
expressed as a rational number. A real-valued sinusoidal signal can be expressed
mathematically by a time varying function of the form:

x (t ) = A sin( ω0 t + θ )
where A = amplitude
ω 0 = radian frequency in rad/sec

t = time which can be any number

θ = phase angle in rad
2π
The sinusoidal signal is periodic with fundamental period, T = for all values of ω0 (note
ω0

2π
that ω0 = ).
T

Notice that Periodic Signal and Aperiodic Signal is exactly opposite of each other.

Example 1

Determine whether the following signals are periodic or aperiodic. Justify your answers.
a) x1 (t ) = cos 5πt

b) x 2 (t ) = sin 13 t

c) x 3 (t ) = sin 4πt

d) x 4 (t ) = x1 (t ) + 3 x 2 (t )

e) x 5 (t ) = x1 (t ) − 2 x 3 (t )

f) x 6 (t ) = x1 (t ) − 2 x 3 (t ) + 5 x 3 (t )

Solutions
2π 2
a) Since ω0 = 5π = , x1 (t ) is periodic with T1 = .
T 5

2π 2π
b) Since ω0 = 13 = , x 2 (t ) is periodic with T2 = .
T 13

2π 1
c) Since ω0 = 4π = , x 3 (t ) is periodic with T3 = .
T 2

d) Check whether the ratio of the respective periods can be expressed as rational number.
2
T1 5 is not a rational number, therefore, x (t ) is an aperiodic signal.
= 4
T2 2π
13
e) Check whether the ratio of the respective periods can be expressed as rational number.
2
T1 4
= 5 = is a rational number, therefore, x 5 (t ) is a periodic signal with new
T3 1 5
2
fundamental period and new frequency, T5 = 5T1 = 4T3 = 2 sec and f = 0.5 Hz.

f) Check whether the ratio of the respective periods can be expressed as rational number.
2
T1 4
= 5 = is a rational number, therefore, x13 (t ) is a periodic signal with new
T3 1 5
2
fundamental period and new frequency, T13 = 5T1 = 4T3 = 2 sec and f = 0.5 Hz.
T13 2
Next, check for = = 4 sec is a rational number, therefore, x 6 (t ) is a periodic
T3 1
2
signal with new fundamental period and new frequency, T6 = T13 = 4T3 = 2 sec and

f = 0.5 Hz.

Note: You must determine the fundamental period of a signal to justify that the signal is
ω0 1
periodic. You can use formula f = = to find the frequency, f .
2π T

Exercise 1

1. Define and give an example of the following terms:

i) Signal
ii) Continuous Time Signal
iii) Discrete Time Signal
iv) Aperiodic Signal
v) Periodic Signal
vi) Continuous Time Signal
vii) Random Signal
2. Given the following signals
i) m (t ) = 2 cos 5 t − 5 sin 7πt .

ii) f (t ) = 5 cos 3 t − 9 sin 9 t .

( ) ⎛ π⎞
iii) x (t ) = 10 sin 9t + 3 cos⎜ 4πt + ⎟
2⎠
⎝
Determine whether each of the signals is periodic or aperiodic signal. If the signal is
periodic, find the fundamental period and frequency of the signal. Justify your answer.

1.2 Singularity Functions

Singularity functions are discontinuous functions. A singularity is a point at which a function

does not possess a derivative. In other words, a singularity function is discontinuous at its
singular points and can be described by polynomial in time, t . The commonly used singularity
functions are:
• Unit Step Function
• Unit Ramp Function
• Unit Impulse Function
•
These functions are used to represent more complicated signals.

1.2.1 Unit Step Function

The unit step function can be expressed by

the following piecewise continuous function:

⎧0 , t < 0
u (t ) = ⎨
⎩1 , t ≥ 0

Figure 1.2.1: Unit Step

1.2.2 Unit Ramp Function

The unit ramp function can be expressed by

the following piecewise continuous function:

⎧0 , t <0
r (t ) = ⎨
⎩t , t ≥0

Figure 1.2.2: Unit Ramp

1.2.3 Unit Impulse Function

δ The unit impulse function can be expressed by

the following piecewise continuous function:

⎧1 , t =0
δ (t ) = ⎨
⎩0 , otherwise

Figure 1.2.3: Unit Impulse

1.3 Properties of Impulse Function

a) δ (0 ) → ∞

b) δ (t ) = 0 ; t ≠0
∞
c) ∫ δ (t ) dt = 1
−∞

∞
d) ∫ x (t ) δ (t ) dt = x (0 ) where x (t ) is continuous at t = 0
−∞

∞
e) ∫ x (t ) δ (t − t ) dt = x (t )
−∞
0 0 shifting property
t2 ⎧ x (t ) t1 < t 0 < t 2
f) ∫ x (t ) δ (t − t 0 ) dt = ⎨ 0
t1
⎩ 0 otherwise

g) x (t ) δ (t − t 0 ) = x (t 0 ) δ (t − t 0 )

1
h) δ (at ) = δ (t )
a

1 ⎛ b⎞
i) δ (at + b ) = δ⎜t + ⎟
a ⎝ a⎠

j) δ (− t ) = δ (t ) impulse is an even function

Example 2

Evaluate the following integrals:

∞
a) ∫ e −10 t δ (t − 6 ) dt
−∞

8
b) ∫ cos πt δ (t + 8 ) dt
0

4
c) ∫ t 2 δ (t − 4 ) dt
−3

∞
d) ∫ e −0.5 t sin t δ (t + 9 ) dt
0

e − (t ) δ (2 t − 3 ) dt
1
∫
2
+1
e)
−5

Solutions

∞
a) ∫ e −10 t δ (t − 6 ) dt
−∞

x (t ) = e −10 t and t 0 = 6 (in the range)

∞
∫ e −10 t δ (t − 6 ) dt = e −10 t0 = e −10 (6 ) = e −60
−∞
8
b) ∫ cos πt δ (t + 8 ) dt
0

x (t ) = cos πt and t 0 = −8 (out of range)

8
∫ cos πt δ (t + 8 ) dt = 0 (out of range)
0

4
c) ∫ t 2 δ (t − 4 ) dt
−3

x (t ) = t 2 and t 0 = 4 (in the range)

4
∫ t 2 δ (t − 4 ) dt = t 0 = (4 ) = 16
2 2
−3

∞
d) ∫ e −0.5 t sin t δ (t + 9 ) dt
0

x (t ) = e −0.5 t sin t and t 0 = −9 (out of range)

∞
∫ e −0.5 t sin t δ (t + 9 ) dt = 0 (out of range)
0

e − (t ) δ (2 t − 3 ) dt
1
∫
2
+1
e)
−5

δ (2 t − 3 ) =
1 ⎛
δ⎜t +
(− 3 ) ⎞ = 1 δ ⎛ t − 3 ⎞
⎟ ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 ⎝ 2⎠

e − (t ) δ (2 t − 3 ) dt = 1 e − (t ) 1 δ ⎛⎜ t − 3 ⎞⎟ = 1 1 e − (t ) δ ⎛⎜ t − 3 ⎞⎟
1
∫ ∫ ∫−5
2 2 2
+1 +1 +1
−5 −5 2 ⎝ 2⎠ 2 ⎝ 2⎠

1 − (t 2 +1 ) 3
x (t ) = e and t 0 = (out of range)
2 2

e − (t ) δ (2 t − 3 ) dt = 0 (out of range)
1
∫
2
+1
−5
Exercise 2

Evaluate the following integrals using impulse function properties:

∞
i) ∫ cos t .δ (t )dt .
−∞

2
ii) ∫ sin 2πt .δ( t − 1 )dt .
−5

1.4 Properties of Signals

There are 4 signals properties that are commonly in used such as:
• Magnitude Scaling
• Time Scaling
• Time Reflecting
• Time Shifting

1.4.1 Magnitude Scaling

This property multiplies a signal with any arbitrary real constant and the results are as the
following figures:

a) Unit Step → the amplitude changes

Figure 1.4.1(a): Unit steps after magnitude scaling

b) Unit Ramp → the slope changes

2
r(t)
3
2

Slope = 2 3

t
0 3

Figure 1.4.1(b): Unit ramps after magnitude scaling

c) Unit Impulse → the area changes

−4δ
3δ

Figure 1.4.1(c): Unit impulses after magnitude scaling

Exercise 3

Sketch the following signals:

a) 2 u( t ) d) − r ( t ) g) − δ ( t )
b) − 1.5 u( t ) e) − 2 r ( t ) h) − 8 δ ( t )
c) 2 r ( t ) f) 3δ( t )
1.4.2 Time Scaling

This property expands or compresses a signal with respect to x-axis (horizontal axis).

Example 3
Given a signal x( t ) as shown in Figure 1.4.2(a). Sketch the following signals:

a) x( 0.5 t )
b) x( 2 t )
c) x( −0.5 t )
d) x( −2 t )

Figure 1.4.2(a): Signal x( t )

Solutions

a) From the original signal x( t ) ,

At coordinate (0,0): Therefore, signal x( 0.5 t ) :
0 .5 t = 0 x(0.5t)
∴t = 0
a

At coordinate (b,0):
0 .5 t = b
∴ t = 2b
t
0 2b

b) From the original signal x( t ) ,

At coordinate (0,0): At coordinate (b,0):
2t = 0 2t = b
∴t = 0 b
∴t =
2
Therefore, signal x( 2 t ) :

c) From the original signal x( t ) ,

At coordinate (0,0): Therefore, signal
− 0 .5 t = 0 x( −0.5 t ) :
∴t = 0

At coordinate (b,0):
− 0 .5 t = b
∴ t = −2 b

d) From the original signal x( t ) ,

At coordinate (0,0): Therefore, signal x( −2 t ) :
− 2t = 0
∴t = 0

At coordinate (b,0):
− 2t = b
b
∴t = −
2
Exercise 4
Given a signal x( t ) as shown in Figure 1.4.2(b). Sketch the following signals:

a) x( 0.5 t )
b) x( 2 t )
c) x( −0.5 t )
d) x( −2 t )

Figure 1.4.2(b): Signal x( t )

1.4.3 Time Reflecting

This property gives the mirror image of the signal with respect to y-axis (vertical axis).

a) Unit Step

Figure 1.4.3(a): Unit step after time reflecting

b) Unit Ramp
Figure 1.4.3(b): Unit ramp after time reflecting
c) Unit Impulse
δ (-t)= δ (t)

(1)

Area under graph = 1

t
0

Figure 1.4.3(c): Unit impulse after time reflecting

1.4.4 T ime Shifting

This property shifts a signal with respect to x-axis either to the right (forward) or left (backward)
side.

Example 4

From the original signals of unit step, ramp and impulse, sketch the following signals:
a) u( t + 3 ) c) r ( t + 3 ) e) δ( t + 3 )
b) u( t − 3 ) d) r ( t − 3 ) f) δ( t − 3 )

Solutions

t +3 =0 → t = −3 (shifts to the left) t −3 =0 → t = 3 (shifts to the right)

Unit Step

a) u( t + 3 )
b) u( t − 3 )

Unit Ramp

c) r(t + 3 )

d) r(t − 3 )

Unit Impulse

e) δ ( t + 3 ) f) δ( t − 3 )

δ δ

Exercise 5

Sketch the following signals:

a) u( t + 4 ) c) r ( t + 1 ) f) δ( t + 7 )
b) u( t − 6 ) d) r ( t − 5 ) g) δ( t − 2 )

1.5 Combination of Properties of Signals

Pulses of signals can be generated by using a combination of properties of signals. There are
basically 2 methods that can be used to combine the properties of signals that are:
• Graphical Method
• Analytical Method

1.5.1 Graphical Method

Example 5

Consider the signal z( t ) shown as in Figure 1.5.1. Sketch the signal 3 z ( 5 − 0.5 t ) using
graphical method.
Figure 1.5.1: Signal z( t )

Solutions

Step 1: Sketch z ( −t ) time reflecting.

Step 2: Sketch z ( −0.5 t ) time scaling.

Step 3: Sketch z ( 5 − 0.5 t ) time shifting.

5 − 0 .5 t = 0 → t = 10 (shifts to the right or forward)

Step 4: Sketch the final result 3 z ( 5 − 0.5 t ) magnitude scaling.

1.5.2 Analytical Method

Example 6

Given a signal z( t ) shown as in Figure 1.5.2. Sketch the signal 3 z ( 5 − 0.5 t ) using analytical
method.
Figure 1.5.2: Signal z( t )

Solutions

Step 1: Represent z( t ) in terms of piecewise continuous function.

⎧ 1 ; − 3 < t < −2
⎪ t ; −2 < t <0
⎪⎪
z( t ) = ⎨ 2 ; 0<t <2
⎪− t + 4 ; 2<t <4
⎪
⎩⎪ 0 ; otherwise

Step 2: Substitute all t with 5 − 0.5 t .

⎧ 1 ; − 3 < 5 − 0 . 5 t < −2
⎪ 5 − 0 .5 t ; − 2 < 5 − 0 .5 t < 0
⎪⎪
z( 5 − 0.5 t ) = ⎨ 2 ; 0 < 5 − 0 .5 t < 2
⎪ − 1 + 1 .5 t ; 2 < 5 − 0 .5 t < 4
⎪
⎩⎪ 0 ; otherwise
Step 3: Multiply by magnitude 3 and rearrange.
⎧ 3 ; 14 < t < 16
⎪15 − 1.5 t ; 10 < t < 14
⎪⎪
3 z( 5 − 0.5 t ) = ⎨ 6 ; 6 < t < 10
⎪ − 3 + 1 .5 t ; 2 <t <6
⎪
⎩⎪ 0 ; otherwise

Step 4: Sketch the final result 3 z ( 5 − 0.5 t ) .

Exercise 6

a) Given a signal x( t ) , sketch 2 x( −0.5 t + 1 ) using both graphical and analytical methods.
b) The signal m (t ) is represented in terms of piecewise continuous functions as

⎧ t +2 ; −2 < t <0
⎪
m( t ) = ⎨− t + 2 ; 0 < t < 2
⎪ 0 ; elsewhere
⎩
i) Sketch m (t )

ii) Sketch the signal f (t ) = 2 m (0.5 t − 3 )

1.6 Representation of Signals

A deterministic signal can be represented (written in terms of mathematical equation/s) in terms

of
• Piecewise Continuous Function.
• Sum of Singularity Function.
• Sum of Unit Step Function only.

1.6.1 Piecewise Continuous Function

Example 7

Figure 1.6.1: Signal x (t )

Piecewise continuous function of signal x (t ) can be expressed as:

⎧− 1 ; − 4 < t < −3
⎪2 ; − 3 < t < −2
⎪⎪
x( t ) = ⎨ − t ; −2 < t <0
⎪1 ; 1<t <2
⎪
⎪⎩ 0 ; otherwise

1.6.2 Sum of Singularity Function

Example 8
1.

Figure 1.6.2(a): Signal m (t )

Sum of singularity function of signal m (t ) can be expressed as:

m (t ) = u (t + 2 ) − u (t + 1) − r (t + 1) + r (t ) + 2 u (t − 1) − u (t − 2 )

2.

Figure 1.6.2(b): Signal y (t )

Sum of singularity function of signal y (t ) can be expressed as:

y (t ) = r (t + 2 ) − r (t + 1) − u (t − 1) + 2 δ (t − 2 ) + r (t − 2 ) − r (t − 3 )

3.
Figure 1.6.2(c): Signal x (t )

Sum of singularity function of signal x (t ) can be expressed as:

x (t ) = −u (t + 3 ) + 3 u (t + 2 ) − 3 r ( t + 2 ) + 3 r (t − 1) + 2 u (t − 1) − u (t − 3 )

1.6.3 Sum of Unit Step Function

Sum of unit step function can be implemented from sum of singularity function expression. To
implement this expression, the following informations are needed:

r (t ) = t u (t )

r (t ± t 0 ) = (t ± t 0 ) u (t ± t 0 )

Example 9

1.
Figure 1.6.2(a): Signal m (t )

Sum of singularity function of signal m (t ) :

m (t ) = u (t + 2 ) − u (t + 1) − r (t + 1) + r (t ) + 2 u (t − 1) − u (t − 2 )

Sum of unit step function of signal m (t ) can be expressed as:

m (t ) = u (t + 2 ) − u (t + 1) − (t + 1)u (t + 1) + tu (t ) + 2 u (t − 1) − u (t − 2 )

2.

Figure 1.6.2(c): Signal x (t )

Sum of singularity function of signal x (t ) :

x (t ) = −u (t + 3 ) + 3 u (t + 2 ) − 3 r ( t + 2 ) + 3 r (t − 1) + 2 u (t − 1) − u (t − 3 )
Sum of unit step function of signal x (t ) can be expressed as:

x (t ) = −u (t + 3 ) + 3 u (t + 2 ) − 3( t + 2 )u( t + 2 ) + 3 (t − 1)u (t − 1) + 2 u (t − 1) − u (t − 3 )

Exercise 7

a) Represent the signal y ( t ) in terms of piecewise continuous function, sum of singularity

function and sum of unit step function only.

y(t)

t
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

-1

b) Represent the signal X ( t ) in terms of piecewise continuous function, sum of singularity

function and sum of unit step function only.
1.7 Differentiation of Signals

d
Differentiation of signal, x (t ) is a process of finding the slope of the signal for each time
dt
interval.

1.7.1 Derivative of Unit Step Function

du(t )
=δ
dt

Figure 1.7.1: Derivative of Unit Step Function is a Unit Impulse Function

1.7.2 Derivative of Unit Ramp Function

dr (t )
=
dt

Figure 1.7.2: Derivative of Unit Ramp Function is a Unit Step Function

1.7.3 Derivative of Unit Impulse Function

dδ(t )
=0
δ dt

Figure 1.7.3: Derivative of Unit Impulse Function will be no signal

Example 10

1. Sketch the derivation of signal z (t ) :

Figure 1.7.4(a): Signal z (t )

Solutions
dz (t )
dt
2. Sketch the derivation of signal m (t ) :

m(t)

0 t
-3 -2 -1 1 2

-1

-2

Figure 1.7.4(b): Signal m (t )

Solutions
dm (t )
dt
3. Sketch the derivation of signal y (t ) :

y (t )

t
-2 -1 0 1 2

-1

Figure 1.7.4(c): Signal y (t )

Solutions
dy (t )
dt
1.8 Integration of Signals

t
To integrate a signal, ∫ x (t ) dt
−∞
is to find the total area under the graph of the signal from minus

infinity to the desired time.

1.8.1 Integration of Unit Step Function

t

∫ u(t ) dt =
−∞

Figure 1.8.1: Integration of Unit Step Function is a Unit Ramp Function

1.8.2 Integration of Unit Ramp Function

t
t2
∫ r (t ) dt =
−∞
2

t2
2

Figure 1.8.2: Integration of Unit Ramp Function is a Parabolic Function

1.8.3 Integration of Unit Impulse Function
t
δ ∫ δ(t ) dt = u(t )
−∞

Figure 1.8.3: Integration of Unit Impulse Function is a Unit Step Function

Note:

∫
⎯⎯→ ∫
⎯⎯→ ∫
⎯⎯→
δ (t ) u (t ) r (t ) Parabolic Function
←⎯⎯
d ←⎯⎯
d ←⎯⎯
d
dt dt dt

Integration of unit ramp is a parabolic function. The parabolic pattern is depending on the
slope of unit ramp as below:

Unit Ramp Parabolic Function

Example 11

1. Sketch the integration of signal z (t ) :

Figure 1.8.4(a): Signal z (t )

Solution:

∫ z(t ) dt
−∞
2. Sketch the integration of signal y (t ) :

y (t )

t
-2 -1 0 1 2

-1

Figure 1.8.4 (b): Signal y (t )

Solutions
t

∫ y(t ) dt
−∞
Exercise 8

1. Sketch the derivation and integration of signal X (t ) :

2. Sketch the derivation and integration of signal z (t ) :

1.9 Energy and Power Signals

For an arbitrary signal, x (t ) which may be in general being complex, the total energy is defined
as:
T

∫ x (t )
2
E Δ lim T→∞ dt (Joules)
−T

The average power is defined as:

T
1
∫ x (t )
2
P Δ lim T →∞ dt (Watts)
2T −T

Based on the definition above, the following classes of signals are defined:
a) x (t ) is an energy signal if and only if 0 < E < ∞ so that P = 0 .

b) x (t ) is a power signal if and only if 0 < P < ∞ thus implying that E = ∞ .

c) Signals that unsatisfied any of the properties are therefore neither energy nor power
signals.

Example 12

1. Given a signal x (t ) determine whether the signal is energy, power or neither energy nor
power signal. Justify your answer.
Figure 1.9.1: Signal x( t )

Solutions

Express signal x( t ) in terms of piecewise continuous function:

⎧ t +1 ; − 2 < t < −1
⎪ 0
⎪ ; −1 < t < 1
⎪ t −2 ; 1<t <2
x( t ) = ⎨
⎪2 t − 4 ; 2<t <3
⎪ 2 ; 3<t <4
⎪
⎩ 0 ; otherwise

∞ 2

I= ∫ [x( t )] dt
−∞

−1 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2

= ∫ (t + 1) dt + ∫ (0 ) dt + ∫ (t − 2 ) dt + ∫ (2t − 4 ) dt + ∫ (2 ) dt
−2 −1 1 2 3

−1 2 3 4

∫ (t ) ∫ (t ) ∫ (4t ) ∫ (4 ) dt
2 2 2
= + 2 t + 1 dt + − 4 t + 4 dt + − 16 t + 16 dt +
−2 1 2 3

1 2 8 7 32
= − + + − + 12 − +4
3 3 3 3 3

1 1 4
= + + +4
3 3 3

=6

Energy = limT →∞ 6 Joules

1
Power = limT → ∞ (6 ) = limT → ∞ 1 (6 ) = 0 Watt
2T 2∞

Therefore, the signal x (t ) is an energy signal with E = 6 Joules.

2. Given a signal m (t ) determine whether the signal is energy, power or neither energy nor
power signal. Justify your answer.

Figure 1.9.2: Signal m (t )

Solutions
Express signal m (t ) in terms of piecewise continuous function:

⎧ 0 ; t < −2
⎪ t +1 ; −2 < t <0
⎪⎪
m( t ) = ⎨ 1 ; 0 < t <1
⎪− t + 1 ; 1<t <2
⎪
⎪⎩ − 1 ; t >2

∞ 2

I= ∫ [m( t )] dt
−∞

0 2 1 2 2 2 ∞ 2

= ∫ (t + 1) dt + ∫ (1) dt + ∫ (− t + 1) dt + ∫ (− 1) dt
−2 0 1 2

0 1 2 ∞

∫ (t ) ∫ (1) dt + ∫ (t ) ∫ (1) dt
2 2
= + 2 t + 1 dt + − 2 t + 1 dt +
−2 0 1 2

0 2
⎡t 3 ⎤ ⎡t 3 ⎤
= ⎢ + t 2 + t ⎥ + [t ] 10 + ⎢ − t 2 + t ⎥ + [t ] ∞

⎣3 ⎣3
2
⎦ −2 ⎦1

2 1
= +1 + + ∞
3 3
= ∞

Energy = limT →∞ ∞ Joules

1
Power = limT → ∞ (∞ ) = limT → ∞ 1 (∞ ) = 1 Watt
2T 2∞ 2

1
Therefore, the signal m (t ) is a power signal with P = Watts.
2

Exercise 9

1. Given a signal y (t ) determine whether the signal is energy, power or neither energy nor
power signal. Justify your answer.
y (t )

2. Given a signal z (t ) determine whether the signal is energy, power or neither energy nor
power signal. Justify your answer.
Summary

1. Generally there are 6 types of signals that are:

i) Deterministic
opposite of each other
ii) Random
iii) Continuous Time (Analog)
opposite of each other
iv) Discrete Time
v) Periodic
opposite of each other
vi) Aperiodic (Non Periodic)

2. Each type of the signal has its own characteristics that can be summarized as shown in
the following table:
Table 1: List of characteristics of signals
Signal Type Characteristics
Can be represented by known mathematical equations.
Deterministic
Future values can be predicted.
Cannot be represented by known mathematical equations.
Random
Future values cannot be predicted.
Continuous Time Defined for all instant of time.
Discrete Time Defined at specific of time only.
Repeats itself within a specific time.
Periodic
Has a period of time.
Does not repeat itself.
Aperiodic
Does not have a period of time.

3. Commonly, there are 3 types of singularity functions such as unit step, unit ramp and
unit impulse.

4. There are 4 signals properties that are commonly in used such as:
i) Magnitude Scaling – multiplies a signal with any arbitrary real constant.
ii) Time Scaling – expands or compresses a signal with respect to x-axis
(horizontal axis).
iii) Time Reflecting – mirrors a signal with respect to y-axis (vertical axis).
iv) Time Shifting - shifts a signal with respect to x-axis (left or right).
5. Combination of properties of signals can be generated by using 2 methods that are
graphical and analytical methods.

6. A deterministic signal can be represented (written in terms of mathematical equation/s)

in terms of:
i) Piecewise Continuous Function.
ii) Sum of Singularity Function.
iii) Sum of Unit Step Function only.

7. The derivative and integration of signal can be described as follows:

∫ →
⎯⎯ ∫ →
⎯⎯ ∫ →
⎯⎯
δ (t ) u (t ) r (t ) Parabolic Function
←⎯
d ⎯ ←⎯
d ⎯ ←⎯
d ⎯
dt dt dt

∫ x (t )
2
8. Energy signal: E Δ lim T→∞ dt (Joules)
−T

T
1
∫ x (t )
2
9. Power signal: P Δ lim T →∞ dt (Watts)
2T −T

References

1. B.P. Lathi, Linear Systems and Signals, Second Edition, Oxford University Press, 2006.
2. Monson H. Hayes, Digital Signal Processing, Schaum’s Outline Series, McGRAW-HILL,
1999.

3. An Introduction to Signals. Available: http://www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/mastascu/

elessonshtml/Signal/Signal1.htm. Last assessed June 2010.

4. Signal Classifications and Properties. Available: http://cnx.org/content/m10057/latest/.

Last assessed June 2010.

5. Singularity Functions. Available: http://www.netlecturer.com/NTOnLine/T13_SIGNALS/

p02SingFns.htm. Last assessed June 2010.