A LEVEL

14 Temperature
Thermal equilibrium
What is temperature?
» Temperature tells us the direction in which there will be a net energy flow
between objects in thermal contact.
» Thermal energy will tend to flow from an object at high temperature to an object
at a lower temperature.
» If there is no net energy flow between two objects in thermal contact, then
those two objects are at the same temperature. They are said to be in thermal
equilibrium.
» Figure 14.1(a) shows that if object A is at a higher temperature than object B,
and if object B is at a higher temperature than object C, then object A is at a
higher temperature than object C.
» Figure 14.1(b) shows that if object P is in thermal equilibrium with object Q, and
if object Q is in thermal equilibrium with object R, then object P is in thermal
equilibrium with object R.
(a) 1 If energy flows (b) 1 No net energy flow
from A to B from P to Q
A B P Q

3 then energy C 2 and energy 3 then no net R 2 and no net

will flow flows from energy will energy flow
from A to C B to C flow from P to R from Q to R
▲ Figure 14.1 The energy flow between different objects in thermal contact

NOW TEST YOURSELF

1 Consider three objects X, Y and Z in thermal C No net energy flow between X and Y, no net
contact. Which of the following is possible? energy flow from Y to Z, energy flows from Z
A Energy flows from X to Y, no net energy flow to X.
between Y and Z, energy flows from Z to X. D No net energy flow between X and Y, energy
B Energy flows from X to Y, no net energy flow flows from Y to Z, energy flows from Z to X.
between Y and Z, energy flows from X to Z.

Temperature scales
Measurement of temperature
To measure temperature, a physical property that varies with temperature is used.
Examples are:
» expansion of a liquid (including resultant change in density)
» expansion of a gas at constant pressure
» change of pressure of a gas at constant volume
» change in resistance of a metal or a semiconductor
» e.m.f. produced across the junctions of a thermocouple

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The thermodynamic, or kelvin, temperature scale
» Temperature scales require two fixed points that are easily repeatable.
» For example, the Celsius scale uses the melting point of pure water as the
lower fixed point (0°C) and the boiling point of pure water at standard
atmospheric pressure as the higher fixed point (100°C). When a thermometer
is calibrated, these two points are marked and then the scale is divided into
100 equal parts.
The thermodynamic temperature scale is different and is independent of the
physical properties of any particular substance. STUDY TIP
When the
» The zero on the thermodynamic temperature scale is known as absolute zero, thermodynamic
the temperature at which no more energy can be removed from any object. temperature scale was
All the energy that can be removed has been removed. At this temperature, all first introduced, the
substances have minimum internal energy. This does not mean that the object size of the unit in the
has zero energy. Only an ideal gas (see p. 133) will have zero energy; it will also thermodynamic scale
have zero pressure. was chosen to be the
same size as the degree
» Absolute zero is equivalent to −273.15°C.
in the old centigrade
» The unit in the thermodynamic scale is the kelvin, symbol K. scale, now redefined as
» The magnitude of the kelvin is set by fixing the numerical value of the the Celsius scale.
Boltzmann constant to a predetermined value – see p. 134.

Conversion between Celsius and kelvin scales

To convert between kelvin and Celsius we use:
T/K = θ/°C + 273.15
In practice, we often simplify the conversion by using T/K = θ/°C + 273.

WORKED EXAMPLE
Copy and complete Table 14.1, showing your working.
▼ Table 14.1

Temperature/K Temperature/°C
Boiling point of water 100
Boiling point of bromine 332.40
Boiling point of helium 4.37
Triple point of hydrogen −259.34
Boiling point of nitrogen 77.50

Answer
▼ Table 14.2

Temperature/K Temperature/°C STUDY TIP

Boiling point of water 100 + 273 = 373 100 The boiling point of
Boiling point of bromine 332.40 332.40 − 273.15 = +59.25 water is given only to the
nearest degree Celsius.
Boiling point of helium 4.37 4.37 − 273.15 = −268.78 Therefore, using 273 as
Triple point of hydrogen −259.34 + 273.15 = 13.81 −259.34 the difference between
Celsius and kelvin is
Boiling point of nitrogen 77.50 77.50 − 273.15 = −195.65 justified.

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14 Temperature

NOW TEST YOURSELF

2 A voltmeter connected to a thermocouple reads (You may assume that the thermo-e.m.f
0 V when both junctions are in ice at 0°C, and produced is directly proportional to the
4.8 mV when one junction is in ice and one is in temperature difference between the junctions.)
boiling water at 100°C.
What is the temperature when the reading on the
voltmeter is 2.8 mV. Give your answer in degrees
Celsius and in kelvin.

Specific heat capacity and specific latent heat

Specific heat capacity
When an object is heated, its temperature increases. The amount that it increases by
(Δθ) depends on:
» the energy supplied (ΔQ)
» the mass of the object (m)
» the material the object is made from
ΔQ
Δθ ∝
m
which can be written:
ΔQ = mcΔθ
where c is the constant of proportionality. Its value depends on the material which KEY TERMS
is being heated. This is known as the specific heat capacity of the material. The specific heat
Rearranging the equation gives: capacity of a material is
the energy required to
ΔQ raise the temperature
c= of unit mass of the
mΔθ
material by unit
The units of specific heat capacity are J kg−1 K−1, although J kg−1 °C−1 is often used. temperature.
The units are numerically equal.

WORKED EXAMPLE
An electric shower is designed to work from a Answer
230 V mains supply. It heats the water as it passes
through narrow tubes prior to the water passing power = VI = mcΔθ
through the shower head. Water enters the heater at
where m is the mass of water passing through the
12°C and when the flow rate is 0.12 kg s−1 it leaves at
heater per second
28°C. Calculate the current in the heater, assuming
that energy losses are negligible. 230I = 0.12 × 4200 × (28 − 12)
(specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg−1 °C−1)
I = 35 A

NOW TEST YOURSELF

3 A block of aluminium has a mass of 0.50 kg. 4 500 g of copper rivets are placed in a polystyrene
It is heated, with a 36 W heater, for 3 minutes cup and are heated using a 40 W heater.
and its temperature increases from 12°C to The initial temperature of the rivets is 12°C.
26°C. Calculate the specific heat capacity of After heating for 5 minutes, the temperature
aluminium. rises to 70°C. Calculate the specific heat
capacity of copper.

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Specific latent heat
» You will have observed that when a beaker of water boils it remains at a constant
temperature of 100°C, despite energy still being supplied. KEY TERMS
» The energy supplied does not change the temperature of the substance. The specific latent heat
» Instead, it is doing work in separating the molecules of water, changing it from of fusion is the energy
required to change
liquid to vapour.
unit mass of solid to
» This energy is called the latent heat of vaporisation. liquid without change in
» Similarly, when ice melts it remains at a constant temperature of 0°C and the temperature.
supplied energy changes the solid to liquid.
The specific latent
» This energy is called the latent heat of fusion.
heat of vaporisation
From the definitions: is the energy required
to change unit mass of
DQ
Lf = liquid to vapour without
Dm change in temperature.
where Lf is the specific latent heat of fusion, ΔQ is the energy input and Δm is the
mass of solid converted to liquid.
DQ
Lv =
Dm
where Lv is the specific latent heat of vaporisation, ΔQ is the energy input and Δm
is the mass of liquid converted to vapour.
The units of both specific latent heat of fusion and of vaporisation are J kg−1.

WORKED EXAMPLE
A 1.5 kW kettle contains 400 g of boiling water. Answer
Calculate the mass of water remaining if it is left
DQ
switched on for a further 5 minutes. (specific latent Lv =
Dm
heat of vaporisation of water = 2.26 MJ kg−1)
Therefore:
DQ (1.5 × 103) × (5 × 60)
∆m = = = 0.199 kg = 199 g
Lv 2.26 × 106
mass remaining = 400 − 199 = 201 g

NOW TEST YOURSELF

5 The apparatus shown in Figure 14.2 is used to To power supply
Melting ice
measure the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.
The heater has an output power of 60 W. Heater
The initial reading on the balance is 125.0 g.
The reading after 5 minutes is 179.5 g.
Calculate the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.
6 A 1.25 kW kettle containing 0.75 kg of water at Beaker
20°C is switched on. Calculate the mass of water
left in the kettle after 8 minutes. (specific heat
capacity of water = 4200 J kg−1 K−1, specific latent Balance
heat of vaporisation of water = 2 260 000 J kg−1)
125.0 g

▲ Figure 14.2 Apparatus to measure the specific

latent heat of fusion of ice

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14 Temperature

REVISION ACTIVITY
Look up, on the internet, the energy arriving at the Earth from the Sun per
day. How much ice could this energy melt? Fortunately, most of this energy is
reradiated into space. If there were a 0.1% decrease in the amount of energy
reradiated away, what extra mass of ice could be melted in a year?

END OF CHAPTER CHECK

In this chapter, you have learnt to: » convert temperatures between kelvin and
» understand that energy is transferred from a degrees Celsius
region of higher temperature to a region of » recall that T/K = θ/°C + 273.15
lower temperature » understand that the lowest possible
» understand that regions of equal temperature temperature is zero kelvin on the
are in thermal equilibrium thermodynamic temperature scale and that
» understand that a physical property that varies this is known as absolute zero
with temperature may be used to measure » define and use specific heat capacity
temperature and state examples of such » recall and use the equation c = ΔQ/mΔθ
properties » define and use specific latent heat and
» understand that the scale of the thermodynamic distinguish between specific latent heat of
temperature does not depend on the property fusion and specific latent heat of vaporisation
of any particular substance » recall and use the equation L = ΔQ/Δm

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A LEVEL

15 Ideal gases
The mole and the Avogadro constant
» You are already familiar with the idea of measuring mass in kilograms and
thinking of mass in terms of the amount of matter in an object.
» The mole measures the amount of matter from a different perspective – the
number of particles in an object.
» One mole was traditionally defined as the amount of substance that has the
same number of particles as there are atoms in 12 g of carbon-12 isotope.
(See p. 94 for information about isotopes.)
» The more modern definition states the precise number of particles in a mole.
This number is the Avogadro constant (symbol NA) and is equal to STUDY TIP
6.02214076 × 1023. You are not expected to
» The amount of matter is a base quantity and its unit the mole, consequently, is a remember the Avogadro
constant to 9 significant
base unit.
figures! Generally,
» The abbreviation for the mole is mol. we shall work to no
So: more than 3 significant
figures, making the
» One mole of carbon-12 isotope contains 6.02 × 1023 carbon-12 atoms and has a Avogadro constant
mass of 12 g. 6.02 × 1023.
» One mole of helium-4 isotope contains 6.02 × 1023 helium-4 atoms and has a
mass of 4 g.
Many gases are found not as single atoms but as diatomic molecules. For example,
two hydrogen atoms form a H2 molecule, so one mole of hydrogen contains
6.02 × 1023 hydrogen molecules (H2) or 12.04 × 1023 atoms of hydrogen.

WORKED EXAMPLE
Calculate the number of atoms in, and the mass of, the following:
a 1 mol of ozone (O3)
b 3 mol of water (H2O)
(relative atomic mass of oxygen = 16, relative atomic mass of hydrogen = 1)

Answer
a 1 mol of ozone = 6.02 × 1023 molecules
= 3 × 6.02 × 1023 atoms
= 18.06 × 1023 atoms ≈ 18.1 × 1023 atoms
mass of ozone in 1 mol = 3 × 16 = 48 g
b Each molecule of water contains 3 atoms (2 hydrogens, 1 oxygen).
number of atoms in 1 mol of water = 3 × 6.02 × 1023 = 18.06 × 1023 atoms
number of atoms in 3 mol = 3 × 18.06 × 1023 ≈ 5.42 × 1024 atoms
1 mol of water has mass = (2 × 1) + (1 × 16) = 18 g
Therefore, the mass of 3 moles = 3 × 18 = 54 g.

NOW TEST YOURSELF

1 The mass of 1 mol of hydrogen gas is 2 g. Calculate the mass of 1 hydrogen
atom.
2 Calculate the number of atoms of each element in 1 mol of the chemical
Na2CO3.

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15 Ideal gases

Equation of state
The ideal gas equation
Experimental work shows that a fixed mass of any gas, at temperatures well above
the temperature at which it condenses to form a liquid, and at a wide range of
pressures, follows the following relationships:
1
» at constant temperature, p ∝
V
» at constant pressure, V ∝ T
» at constant volume, p ∝ T
Combining the three proportionalities, it follows that:
pV ∝ T
where p is the pressure, V is the volume and T is the temperature measured on the
kelvin scale. The kelvin scale of temperature is discussed further on p. 128.
These three relationships can be combined to form a single equation:
pV
= constant
T
The equation can be written as:
pV = nRT
where n is the number of moles of gas and R is the molar gas constant. The molar
gas constant has the same value for all gases, 8.31 J K−1. This equation is known as
the equation of state for an ideal gas.
An ideal gas is defined as a gas that obeys the equation of state, pV = nRT, at all
temperatures, pressures and volumes.

Real gases, such as hydrogen, helium and oxygen, follow the equation at room
temperature and pressure. However, if the temperature is greatly decreased or the
pressure is very high, they no longer behave in this way.

WORKED EXAMPLE
1 A syringe of volume 25 cm3 holds hydrogen at a pressure of 1.02 × 105 Pa
and temperature 280 K. The volume of the gas is reduced to 10 cm3 and the
temperature increases by 5 K. Calculate the new pressure of the gas.

Answer
p1V1 p2V2
Can be rewritten as =
T1 T2
Substitute in the values:
(1.02 × 105) × 25 p2 × 10
=
280 285
Thus:
p2 = 2.6 × 105 Pa
2 Calculate the volume occupied by 48 mg of oxygen at 20°C and a pressure
of 1.0 × 105 Pa. (relative atomic mass of oxygen = 16)

Answer
temperature = 273 + 20 = 293 K
oxygen forms diatomic O2 molecules, so the mass of 1 mol of oxygen = 32 g
48 × 10−3
number of moles in 48 mg = = 1.5 × 10−3 mol
32
Using pV = nRT:
nRT (1.5 × 10 −3) × 8.3 × 293
V= = = 3.7 × 10−5 m3
p 1.0 × 105

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NOW TEST YOURSELF
3 An ideal gas is held in a syringe of volume 200 cm3 at a pressure of
4.5 × 105 Pa. The gas is allowed to expand until it reaches a pressure of
1.02 × 105 Pa. As the gas expands, its temperature falls from 300 K to 280 K.
Calculate the volume the gas will now occupy.
4 The pressure in a helium-filled party balloon of volume of 0.060 m3 is
0.12 MPa at a temperature of 22°C. Calculate:
a the number of moles of helium
b the mass of helium in the balloon
(the mass of a helium atom = 4 u)

The Boltzmann constant

An alternative way of writing the equation of state of an ideal gas is:
pV = NkT
where N is the number of molecules and k is the Boltzmann constant.
Compare the two equations for 1 mol of an ideal gas:
pV = RT
pV = NA kT
Therefore, NAk = R and therefore k = R/NA.

NOW TEST YOURSELF

5 Given that the value of the molar gas constant R is 8.31 J K−1, calculate the
value of the Boltzmann constant, giving its units.

Kinetic theory of gases

A model of a gas
» From earlier studies at IGCSE or a similar course, you should be able to picture a
gas as small independent particles moving freely at random. This is described as
a ‘model’ of a gas.
» An ideal gas is modelled as consisting of many molecules that have random
velocities – this means they move in random directions with random speeds.
» The molecules themselves can be modelled as small unbreakable spheres that are
spaced well apart and only interact with one another when they collide.
» If the gas is enclosed in a container, a pressure is produced on the container.
» This is due to the molecules colliding elastically with the container walls and
the change in momentum of the particles producing many little impulses on the
walls.
» There are a large number of impulses per unit time which produce an average
force on an area of the wall.
» Pressure is force per unit area.

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15 Ideal gases

Relationship between molecular speed and pressure

exerted
To show the relationship between the speed of the molecules in a gas and the
pressure the gas exerts, the following assumptions are made: STUDY TIP
These assumptions
» The forces between the molecules are negligible (except during collisions). effectively describe an
» The volume of the molecules is negligible compared with the total volume ideal gas.
occupied by the gas.
» All collisions between the molecules, and between the molecules and the
container walls, are perfectly elastic.
» The time spent in colliding is negligible compared with the time between
collisions.
» There are many identical molecules that all move at random.
Consider a gas molecule of mass m in a cubic box of side L. The molecule is
travelling at speed c parallel to the base of the box (Figure 15.1).
L

L
c

L
▲ Figure 15.1

When the molecule collides with the right-hand wall it will rebound with velocity −c.
change in momentum = −2mc
The molecule travels a distance of 2L before colliding with that wall again, so the
time elapsed is 2L/c.
rate of change of momentum =
force applied by the molecule on this wall
2mc mc2
= =
2L/c L
The area of the wall is L2, so:
force mc2
pressure = = 3
area L
The molecule being considered is moving perpendicular to the two faces with which it
collides. In practice, a typical molecule moves randomly and collides with all six faces.
Thus, the total area involved is three times that which has been considered, so:
mc2
pressure =
3L3
The total number of molecules in the box is N, each with a different speed c
contributing to the overall pressure. The average of the velocities squared is called
the mean-square speed, <c2>.
So:
1 Nm<c2>
pressure =
3 L3
L3 = V, the volume of the box.
1 Nm<c2>
p=
3 V
It is sometimes useful to write this equation as:
1
pV = Nm<c2>
3

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The root-mean-square speed
The root-mean-square speed is the square root of the mean (or average) of the
square of the velocity.
cr.m.s. = √<c2>
» Velocity is a vector.
» The molecules are moving in all directions and so the sum of all the velocities is
zero.
» The average velocity of many, many molecules is zero.
» We square the velocities as this gives positive numbers only, hence the positive
square root of this number is greater than zero.

WORKED EXAMPLE
At room temperature and pressure (293 K and 1.0 × 105 Pa), 1 mol of any gas
occupies a volume of 24 dm3. Calculate the root-mean-square speed of the
following at this temperature:
a helium atoms (atomic mass = 4 u)
b oxygen molecules (atomic mass = 16 u, mass of O2 = 32 u)

Answer
a Nm = total mass of 1 mol of helium = 4 × 10 −3 kg
1 Nm<c2>
p=
3 V
3pV 3 × (1.0 × 105) × (24 × 10−3)
<c2> = = = 18 × 105 m2 s−2
Nm 4 × 10−3
√<c2> = 1342 m s−1 = 1300 m s−1 (2 s.f.)
b Nm = total mass of 1 mol of O2 molecules = 3.2 × 10 –2 kg
3pV 3 × (1.0 × 105) × (24 × 10−3)
<c2> = = = 2.25 × 105 m2 s−2
Nm 3.2 × 10−3
√<c2> = 470 m s−1

NOW TEST YOURSELF

6 Five molecules have speeds of 350 m s−1, 361 m s−1, 425 m s−1, 284 m s−1 and
620 m s−1. Calculate:
a their mean-square speed
b their root-mean-square speed
7 Calculate the root-mean-square speed of nitrogen molecules at 0°C.
(mass of nitrogen molecule = 4.6 × 10 −26 kg)

Kinetic energy of a molecule

Temperature and molecular kinetic energy
If we compare the ideal gas equation (pV = nRT) and the equation pV = ⅓Nm<c2>, we
can see that:
1
nRT = Nm<c2>
3

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15 Ideal gases

For one mole:

RT 1
KEY TERMS
= m<c2>
NA 3 The Boltzmann
1 constant k = R , and
kT = m<c2> NA
3
has the value
where k is the Boltzmann constant, and hence: 1.38 × 10 −23 J K−1.

3kT = m<c2> and

3 1
kT = m<c2>
2 2
where ½m<c2> is equal to the average (translational) kinetic energy of the molecules.
Hence, the temperature is proportional to the average (translational) kinetic energy
of the particles in a gas.

NOW TEST YOURSELF

8 Calculate the average translational kinetic energy of air molecules when
the air temperature is 20°C.

REVISION ACTIVITIES
The relationship between temperature and kinetic energy only works precisely
for an ideal gas. For a monatomic gas, it works well, but less well for diatomic
or triatomic gases. Suggest explanations for these facts.
‘Must learn’ equations:
3 1
pV = nRT kT = m<c2>
2 2
1 R 1
pV = Nm<c2> = Nm<c2>
3 NA 3

END OF CHAPTER CHECK

In this chapter, you have learnt: » to recall that the Boltzmann constant k is
» that the unit for the amount of substance is given by k = R/NA
the mole (mol) » to state the basic assumptions of the kinetic
» that the mol is the unit of a base quantity and theory of gases
is, itself, a base unit » ⅓
to explain how molecular movement causes
» to understand that a gas obeying pV ∝ T, the pressure exerted by a gas
where T is the thermodynamic temperature, » to derive and use the relationship pV = ⅓Nm‹c2›,
is known as an ideal gas where ‹c2› is the mean-square speed
» to recall and use the equation of state as » to understand that the root-mean-square
pV = nRT, where n is the amount of substance, speed cr.m.s. =  ‹c2›
and as pV = NkT, where N is the number of » to compare pV = ⅓ Nm‹c2› with pV = NkT to
molecules deduce the average translational kinetic energy
of a molecule is kT

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A LEVEL

16 Thermodynamics
Internal energy and the first law of
thermodynamics
Internal energy
» In the previous sections, we have seen that the particles in an object have a
mixture of kinetic energy and potential energy. KEY TERMS
» Kinetic energy determines the temperature of the object, and potential energy Internal energy is
determines the state of the object. the sum of a random
distribution of the
» Not all particles have the same kinetic and potential energies – they are
kinetic and potential
randomly distributed. energies associated
» The internal energy of an object is the sum of the random kinetic and potential with the molecules of a
energies of all the particles in the object. system.

The first law of thermodynamics

There are two ways of increasing the total internal energy of an object:
» heating the object
» doing work on the object
This leads to the first law of thermodynamics, which can be expressed by the
equation:
increase in internal energy (ΔU) = the energy supplied to the system by heating (q) +
the work done on the system (W)
ΔU = q + W
(The ‘energy supplied to the system by heating’ is sometimes shortened to the
‘heating of the system’.)
To demonstrate a use of the first law, consider an ideal gas contained in a cylinder
by a frictionless piston. The initial volume of gas is V (Figure 16.1).
∆x

A V ∆V

▲ Figure 16.1

The gas is heated so that its volume increases by an amount ΔV against a constant
atmospheric pressure. The gas expands, so work is done against atmospheric
pressure:
W = FΔx
where F is the force on the piston.
force on the piston = pressure of the gas × area of cross-section of the piston = pA
So:
W = pAΔx = pΔV

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16 Thermodynamics

Applying the first law of thermodynamics:

ΔU = q + W
ΔU = q − pΔV
» The minus sign comes in because the work is done by the gas on the atmosphere,
rather than work being done on the gas.
» Notice that the change in internal energy is less than the thermal energy input q,
because some of the energy is used to do work in expanding the gas.
» It should also be understood that when the internal energy of a system
increases, the temperature increases and when the internal energy decreases, the
temperature decreases.
Table 16.1 explains when the quantities ΔU, q and W should be considered positive
and negative.
▼ Table 16.1

Quantity Positive Negative

ΔU The internal energy increases The internal energy decreases
q Energy is transferred to the system Energy is transferred from the system
from the surroundings by heating to the surroundings by heating
W Work is done on the system Work is done by the system

WORKED EXAMPLE
0.14 m3 of helium at a temperature of 20°C is Answer
contained in a cylinder by a frictionless piston.
The atmospheric pressure is a steady 1.02 × 105 Pa. a Consider helium to be an ideal gas. Therefore:
(p1V1) (p2V2) V V
The helium is heated until the temperature of the = → 1= 2
T1 T2 T1 T2
gas is 77°C. The piston moves so that the pressure
on the gas remains at atmospheric pressure. p remains constant throughout the change and
therefore p1 and p2 cancel.
a Calculate the change in volume of the helium at
77°C. Substitute in the values:
b Calculate the work done by the gas on the 0.14/(20 + 273) = V2/(77 + 273)
atmosphere.
V2 = (0.14 × 350)/293 = 0.167 m3
ΔV = V2 – V1 = 0.167 – 0.14 = 0.027 m3
b ΔW = pΔV = 1.02 × 105 × (0.167 − 0.140) = 2800 J

REVISION
NOW TEST YOURSELF ACTIVITY
1 An isothermal change is a change in which there is no change in ‘Must learn’ equations:
temperature. Explain why there can be a change in internal energy of a
system in an isothermal change of a real gas. ΔU = q + W
W = pΔV

END OF CHAPTER CHECK

In this chapter, you have learnt to: » recall and use W = pΔV for the work done when the
» understand that the internal energy is volume of a gas changes at constant pressure
determined by the state of the system, and it » understand the difference between the work
can be expressed as the sum of the random done by the gas and the work done on the gas
distribution of kinetic and potential energies » recall and use the first law of thermodynamics,
associated with the molecules of the system ΔU = q + W, expressed in terms of the increase
» relate a rise in temperature of an object to an in internal energy, the heating of the system
increase in its internal energy and the work done on the system

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