UNIT 1

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1.Stepper Motor
The name Stepper Motor itself shows that the rotor movement is in the
form of various steps or discrete steps. It is also known as Stepping
Motor. The number of pulses fed into the controller circuit determines the
angular rotation of the motor. Each input pulse produces one step of the
angular movement. The drive is considered as an analog to digital
converter.

It has an inbuilt logic, which causes appropriate windings to be

energized and de-energized by the solid-state switches in the required
sequence.

Contents:

• Step Angle in Stepper Motor

• Advantages of Stepper Motor
• Disadvantages of Stepper Motor
There are three types of stepping motors based on the rotor
arrangements. They are as follows:

• Variable Reluctance (VR) Stepper Motor

The variable reluctance motor is further classified into two types. They
are known as Single Stack Variable Reluctance Motor and Multi-Stack
Variable Reluctance Motor.

• Permanent Magnet (PM) Stepper Motor

• Hybrid Stepper Motor (combination of VR and PM type)
Step Angle in Stepper Motor

Definition: Step angle is defined as the angle at which the rotor of a

stepper motor moves when one pulse is applied to the input of the
stator.

The positioning of a motor is decided by the step angle and is expressed

in degrees. The resolution or the step number of a motor is the number
of steps it makes in one revolution of the rotor. The smaller the step
angle, the higher the resolution of the positioning of the stepper motor.

The accuracy of positioning of the objects by the motor depends on the

resolution. The higher the resolution greater will be the accuracy. Some
precision motors can make 1000 steps in one revolution with a step
angle of 0.36 degrees. A standard motor will have a step angle of 1.8
degrees with 200 steps per revolution. The various step angles like 90,
45, and 15 degrees are common in simple motors.

The number of phases can vary from two to six. Small steps angle can
be obtained by using slotted pole pieces.

Advantages of Stepper Motor

The various benefits of the Stepping Motor are as follows:

• The motor is simple in construction, reliable.

• At the standstill condition, the motor has full torque.
• The motors are less costly.
• They require little maintenance.
• The stepper motor has an excellent and accurate starting, stopping,
and reversing response.
Disadvantages of Stepper Motor

The various disadvantages of the stepping motor are as follows:

• The motor uses more current as compared to the DC motor.

• At a higher speed, the value of torque reduces.
• Lower efficiency.
• The resonance condition arises and requires micro-stepping.
• At the high speed, control is not possible.
This is all about Stepper Motor.

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2.What is a Stepper Motor?

Stepper Motor is a brushless electromechanical device which converts the train of
electric pulses applied at their excitation windings into precisely defined step-by-step
mechanical shaft rotation. The shaft of the motor rotates through a fixed angle for each
discrete pulse. This rotation can be linear or angular.It gets one step movement for a
single pulse input.
When a train of pulses is applied, it gets turned through a certain angle. The angle
through which the stepper motor shaft turns for each pulse is referred as the step
angle, which is generally expressed in degrees.
The number of input pulses given to the motor decides the step angle and hence the
position of motor shaft is controlled by controlling the number of pulses. This unique
feature makes the stepper motor to be well suitable for open-loop control system
wherein the precise position of the shaft is maintained with exact number of pulses
without using a feedback sensor.
If the step angle is smaller, the greater will be the number of steps per revolutions and
higher will be the accuracy of the position obtained. The step angles can be as large
as 90 degrees and as small as 0.72 degrees, however, the commonly used step
angles are 1.8 degrees, 2.5 degrees, 7.5 degrees and 15 degrees.

The direction of the shaft rotation depends on the sequence of pulses applied to the
stator. The speed of the shaft or the average motor speed is directly proportional to
the frequency (the rate of input pulses) of input pulses being applied at excitation
windings. Therefore, if the frequency is low, the stepper motor rotates in steps and for
high frequency, it continuously rotates like a DC motor due to inertia.
Like all electric motors, it has stator and rotor. The rotor is the movable part which has
no windings, brushes and a commutator. Usually the rotors are either variable
reluctance or permanent magnet kind. The stator is often constructed with multipole
and multiphase windings, usually of three or four phase windings wound for a required
number of poles decided by desired angular displacement per input pulse.
Unlike other motors it operates on a programmed discrete control pulses that are
applied to the stator windings via an electronic drive. The rotation occurs due to the
magnetic interaction between poles of sequentially energized stator winding and poles
of the rotor.

There are several types of stepper motors are available in today’s market over a wide
range of sizes, step count, constructions, wiring, gearing, and other electrical
characteristics. As these motors are capable to operate in discrete nature, these are
well suitable to interface with digital control devices like computers.
Due to the precise control of speed, rotation, direction, and angular position, these are
of particular interest in industrial process control systems, CNC machines, robotics,
manufacturing automation systems, and instrumentation.

Types of Stepper Motors

There are three basic categories of stepper motors, namely
• Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor
• Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor
• Hybrid Stepper Motor

In all these motors excitation windings are employed in stator where the number of
windings refer to the number of phases.
A DC voltage is applied as an excitation to the coils of windings and each winding
terminal is connected to the source through a solid state switch. Depends on the type
of stepper motor, its rotor design is constructed such as soft steel rotor with salient
poles, cylindrical permanent magnet rotor and permanent magnet with soft steel teeth.
Let us discuss these types in detail.
Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor
It is the basic type of stepper motor that has been in existence for a long time and it
ensures easiest way to understand principle of operation from a structural point of
view. As the name suggests, the angular position of the rotor depends on the
reluctance of the magnetic circuit formed between the stator poles (teeth) and rotor
teeth.

Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

Construction of Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

It consists of a wound stator and a soft iron multi-tooth rotor. The stator has a stack of
silicon steel laminations on which stator windings are wound. Usually, it is wound for
three phases which are distributed between the pole pairs.
The number of poles on stator thus formed is equal to an even multiple of the number
of phases for which windings are wounded on stator. In the figure below, the stator
has 12 equally spaced projecting poles where each pole is wound with an exciting coil.
These three phases are energized from of a DC source with the help of solid state
switches.
The rotor carries no windings and is of salient pole type made entirely of slotted steel
laminations. The rotor pole’s projected teeth have the same width as that of stator
teeth. The number of poles on stator differs to that of rotor poles, which provides the
ability to self start and bidirectional rotation of the motor.
The relation of rotor poles in terms of stator poles for a three phase stepper motor is
given as, Nr = Ns ± (Ns / q). Here Ns = 12, and q= 3, and hence Nr = 12 ± (12 / 3) =
16 or 8. An 8-pole construction rotor without any excitation is illustrated below.

Construction of Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

Working of Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

The stepper motor works on the principle that the rotor aligns in a particular position
with the teeth of the excitation pole in a magnetic circuit wherein minimum reluctance
path exist. Whenever power is applied to the motor and by exciting a particular
winding, it produces its magnetic field and develops its own magnetic poles.
Due to the residual magnetism in the rotor magnet poles, it will cause the rotor to move
in such a position so as to achieve minimum reluctance position and hence one set of
poles of rotor aligns with the energized set of poles of the stator. At this position, the
axis of the stator magnetic field matches with the axis passing through any two
magnetic poles of the rotor.
When the rotor aligns with stator poles, it has enough magnetic force to hold the shaft
from moving to the next position, either in clockwise or counter clockwise direction.

Consider the schematic diagram of a 3-phase, 6 stator poles and 4 rotor teeth is shown
in figure below. When the phase A-A’ is supplied with a DC supply by closing the
switch -1, the winding become a magnet which results one tooth become North and
other South. So the stator magnetic axis lies along these poles.
Due to the force of attraction, stator coil North Pole attracts nearest rotor tooth of
opposite polarity, i.e., South and South Pole attract nearest rotor tooth of opposite
polarity, i.e., North. The rotor then adjusts to its minimum reluctance position where
the rotor magnetic axis exactly matches with stator magnetic axis.

Working of Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

When the phase B-B’ is energized by closing switch -2 keeping phase A-A’ remain de-
energized by opening switch-1, winding B-B’ will produce the magnetic flux and hence
the stator magnetic axis shifts along the poles thus formed by it. Hence the rotor shifts
to the least reluctance with magnetized stator teeth and rotates through an angle of
30 degrees in the clockwise direction.
When the switch-3 is energized after opening switch-2, the phase C-C’ is energized,
the rotor teeth align with new position by moving through an additional angle of 30
degrees. By this way, the rotor moves clockwise or counterclockwise direction by
successively exciting stator windings in a particular sequence. The step angle of this
3-phase 4-pole rotor teeth stepper motor is expressed as, 360/ (4 × 3) = 30 degrees
(as step angle = 360 / Nr × q).
The step angle can be further reduced by increasing the number of poles on the stator
and rotor, in such case motors are often wound with additional phase windings. This
can also be achieved by a adopting different construction of stepper motors such as
multistack arrangement and reduction gear mechanism.

Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

The permanent magnet design motor is perhaps the most common among several
types of stepper motors. As the name implies, it adds permanent magnets to the motor
construction. This type of stepper motors is also referred as can-stack motor or tin-
can motor. The main advantage of this motor is its low manufacturing cost. This type
of motor has 48-24 steps per revolution.

Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

Construction Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

In this motor, the stator is of multipolar and its construction is similar to that of variable
reluctance stepper motor as discussed above. It consists of slotted periphery on which
stator coils are wound. It has projected poles on the slotted structure where the wound
windings can be two or three or four-phase.
The end terminals of all these windings are bought out and connected to the DC
excitation via solid state switches in the drive circuit.
Construction Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

The rotor is made up of a permanent magnet material like a ferrite that can be in the
shape of either cylindrical or salient pole, but usually it is of smooth cylindrical type.
The rotor designed to have an even number of permanent magnetic poles with
alternate North and South polarities.

Working of Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

The operation of this motor works on the principle that unlike poles attract each other
and like poles repel each other. When the stator windings are excited with a DC supply,
it produces magnetic flux and establishes the North and South poles. Due to the force
of attraction and repulsion between permanent magnet rotor poles and stator poles,
the rotor starts moving up to the position for which pulses are given to the stator.
Consider a 2-phase stepper motor with two permanent magnetic rotor poles as shown
in the figure below.
Working of Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor:

When the phase A is energized with a positive with respect to the A’, the windings
establish North and South poles. Due to the force of attraction, the rotor poles align
with stator poles such that the magnetic pole axis of rotor adjusts with that of stator as
shown in figure.
When the excitation is switched to B phase and switching off phase A, the rotor further
adjusts to magnetic axis of phase B, and thus rotates through 90 degrees in clockwise
direction.
Next, if the phase A is energized with a negative current with respect to A’, the
formation of stator poles causes the rotor to move through another 90 degrees in
clockwise direction.
In the same way, if the phase B is excited with negative current by closing phase A
switch, the rotor rotates through another 90 degrees in the same direction. Next, if the
phase A is excited with positive current, the rotor comes to the original position thus
making a 360 degrees complete revolution. This implies that, whenever the stator is
excited, the rotor tends to rotate through 90 degrees in clockwise direction.
The step angle of this 2-phase 2-pole permanent magnet rotor motor is expressed as,
360/ (2 × 2) = 90 degrees. The step size can be reduced by energizing two phases
simultaneously or a sequence of 1-phase ON and 2-phase ON modes with a proper
polarity.

Hybrid Stepper Motor

It is the most popular type of stepper motor as it provides better performance than
permanent magnet rotor in terms of step resolution, holding torque and speed.
However, these motors are more expensive than PM stepper motors. It combines the
best features of both variable reluctance and permanent magnet stepper motors.
These motors are used in applications that require very small stepping angle such as
1.5, 1.8 and 2.5 degrees.

Hybrid Stepper Motor

Construction of Hybrid Stepper Motor

The stator of this motor is same as its permanent magnet or reluctance type
counterpart. The stator coils are wound on alternate poles. In this, the coils of different
phases are wound on each pole, usually two coils at a pole which is referred as a bifilar
connection.
The rotor consists of a permanent magnet which is magnetized in axial direction to
create a pair of magnetic poles (N and S poles). Each pole is covered with uniformly
spaced teeth. The teeth are made up of soft steel and two section, of which on each
pole are misaligned each other by a half-tooth pitch.

Working of Hybrid Stepper Motor

This motor works similar to that of permanent magnet stepper motor. The figure above
shows 2-phase, 4-pole, 6-tooth rotor hybrid stepper motor. When the phase A-A’ is
excited with a DC supply, keeping B-B’ unexcited, the rotor aligns such that the south
pole of the rotor faces north pole of the stator while north pole of rotor faces south pole
of the stator.
Working of Hybrid Stepper Motor

Now, if the phase B-B’ is excited, keeping A-A’ switched off in such a way that upper
pole becomes north and lower becomes south, then the rotor will align to a new
position by moving through counterclockwise direction. If the phase B-B’ is oppositely
excited such that the upper pole becomes south and lower becomes north, then the
rotor will turn clockwise direction.
By a proper sequence of pulses to the stator, the motor will turn in desired direction.
For every excitation, rotor will get locked into new position, and even if excitation is
removed motor still maintains its locked condition due to the permanent magnet
excitation. The step angle of this 2-phase, 4-pole, 6-tooth rotor motor is given as 360/
(2 × 6) = 30 degrees. In practice, hybrid motors are constructed with more number of
rotor poles in order to get high angular resolution.

Unipolar and Bipolar Stepper Motors

The above discussed motors can be unipolar or bipolar based on the coil winding
arrangements. A unipolar motor is employed with two windings per phase and hence
the direction of current flow through these windings changes the rotation of the motor.
In this configuration, the current flow is through one direction in one coil and opposite
direction in another coil.
The figure below shows 2-phase unipolar stepper motor wherein A and C coils are for
one phase and B and D are for other phase. In each phase each coil carries current
in opposite direction to that of other coil. Only one coil will be carrying current at a time
in each phase for achieving particular direction of rotation. So just by switching the
terminals to each coil, the direction of rotation is controlled.

2-Phase Unipolar Stepper Motor Working

In case of a bipolar stepper motor, each phase consists of a single winding rather than
two in case of unipolar one. In this, the direction of rotation is controlled by reversing
the current through the windings. Hence, it requires a complex drive circuit for current
reversal.
2-Phase Bipolar Stepper Motor

Stepping Modes of a Stepper Motor

A typical stepping action causes the motor to step through a sequence of equilibrium
positions in response to current pulses given to it. It is possible to vary the stepping
action in different ways simply by changing the sequence through which stator
windings are energized. The following are the most common operating or driving
modes of stepper motors.
1. Wave step
2. Full step
3. Half step
4. Microstepping
Wave Step Mode

Wave step mode is the simplest of all other modes in which only one winding is
energized at any given time. Each coil of the phase is connected to the supply
alternatively. The table below shows the order through which coils are energized in a
4-phase stepper motor.
In this mode motor gives maximum step angle compared to all other modes. It is the
simplest and most commonly used mode for stepping; however the torque produced
is less as it uses some part of the total winding at a given time.

Full Step Mode

In this drive or mode, two stator phases are energized simultaneously at any given
time. When two phases are energized together, the rotor will experience the torque
from both phases and comes to the equilibrium position, which will be interleaved
between two adjacent wave step positions or 1-phase excitations. So this step
provides better holding torque than wave step. The table below shows the full step
drive for 4-phase stepper motor.
Half Step Mode

It is the combination of both wave and full step modes. In this, single phase and dual
phase excitations are carried out alternatively, i.e., one-phase ON, two-phases ON,
and so on. The step angle in this mode becomes half of the full step angle. This drive
mode has highest torque and stability compared to all other modes. The table
containing phase pulsing sequence for a 4-phase motor in half stepping is given below.
Microstepping Mode
In this mode, each motor step is subdivided into several small steps, even hundreds
of fixed positions, therefore a greater positioning resolution is obtained. In this,
currents through the windings are continually varied in order to get very small steps.
In this, two phases are excited simultaneously, but with the unequal currents in each
phase.
For example, the current through phase -1 is held constant while the current through
phase-2 is incremented in steps till the maximum value of current, whether it is
negative or positive. The current in the phase-1 is then decreased or increased in
steps till zero. Thus, the motor will produce a small step size.
All these stepping modes can be obtained by each type of stepper motor discussed
above. However, the direction of current in each winding during these steps can be
varied depending on the type of motor and either it is unipolar or bipolar.

Advantages of Stepper Motor

• At standstill position, the motor has full torque. No matter if there is no moment or changing
position.
• It has a good response to starting, stopping and reversing position.
• As there is no contact brushes in the stepper motor, It is reliable and the life expectancy
depends on the bearings of the motor.
• The motor rotation angle is directly proportional to the input signals.
• It is simple and less costly to control as motor provides open loop control when responding
to the digital input signals.
• The motor speed is directly proportional to the input pulses frequency, this way a wide
range of rotational speed can be achieved.
• When load is coupled to the shaft, it is still possible to realize the synchronous rotation with
low speed.
• The exact positioning and repeatability of movement is good as it has a 3-5% accuracy of
a step where the error is non cumulative from one step to another.
• Stepper motors are safer and low cost (as compared to servo motors), having high torque
at low speeds, high reliability with simple construction which operates at any environment.

Disadvantages of Stepper Motors

• Stepper motors having low Efficiency.
• It has low Accuracy.
• Its torque declines very quickly with speed.
• As stepper motor operates in open loop control, there is no feedback to indicate potential
missed steps.
• It has low torque to inertia ratio means it can’t accelerate the load very quickly.
• They are noisy.

Applications of Stepper Motors

• Stepper motors are used in automated production equipments and automotive gauges and
industrial machines like packaging, labeling, filling and cutting etc.
• It is widely used in security devices such as security & surveillance cameras.
• In medical industry, stepper motors are widely used in samples, digital dental photography,
respirators, fluid pumps, blood analysis machinery and medical scanners etc.
• They are used in consumer electronics in image scanners, photo copier and printing
machines and in digital camera for automatic zoom and focus functions and positions.
• Stepper motors also used in elevators, conveyor belts and lane diverters.

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3.Stepper Motor : Basics, Types and

Working
What is a stepper motor?
A Stepper Motor or a step motor is a brushless, synchronous motor which divides a
full rotation into a number of steps. Unlike a brushless DC motor which rotates
continuously when a fixed DC voltage is applied to it, a step motor rotates in discrete
step angles. The Stepper Motors therefore are manufactured with steps per
revolution of 12, 24, 72, 144, 180, and 200, resulting in stepping angles of 30, 15, 5,
2.5, 2, and 1.8 degrees per step. The stepper motor can be controlled with or without
feedback.

Fig. 1: An Image Of Commonly Used Brushless DC Stepper Motor

How a stepper motor works?

Stepper motors work on the principle of electromagnetism. There is a soft iron or
magnetic rotor shaft surrounded by the electromagnetic stators. The rotor and stator
have poles which may be teethed or not depending upon the type of stepper. When
the stators are energized the rotor moves to align itself along with the stator (in case
of a permanent magnet type stepper) or moves to have a minimum gap with the stator
(in case of a variable reluctance stepper). This way the stators are energized in a
sequence to rotate the stepper motor. Get more information about working of stepper
motors through interesting images at the stepper motor Insight.

Fig. 2: General Overview Of Internal Structure And Working Of Typical Stepper Motor

Types of Stepper Motor

By construction the step motors come into three broad classes:
1. Permanent Magnet Stepper
2. Variable Reluctance Stepper
3. Hybrid Step Motor

Type1: Permanent Magnet

1. Permanent Magnet Stepper :
The rotor and stator poles of a permanent magnet stepper are not teethed. Instead the rotor
have alternative north and south poles parallel to the axis of the rotor shaft.
Fig. 3: Crossectional Diagram Of Two Phase Permanent Stepper Motor

When a stator is energized, it develops electromagnetic poles. The magnetic rotor aligns along
the magnetic field of the stator. The other stator is then energized in the sequence so that the
rotor moves and aligns itself to the new magnetic field. This way energizing the stators in a
fixed sequence rotates the stepper motor by fixed angles.

Fig. 4: Diagram Explaining Working Of Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

The resolution of a permanent magnet stepper can be increased by increasing number

of poles in the rotor or increasing the number of phases.
Fig. 5: Figure Showing Ways To Increase Resolution Of Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

Type2: Variable Reluctance

2. Variable reluctance stepper :
The variable reluctance stepper has a toothed non-magnetic soft iron rotor. When the stator
coil is energized the rotor moves to have a minimum gap between the stator and its teeth.

Fig. 6: Basic Diagram Of Two-Phase Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

The teeth of the rotor are designed so that when they are aligned with one stator they get
misaligned with the next stator. Now when the next stator is energized, the rotor moves to
align its teeth with the next stator. This way energizing stators in a fixed sequence completes
the rotation of the step motor.

Fig. 7: Diagram Explaining Working Of Variable Reluctance Stepper

The resolution of a variable reluctance stepper can be increased by increasing the number of
teeth in the rotor and by increasing the number of phases.

Fig. 8: Figure Showing Ways To Increase Resolution Of Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

Type3: Hybrid
3. Hybrid stepper :
A hybrid stepper is a combination of both permanent magnet and the variable reluctance. It
has a magnetic teethed rotor which better guides magnetic flux to preferred location in the air
gap.

Fig. 9: Construction Of Two phase Hybrid Motor

The magnetic rotor has two cups. One for north poles and second for the south poles. The
rotor cups are designed so that that the north and south poles arrange in alternative manner.
Check out the insight of a Hybrid Stepper Motor.
Fig. 10: Diagram Showing Internal Structure Of Magnetic Rotor In Hybrid Motor

The Hybrid motor rotates on same principle of energizing the stator coils in a
sequence.

Fig. 11: Diagram Explaining Working Of Hybrid Stepper Motor

Types of Wiring
Types of Winding and Lead-out
The step motors are mostly two phase motors. These can be unipolar or bipolar. In unipolar
step motor there are two winding per phase. The two winding to a pole may have one lead
common i.e. centre tapped. The unipolar motor so, have five, six or eight leads. In the designs
where the common of two poles are separate but centre tapped, motor have six leads. If the
centre taps of the two poles are internally short, the motor has five leads. Eight lead unipolar
facilitates both series and parallel connection whereas five lead and six lead motors have
series connection of stator coils. The unipolar motor simplifies the operation because in
operating them there is no need to reverse the current in the driving circuit. These are also
called bifilar motors.

Fig. 12: Wiring Diagram Of Unipolar Stepper Motor With Diffrent Leads

In bipolar stepper there is single winding per pole. The direction of current need to be changed
by the driving circuit so the driving circuit of the bipolar stepper becomes complex. These are
also called unifilar motors.
Fig. 13: Wiring Diagram Of Bipolar Stepper Motor With Lead Outs

Stepping Modes
There are three stepping modes of a stepper motor. The stepping mode refers to the pattern
of sequence in which stator coils are energized.
1. Wave drive (One phase ON at a time)
2. Full drive (Two phase ON at a time)
3. Half drive (One and two phase ON at a time)

1. Wave drive :
In wave drive stepping mode only one phase is energized at a time.

Fig. 13: Wiring Diagram Of Bipolar Stepper Motor With Lead Outs

Stepping Modes
There are three stepping modes of a stepper motor. The stepping mode refers to the pattern
of sequence in which stator coils are energized.
1. Wave drive (One phase ON at a time)
2. Full drive (Two phase ON at a time)
3. Half drive (One and two phase ON at a time)

1. Wave drive :
In wave drive stepping mode only one phase is energized at a time.

Fig. 14: Wave Drive Stepping Mode Pattern In Stepper Motor

2. Full Drive :
In full drive, two phases are energized at a time.

Fig. 15:Full Drive Stepping Mode pattern In Stepper Motor

3. Half Drive :
In half drive, alternately one and two phases are energized. This increases the
resolution of the motor.
Fig. 16: Half Drive Stepping Mode Pattern In Stepper Motor

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What is the difference between full-

stepping, the half-stepping, and the
micro-drive?
There are three basic drive modes for stepper motor drives: full-step, half-
step, and micro-step.

FULL-STEP DRIVE

During the full-step drive, the stepper motor driver energizes the two coils
of the two-phase stepper motor in a pulse/direction command. Each pulse
of this drive mode causes the motor to move a basic step angle. The
following figure shows the sequence of the motor stator current in the full
step drive mode:

Below is the current vector segmentation diagram:

Below is the current vs time diagram:

The current vector driven by the full-step divides a circle into four equal
parts, and the current waveform is rough. With this driving method, the
motor will shake at low speed and the noise will be large. However, the
advantage of the full-step drive is that the hardware or software is relatively
simple in design so that the drive manufacturing cost is easily controlled.

HALF-STEP DRIVE

In the case of single-phase excitation, the rotor stops at one position. After
the driver receives the next pulse and gives two excitations at the same
time, the rotor will move half a step angle and stop in the middle of the two
adjacent full-step positions. In this cycle, the two-phase coil is single-phase
and then double-phase excited, and the stepping motor will rotate at half a
step angle of each pulse. Compared with the full step method, the half-step
method has the advantages of doubling the precision and providing less
vibration at low-speed operation. The following figure is a schematic
diagram of the motor stator current sequence in a half-step drive mode:
The half-step driving method is relatively more complicated than the full-
step driving method. At the same time, both phases may need to be
energized, and the energizing current should be √2/2 of the single-phase
energizing current. Of course, it is also possible to directly pass a current
equal to the single-phase current. As a result, the torque during the rotation
of the motor is not constant, but it has the advantage of simplifying the
driving circuit or software writing.

The driving phase sequence of the half-step driving method is as follows:

BB’→BB’& A’A→A’A→B’B & A’A→B’B→B’B & AA’→AA’→ AA’& BB ‘. The
motor is energized according to the above phase sequence, and the
resulting current vector divides a circle into 8 parts.

Below is the current vector segmentation diagram:

Below is the current vs time diagram:

As can be seen from the above figure, the current waveform of the half-
step drive is relatively smooth. Compared with the full step drive, the
motor’s step angle resolution is doubled, and the motor runs more smoothly
and quietly.

MICRO-STEP DRIVE

A microstep drive gradually increases the current of each phase in a

stepwise manner so that the force that attracts the rotor changes slowly.
Each time the rotor is stationary at the equilibrium point of the force, the
step angle is made finer. This method can make the rotor run smoothly, so
this method can be considered as one of the effective methods to reduce
vibration and noise at low speed. Comparing the following figure, we can
see a certain law: the more subdivision, the denser the current vector
segmentation circle.

Figure c is a segmentation diagram of the 4 subdivisions drive. In a sense,

the full step and the half step drive are also subdivision driven, and their
relationship is like the relationship between square and rectangle.
The figure above shows the current diagram of 4 subdivisions. It can be
seen from the figure that the current curve of each phase is more delicate
than the current curve of the half-step drive, which is similar to a sine wave.

The subdivision drive method is an extremely effective way to reduce

vibration, but there are the following points to note:

• Microstepping struggles at higher speeds. If the input frequency is too

fast, the subdivision waveform will not be able to get the desired current
waveform, which will make the motor tracking accuracy worse.
• The higher the number of subdivisions, in theory, the more obvious the
effect of reducing vibration, but the actual effect from moving past 8
subdivisions is not large. By actually testing the current waveforms and
motor rotation angles of different subdivisions, we find that there is no
difference in effect between 8 subdivisions and 16 subdivisions.
• Although the angle of the subdivision can be located, its accuracy is not
high. Therefore, when positioning control, it is positioned by subdivided
2-phase or 1-phase conduction.

Applied Motion Products, a Moons' company, carries our recommended

stepper drive modules. These drives are targeted towards machine builders
for their ease of use and flexibility. They provide options for full stepping,
half stepping, and microstepping.
https://www.monolithicpower.com/en/stepper-motors-basics-types-uses

Stepper Motors Basics:

Types, Uses, and Working
Principles
Stepper Motor Basics

A stepper motor is an electric motor whose main feature is that its shaft
rotates by performing steps, that is, by moving by a fixed amount of degrees.
This feature is obtained thanks to the internal structure of the motor, and
allows to know the exact angular position of the shaft by simply counting how
may steps have been performed, with no need for a sensor. This feature also
makes it fit for a wide range of applications.

Stepper Motor Working Principles

As all with electric motors, stepper motors have a stationary part (the stator)
and a moving part (the rotor). On the stator, there are teeth on which coils are
wired, while the rotor is either a permanent magnet or a variable reluctance
iron core. We will dive deeper into the different rotor structures later. Figure
1 shows a drawing representing the section of the motor is shown, where the
rotor is a variable-reluctance iron core.
Figure 1: Cross-Section of a Stepper Motor

The basic working principle of the stepper motor is the following: By

energizing one or more of the stator phases, a magnetic field is generated by
the current flowing in the coil and the rotor aligns with this field. By supplying
different phases in sequence, the rotor can be rotated by a specific amount to
reach the desired final position. Figure 2 shows a representation of the
working principle. At the beginning, coil A is energized and the rotor is aligned
with the magnetic field it produces. When coil B is energized, the rotor
rotates clockwise by 60° to align with the new magnetic field. The same
happens when coil C is energized. In the pictures, the colors of the stator teeth
indicate the direction of the magnetic field generated by the stator winding.

Figure 2: Stepper Motor Steps

Stepper Motor Types and Construction

The performance of a stepper motor — both in terms of resolution (or step

size), speed, and torque — is influenced by construction details, which at the
same time may also affect how the motor can be controlled. As a matter of
fact, not all stepper motors have the same internal structure (or construction),
as there are different rotor and stator configurations.
Rotor
For a stepper motor, there are basically three types of rotors:

• Permanent magnet rotor: The rotor is a permanent magnet that aligns

with the magnetic field generated by the stator circuit. This solution
guarantees a good torque and also a detent torque. This means the motor
will resist, even if not very strongly, to a change of position regardless of
whether a coil is energized. The drawbacks of this solution is that it has a
lower speed and a lower resolution compared to the other types. Figure
3 shows a representation of a section of a permanent magnet stepper
motor.

Figure 3: Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

• Variable reluctance rotor: The rotor is made of an iron core, and has a
specific shape that allows it to align with the magnetic field (see Figure
1 and Figure 2). With this solution it is easier to reach a higher speed and
resolution, but the torque it develops is often lower and it has no detent
torque.
• Hybrid rotor: This kind of rotor has a specific construction, and is a
hybrid between permanent magnet and variable reluctance versions. The
rotor has two caps with alternating teeth, and is magnetized axially. This
configuration allows the motor to have the advantages of both the
permanent magnet and variable reluctance versions, specifically high
resolution, speed, and torque. This higher performance requires a more
complex construction, and therefore a higher cost. Figure 3 shows a
simplified example of the structure of this motor. When coil A is
energized, a tooth of the N-magnetized cap aligns with the S-magnetized
tooth of the stator. At the same time, due to the rotor structure, the S-
magnetized tooth aligns with the N-magnetized tooth of the stator. Real
motors have a more complex structure, with a higher number of teeth
than the one shown in the picture, though the working principle of the
stepper motor is the same. The high number of teeth allows the motor to
achieve a small step size, down to 0.9°.

Figure 4: Hybrid Stepper Motor

Stator

The stator is the part of the motor responsible for creating the magnetic field
with which the rotor is going to align. The main characteristics of the stator
circuit include its number of phases and pole pairs, as well as the wire
configuration. The number of phases is the number of independent coils,
while the number of pole pairs indicates how main pairs of teeth are occupied
by each phase. Two-phase stepper motors are the most commonly used, while
three-phase and five-phase motors are less common (see Figure 5 and Figure
6).

Figure 5: Two-Phase Stator Winding (Left), Three-Phase Stator Winding (Right)

Figure 6: Two-Phase, Single-Pole Pair Stator (Left) and Two-Phase, Dipole Pair Stator (Right). The
Letters Show the Magnetic Field Generated when Positive Voltage is Applied between A+ and A-.

Stepper Motor Control

We have seen previously that the motor coils need to be energized, in a

specific sequence, to generate the magnetic field with which the rotor is going
to align. Several devices are used to supply the necessary voltage to the coils,
and thus allow the motor to function properly. Starting from the devices that
are closer to the motor we have:
o A transistor bridge is the device physically controlling the electrical
connection of the motor coils. Transistors can be seen as electrically
controlled interrupters, which, when closed allow the connection of a
coil to the electrical supply and thus the flow of current in the coil. One
transistor bridge is needed for each motor phase.
o A pre-driver is a device that controls the activation of the transistors,
providing the required voltage and current, it is in turn controlled by
an MCU.
o An MCU is a microcontroller unit, which is usually programmed by the
motor user and generates specific signals for the pre-driver to obtain
the desired motor behavior.

Figure 7 shows a simple representation of a stepper motor control scheme.

The pre-driver and the transistor bridge may be contained in a single device,
called a driver.

Figure 7: Motor Control Basic Scheme

Stepper Motor Driver Types

There are different stepper motor drivers available on the market, which
showcase different features for specific applications. The most important
charactreristics include the input interface. The most common options are:

• Step/Direction – By sending a pulse on the Step pin, the driver changes its
output such that the motor will perform a step, the direction of which is
determined by the level on the Direction pin.
• Phase/Enable – For each stator winding phase, Phase determines the
current direction and triggers Enable if the phase is energized.
• PWM – Directly controls the gate signals of the low-side and high-side
FETs.

Another important feature of a stepper motor driver is if it is only able to

control the voltage across the winding, or also the current flowing through it:

• With voltage control, the driver only regulates the voltage across the
winding. The torque developed and the speed with which the steps are
executed only depend on motor and load characteristics.
• Current control drivers are more advanced, as they regulate the current
flowing through the active coil in order to have better control over the
torque produced, and thus the dynamic behavior of the whole system.

Unipolar/Bipolar Motors
Another feature of the motor that also affects control is the arrangement of
the stator coils that determine how the current direction is changed. To
achieve the motion of the rotor, it is necessary not only to energize the coils,
but also to control the direction of the current, which determines the direction
of the magnetic field generated by the coil itself (see Figure 8).

In stepper motors, the issue of controlling the current direction is solved with
two different approaches.

Figure 8: Direction of the Magnetic Field based on the Direction of the Coil Current

In unipolar stepper motors, one of the leads is connected to the central point
of the coil (see Figure 9). This allows to control the direction of the current
using relatively simple circuit and components. The central lead (AM) is
connected to the input voltage VIN (see Figure 8). If MOSFET 1 is active, the
current flows from AM to A+. If MOSFET 2 is active, current flows from AM to A-,
generating a magnetic field in the opposite direction. As pointed out above,
this approach allows a simpler driving circuit (only two semiconductors
needed), but the drawback is that only half of the copper used in the motor is
used at a time, this means that for the same current flowing in the coil, the
magnetic field has half the intensity compared if all the copper were used. In
addition, these motors are more difficult to construct since more leads have to
be available as motor inputs.

Figure 9: Unipolar Stepper Motor Driving Circuit

In bipolar stepper motors, each coil has only two leads available, and to
control the direction it is necessary to use an H-bridge (see Figure 10). As
shown in Figure 8, if MOSFETs 1 and 4 are active, the current flows from A+
to A-, while if MOSFETs 2 and 3 are active, current flows from A- to A+,
generating a magnetic field in the opposite direction. This solution requires a
more complex driving circuit, but allows the motor to achieve the maximum
torque for the amount of copper that is used.
Figure 10: Bipolar Stepper Motor Driving Circuit

With technology progress, the advantages of unipolar are becoming less

relevant, and bipolar steppers are currently the most popular.
Stepper Motor Driving Techniques

There are four different driving techniques for a stepper motor:

• In wave mode, only one phase at a time is energized (see Figure 11). For
simplicity, we will say that the current is flowing in a positive direction if
it is going from the + lead to the - lead of a phase (e.g. from A+ to A-);
otherwise, the direction is negative. Starting from the left, the current is
flowing only in phase A in the positive direction and the rotor,
represented by a magnet, is aligned with the magnetic field generated by
it. In the next step, it flows only in phase B in the positive direction, and
the rotor spins 90° clockwise to align with the magnetic field generated by
phase B. Later, phase A is energized again, but the current flows in the
negative direction, and the rotor spins again by 90°. In the last step, the
current flows negatively in phase B and the rotor spins again by 90°.
Figure 11: Wave Mode Steps

• In full-step mode, two phases are always energized at the same

time. Figure 12 shows the different steps of this driving mode. The steps
are similar to the wave mode ones, the most significant difference being
that with this mode, the motor is able to produce a higher torque since
more current is flowing in the motor and a stronger magnetic field is
generated.

Figure 12: Full-Step Mode Steps

• Half-step mode is a combination of wave and full-step modes (see Figure

12). Using this combination allows for the step size to be reduced by half
(in this case, 45° instead of 90°). The only drawback is that the torque
produced by the motor is not constant, since it is higher when both phases
are energized, and weaker when only one phase is energized.
Figure 13: Half-Step Mode Steps

• Microstepping can be seen as a further enhancement of half-step mode,

because it allows to reduce even further the step size and to have a
constant torque output. This is achieved by controlling the intensity of the
current flowing in each phase. Using this mode requires a more complex
motor driver compared to the previous solutions. Figure 14 shows how
microstepping works. If IMAX is the maximum current that can flow in a
phase, starting from the left, in the first figure IA = IMAX and IB = 0. In the next
step, the currents are controlled to achieve IA = 0.92 x IMAX and IB = 0.38 x IMAX,
which generates a magnetic field that is rotated by 22.5° clockwise
compared to the previous one. This step is repeated with different current
values to reach the 45°, 67.5°, and 90° positions. This provides the ability
to reduce by half the size of the step, compared to the half-step mode; but
it is possible to go even further. Using microstepping helps reaching very
high position resolution, but this advantage comes at the cost of a more
complex device to control the motor, and a smaller torque generated with
each step. Indeed, the torque is proportional to the sine of the angle
between the stator magnetic field and the rotor magnetic field; therefore,
when the steps are smaller, the torque is smaller. This may lead to missing
some steps, meaning the rotor position does not change even if the
current in the stator winding has.
Figure 14: Microstepping

Stepper Motors Advantages and Disadvantages

Now that we understand the working principles of the stepper motors, it is

useful to summarize their pros and cons compared to other motor types.
Advantages
• Due to their internal structure, stepper motors do not require a sensor to
detect the motor position. Since the motor moves by performing “steps,”
by simply counting these steps, you can obtain the motor position at a
given time.
• In addition, stepper motor control is pretty simple. The motor does need a
driver, but does not need complex calculations or tuning to work properly.
In general, the control effort is lower compared to other motors. With
microstepping, you can reach high position accuracy, up to approximately
0.007°.
• Stepper motors offer good torque at low speeds, are great for holding
position, and also tend to have a long lifespan.
Disadvantages
• They can miss a step if the load torque is too high. This negatively impacts
the control, since there is no way to know the real position of the motor.
Using microstepping makes stepper motors even more likely to
experience this issue.
• These motors always drain maximum current even when still, which
makes efficiency worse and can cause overheating.
• Stepper motors have low torque and become pretty noisy at high speeds.
• Finally, stepper motors have low power density and a low torque-to-
inertia ratio.

To summarize, stepper motors are good when you need an inexpensive, easy-
to-control solution and when efficiency and high torque at high speeds are not
necessary.
To learn more about how to pick the right type of motor for your project, and
the differences between stepper, brushed, and brushless motors click here.

Stepper Motor Uses and Applications

Due to their properties, stepper motors are used in many applications where a
simple position control and the ability to hold a position are needed,
including:

Printers: Printheads, Paper Feed, Scan Bar

3D Printers: XY Table Drive, Media Drive

Robots: Arms, End Effectors

DSLR Cameras: Aperture/Focus Regulation

Video Cameras: Pan, Tilt, Zoom, Focus

Engraving Machines: XY Table Motion

ATM Machines: Bill Movement, Tray Elevators

https://www.powerelectronictips.com/unipolar-vs-bipolar-drive-for-stepper-motors-part-1-
principles-faq/

Unipolar vs. Bipolar drive for stepper

motors, Part 1: principles

Stepper motors can be configured for unipolar or bipolar drive; each approach has
different performance attributes and tradeoffs.

Stepper motors are widely used, and, as with so many basic components, they are
simple in some ways but also have multiple configurations and operating subtleties.
For steppers (the “motor” part of the two-word term is often skipped), there are two
widely used winding and drive configurations: unipolar and bipolar.

First, a note about terminology, as the terms unipolar or bipolar here have a different
meaning than in most discussions about circuits in general and especially analog
circuitry. Here, it does not relate to the stepper-motor application type of DC power
rails. In those cases, “unipolar” means there is a positive supply voltage and ground
but no negative supply, and the circuit operates solely from that single-ended supply.
In contrast, a “bipolar” supply means the supply has both a positive and negative rail.
The bipolar or split supply is needed because components such as op amps may
require a dual supply to provide the full range of performance in some applications.
However, these widely used meanings of unipolar and bipolar do not apply to
stepper motors.

A stepper motor is a type of brushless DC motor built of connected coils referred to

as “phases.” The motor’s rotor aligns with the coils due to the force created by the
stator’s magnetic flux, which is generated by the current flowing in the
phases (Figure 1).
Fig 1: The stepper motor uses
electronic communication of the stator poles to pull and thus rotate the stator magnets.
(Image: Electrical Article)

The drive current is directed to the next phase to generate incremental and fully
controlled rotation. The sequence of driving that next phase results in rotational
steps, which can add up to a partial, full, or continuous rotation motion needed and
even reversed if desired.

Basic phase wiring arrangements

The construction of the coils and their wiring arrangement is broadly divided into
unipolar and bipolar connection topology (Figure 2). Note that both unipolar and
bipolar stepper motor configurations operate from a unipolar (single rail) power
supply. Both configurations can be controlled to rotate in both directions from that
single supply. Unipolar and bipolar configurations each have differences in drive
circuitry, performance attributes such as speed and torque, efficiency, and materials
cost.
Fig 2: Stepper-motor poles can be arranged and wired in bipolar and unipolar configurations, each
requiring a different number of electronic switches (MOSFETs). (Image: Texas Instruments)

The unipolar stepper motor has one winding with a center tap per phase. Each
section of the winding is switched via the commutation circuit to control the
orientation of the magnetic field. In this way, the direction can be reversed without
the need to switch the direction of the current, so reversal is possible despite the
single-polarity supply. The wiring usually has three leads per phase and six leads for
a regular two-phase stepper motor.

There are other arrangements for connecting the windings of unipolar motors, as the
individual phase (coil) connections can be connected internally (Figure 3). Using
such internal connections reduces connector wiring size and cost (it may seem
trivial, but it may not be), and simplifies how the vendor winds the coil, but also
lessen the possibility of drive-configuration flexibility; that may be an issue in some
cases.

Fig 3: Complicating the discussion but offering more performance options, the unipolar stepper-
motor pole arrangement comes in 4, 5, and 6-wire configurations. (Image: Tech Explorations)
In contrast, the bipolar stepper motor has only a single winding per phase.
Therefore, the driving circuit is more complicated to reverse the direction of current
flow to the coil and reverse the magnetic field. The unipolar motor requires four
transistors (MOSFETS) for full control in a half-bridge configuration, while the bipolar
motor needs eight transistors arranged into two H-bridges for control. However, with
modern ICs and power-control devices, the difference – especially for lower power
motors – is small and may be negligible.

The main difference between “unipolar” and “bipolar” stepper motors is the
availability of the center-tap wire, which splits the full coils of the winding in half. This
splitting can be done with one connection wire for the pair or two wires (one for the
adjacent ends of each coil). By deleting the center tap, the unipolar connection
becomes a bipolar-series connection.

[Motor-lead colors are somewhat standardized in the industry and are fully consistent
within the product line of an individual vendor, so many wiring diagrams show color
rather than numbering the leads. Some people find this useful and clear while others
may find it confusing, but that’s the way it is.]

However, there is more to the situation than just choosing unipolar or bipolar
configuration. It also means a change in the electrical characteristics of the windings
inside the motor and thus affects voltage, resistance, and inductance, velocity,
acceleration, and torque characteristics (Figure 4).

Fig 4:
Unipolar and bipolar pole arrangements have different speed versus torque rolloff curves.
(Image: Texas Instruments)
https://www.techbriefs.com/component/content/article/tb/supplements/md/features/articles/395
59

Bipolar and Unipolar Drives for Stepper

Motors: A Comparison
A stepper motor is a type of brushless DC motor comprised of connected
coils called “phases.” These electromechanical devices are generally driven in
open loop without a feedback sensor, with current applied on the phases
without knowing the rotor position. The rotor moves into alignment by
means of the stator’s magnetic flux, generated by the current flowing in the
phases. At each pulse, the current can be supplied to the next phase,
allowing incremental rotational movements, or steps.

Figure 1. A four-step stepper motor.

There are two methods to supply current in the coils: bipolar and unipolar.
This article will explain the differences between bipolar and unipolar motors,
their driving methods, and advantages and limitations.

Figure 1 shows a four-step, permanent magnet stepper motor. The rotor is

made with a one pole-pair magnet and the stator consists of two phases: Phase A
and Phase B. In the unipolar method, the current always flows in the same direction.
Each coil is dedicated to one current direction, so either coil A+ or A- is powered;
the A+ or A- coils are never powered together. In the bipolar method, the current
can flow in both directions in all coils. Phases A+ and A- are powered together. A
bipolar motor requires one coil minimum per phase and a unipolar motor requires
two coils minimum per phase. Here’s a detailed look at both options:

UNIPOLAR MOTOR CONSTRUCTION

In the unipolar configuration, each motor phase is composed of two coil
windings. With a two-phase motor composed of Phases A and B, the motor
has four coil windings, as shown in Figure 2.
• Phase A is composed of A+, A-
• Phase B is composed of B+, B-

The current in each coil can only flow in a single direction, making it
unipolar. In voltage drive, the control system is easy, with only one switch,
or transistor, per coil. When the transistor is closed, the coil is powered. To
commutate the motor, the transistors are alternately closed and opened.

Figure 3. Unipolar drive electronics. (Left)

A+ Q1 closed and (right) Q2 opened.

In Figure 3, transistors Q1 and Q2 cannot be closed at the same time. To

power Phase A, you must close either transistor Q1 or Q2, depending on the
direction you need the current to work. With unipolar control, only half of
the phase is powered at a time, so the current only uses half of the copper
volume. With voltage drives, serial resistances are typically applied to
decrease the electrical time constant. This scenario will be explained later in
the article.
BIPOLAR MOTOR CONSTRUCTION
Bipolar motors need only one coil winding per phase and the current can
flow in both directions per coil. Eight transistors with two H-bridges are
required to control bipolar motors, as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4.
Bipolar motor and drive construction.

In Figure 5, the transistors are alternately closed and opened to provide

commutation. Bipolar drives have the advantage of using all the copper per
phase. These bipolar drives are used either in the motor’s voltage drive or in
current source. For the current source, the current in each phase is
controlled with a pulse width modulation (PWM). Two techniques are used
for PWM: slow decay or fast decay, depending on whether the current is
supposed to decrease slowly or quickly through the motor phase during the
PWM “off” time.
Figure 5. Bipolar drive electronics. (Left) A+, Q2, Q3 closed; Q1, Q4 opened. (Right) A-, Q1, Q4
closed; Q2, Q3 opened.

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS

Voltage drive. A simple circuit with four transistors provides cost-effective unipolar control.
A voltage drive for bipolar motors requires two H-bridges (eight transistors).

Current drive. A bipolar mode is preferable for current drives because unipolar technology
requires more complex electronics to achieve less motor performance.

Voltage drive precaution. Due to the inductance effect, the current needs some time to rise in
the coil. For either unipolar or bipolar drives, you can add a serial resistance to decrease the
electrical time constant (L/R). By adding an external resistance, the current decreases (i =
U/(R+r)).

In summary, adding resistance for the same power supplied results in a lower torque at low
speed. The current is lower due to the joule power dissipated in the external resistance.
Because the torque is proportional to the current, the motor will deliver less torque. At high
speed, it results in a higher torque. Even if some joule power is dissipated in the external
resistance, the motor will be able to deliver more torque thanks to the lower electrical time
constant. This allows the current to rise more quickly in the coil. (Note: With an increase in
supply voltage, you can compensate for the lower current; however, the overall energy
efficiency will be lower. The torque is improved at high speed and maintained at low speed.)

HOLDING TORQUE
Holding torque is the maximum torque that the motor can hold. Holding torque is
proportional to the torque constant and the current in the phase.
T holding max = k * i

where

• T holding max is the holding torque (Nm)

• k is the torque constant (Nm/A)
• i is the current in the phase (A)

Higher torque can be generated by increasing the number of coil turns or by increasing the
current flow. Increasing the current caused extra heat due to the joule loss dissipation
( P joule = R * i 2). The current supply is limited by the thermal capability of the coil. The coil
temperature can generally reach the coil’s maximum admissible temperature — typically 100
°C or 150 °C, depending on the motor type.

Let’s look at the joule losses in both combinations (Figure 6 below), considering one phase
ON:

Taking into account that each individual coil has its own resistance, inductance, and torque
constant, and if the joule losses are the same for both cases, P joule bi = P joule uni = P 0 , we will
have:
Figure
6. Joule loss calculations.

For the same joule losses dissipated, the bipolar motor can produce √2 (≈40%) more torque
than the unipolar drive. And for the same electrical power, the bipolar drive gets better results
than the unipolar drive.

DYNAMIC MODE
The preceding demonstration shows that when the same power is dissipated, the bipolar
motor can deliver 40% more torque. However, at high speed in voltage drive, the unipolar
motor can deliver higher torque than the bipolar motor because the current can flow faster in
the coil. Figure 7 provides an example.

Figure 7. Pull-out torque versus speed.

WIRES AND MOTOR CONNECTION
A bipolar motor generally has four wires whereas a unipolar motor has eight wires if the
middle point is not connected (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Wire connections.

EIGHT WIRES
If the unipolar motor has eight wires, it can be converted into a bipolar version by connecting
the half-phases. The coils can connect in series or parallel. Both options have the same motor
regulation (R/k2) and the same torque performances for the same electrical power.
Figure 9. Differences between series and parallel coil connections.

A serial assembly has a resistance four times higher than a parallel assembly. A serial
connection requires twice the current and half the voltage of a parallel connection. A serial or
parallel connection will match the power supply.
Figure 10. Comparison of unipolar versus bipolar assemblies.

https://circuitglobe.com/characteristics-of-stepper-motor.html

Characteristics of a Stepper Motor

The Torque Pulse Rate Characteristics of a Stepper Motor give the
variation of an electromagnetic torque as a function of stepping rate in
pulse per second (PPS). There are two characteristic curves 1 and 2
shown in the figure below. Curve one is denoted by a blue color line is
known as the Pull-in torque. It shows the maximum stepping rate for
the various values of the load torque at which the motor can start,
synchronize, stop or reverse.

Similarly, curve 2 represented by Red color line is known as pullout

torque characteristics. It shows the maximum stepping rate of the motor
where it can run for the various values of load torque. But it cannot start,
stop or reverse at this rate.

Let us understand this with the help of an example, considering the

above curve.

The motor can start, synchronize and stop or reverse for the load torque
ƮL if the pulse rate is less than S1. The stepping rate can be increased for
the same load as the rotor started the rotation and synchronized. Now,
for the load ƮL1, after starting and synchronizing, the stepping rate can be
increased up to S2 without losing the synchronism.

If the stepping rate is increased beyond S2, the motor will lose
synchronism. Thus, the area between curves 1 and 2 represents the
various torque values, the range of stepping rate, which the motors
follow without losing the synchronism when it has already been started
and synchronized. This is known as Slew Range. The motor is said to
operate in slewing mode.
https://www.osmtec.com/stepper_motor_speed_and_torque_relationship.htm

What is Torque for a Stepper Motor?

When you're looking for a stepper motor, you'll often see statistics related to torque. Torque
information isn't the only thing you'll be looking at when it comes to selecting your motor, but it is
important. Generally, you'll be looking at information regarding how much torque the stepper
produces under certain conditions. Before you start examining the different types of torque and
the relationship of torque to stepper motor speed, it's important to understand exactly what
torque is.
Simply put, torque is rotational force; that is, it's the force used to turn things. This force is
measured in pound-feet in the English system, but the international standard is Newton-Meters
(or in the case of a small stepper motor, milliNewton Meters (mNm)), meaning the amount of
force applied in Newtons times the distance to the center of the rotating object in meters.
Torque / Speed Curves
It is very important to know how to read a torque/speed curve because it describes what a
stepper motor can and cannot do. It is also important to keep in mind that a torque/speed curve
is for a given motor and a given driver. Torque is dependent on the driver type and voltage. The
same motor can have a very different torque/speed curve when used with a different driver. The
torque/speed curves in this catalog are given for reference only. The same motor with a similar
drive, similar voltage and similar current should give similar performance. Torque/speed charts
can also be used to roughly estimate the torque produced using different drivers at varying
voltages and currents.

Holding Torque -amount of torque that the motor produces when it has rated current flowing
through the windings but the motor is at rest.
Detent Torque -amount of torque that the motor produces when it is not energized. No current is
flowing through the windings.
Pull-in Torque Curve -Shows the maximum value of torque at given speeds that the motor can
start, stop or reverse in synchronism with the input pulses. The motor cannot start at a speed that
is beyond this curve. It also cannot instantly reverse or stop with any accuracy at a point beyond
this curve.
Stop / Start Region -area on and underneath the pull-in curve. For any load value in this region,
the motor can start, stop, or reverse "instantly" (no ramping required) at the corresponding speed
value.
Pull-out Torque Curve -Shows the maximum value of torque at given speeds that the motor can
generate while running in synchronism. If the motor is run outside of this curve, it will stall.
Slew Range -the area between the pull-in and the pull-out curves, where to maintain
synchronism, the motor speed must be ramped (adjusted gradually).
Torque / Speed Curves
Torque is proportional to the winding current and the number of turns of wire. To increase torque
by 20%, increase the current by about 20%. To decrease the torque by 50%, reduce the current
by 50%. Because of magnetic saturation, there is no advantage to increasing the current to more
than 2 times the rated current and doing so may damage the motor.
Inductance reduces a stepper motor's high speed torque performance. Inductance is the reason
all motors eventually lose torque at higher speeds. Each stepper motor winding has a certain
value of inductance and resistance.
The "electrical time constant" is the amount of time it takes a motor coil to charge up to 63% of its
rated value. If a stepper motor is rated at 1 amp, after one time constant, the coil will be at 0.63
amps, giving the motor about 63% of rated torque. After two time constants, the current will
increase to 0.86 amps, giving the motor about 86% of rated torque.
t = L/R
Inductance “L” (mH), divided by resistance “R” (&), gives the electrical time constant “t” (ms).
At low speeds, high inductance is not a problem. Current can easily flow into the motor windings
fast enough that the stepper motor has rated torque. At high speeds, however, sufficient current
cannot get into the winding fast enough before the current is switched to the next phase, thereby
reducing motor torque. Increasing the driver voltage can fight this loss of torque at higher speeds
by forcing current into the windings of the motor at an increased rate. In summary, the current
and the number of coil turns in the windings determine a motor's maximum torque output, while
the voltage applied to the motor and the inductance of its windings will affect the speed at which
a given amount of torque can be generated.

https://www.brainkart.com/article/Torque-Speed-Characteristics---stepper-motor_11753/

TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS

Torque developed by the stepper motor and stepping rate characteristics

for both modes of operation are shown in fig.2.36.the curve ABC represents the
"pull in" characteristics and the curve ADE represents the "pull-out"
characteristics.
The area OABCO represents the region for start stop mode of operation.
At any operating point in the region the motor can start and stop without losing
synchronism. The area ABCEDA refers to the region for slewing mode of
operation. At any operating point without losing synchronism to attain an
operating point in the slewing mode at first the motor is to operate at a point in
the start-stop mode and then stepping rate is increased to operate in slewing mode,
similarly while switching off it is essential to operate the motor from slewing
mode to start-stop mode before it is stopped.

Pull in torque

It is the maximum torque developed by the stepper motor for a given stepping
rate in the start-stop mode of operation without losing synchronism. In the
fig.2.36 LM represents the pull in torque (i.e)TPI corresponding to the stepping
rate F (i.e.) OL.

Pull out torque

It is the maximum torque developed by the stepper motor for a given

stepping rate in the slewing mode without losing synchronism. In fig.2.36 LN
represents the pull in torque (i.e.) TPO corresponding to F (i.e.) OL.
Pull in range
It is the maximum stepping rate at which the stepper motor can operate in
start-stop mode developing a specific torque (without losing synchronism).In fig.
2.36 PIT represents pull in range for a torque of T (i.e.) OP. This range is also
known as response range of stepping rate for the given torque T.

Pull out range

It is the maximum stepping rate at which the stepper motor can operate in
slewing mode developing a specified torque without losing synchronism. In
fig.2.36 PIPO represents the pull out range for a torque of T. The range PIPO is
known slewing range.

Pull in rate (FPI)

It is the maximum stepping rate at which the stepper motor will start or
stop without losing synchronism against a given load torque T.

Pull out rate (FPO)

It is the maximum stepping rate at which the stepper motor will slew,
without missing steps, against load torque T.

Synchronism

This term means one to one correspondence between the number of pulses
applied to the stepper motor and the number of steps through which the motor has
actually moved.

Mid frequency resonance

The phenomenon at which the motor torque drops to a low value at certain
input pulse frequencies.
http://www.piclist.com/techref/io/stepper/nemasizes.htm

NEMA^ Sizes
NEMA is "National Electrical Manufacturers Association" and their
standard for motor mounts is commonly used in the industry to
ensure that replacement parts will fit and be readily available,
and that motors from different mfgs will be interchangeable. The
NEMA number is related to the diameter of the motor times 10.
So a NEMA 23 motor is 2.3 inches around or down the side.

Dimension in Inches NEMA Motor Mounting Dimensions

(mm)
NEMA 8 NEMA 11 NEMA 14 NEMA NEMA 23 NEMA 34 NEMA 42
17

Motor Size (DD) ~0.8 ~1.1 ~1.4 ~1.7 ~2.3 (58.4) ~3.4 ~4.2
(20.32) (27.9) (35.6) (43.2) (86.4) (106.7)

a: Bolt Hole Distance 0.630 0.905 1.024 1.220 1.854 2.744 3.500
(square) (16) (23) (26) (31) (47.14) (69.7) (88.9)
b: Motor Shaft 0.157 (4) 0.197 (5) 0.197 (5) 0.197 (5) 0.250 0.375 0.625 (16)
Diameter (6.35) (9.5)

c: Motor Shaft Length 0.945 0.810 1.250 1.380

(max)

d: Pilot Diameter 0.590 0.866 0.866 0.866 1.500 2.875 (73) 2.186
(15) (22) (22) (22) (38.1)

e: Pilot Depth (max) 0.059 0.079 (2) 0.079 (2) 0.079 (2) 0.062 (1.6) 0.062 0.062
(1.5) (1.6) (1.6)

f: Bolt Hole Circle 0.891 1.280 1.448 1.725 2.625 3.875 4.950
Diameter (22.6) (32.5) (36.8)

g: Bolt Hole Size 0.118 (3) 0.157 (4) 0.157 (4) 4-40 0.195 (5) 0.218 0.281
UNC (5.5)
The primary NEMA number specifies the position and size of the mounting face as shown in
the table above. The full NEMA standard also describes other features of the motor. The full
NEMA description of a stepper motor is written as:
NEMA DDMMLLL-CCCIVVVSSSW, where:

• DD is diameter (inches x 10). For square stepper motors, the length of a side is used instead
of the diameter.
• MM is mount type code (inches x 10), include none, one or both of these letter codes
o "C" if there are holes tapped in the face of the motor
o "D" If there is a flange on the back end of the motor with slots missed for bolts to
pass through
• LLL is length (inches x 10),
the "-" at this point separates mounting info from electric characteristics.
• CCC is phase current (amps x 10),
• I is insulation class and defines the maximum allowable operating temperature
o Class A is 221'F
o Class B is 266'F
o Class F is 311'F
o Class H is 356'F
• VVV is phase voltage (rating x 10),
• SSS steps per revolution,
• W is a winding code.
o A is two wires,
o B is 3 wires,
o C is 4 wires,
o D is 5 wires,
o E is 6 wires,
o F is 8 wires

For example: a 3.4" diameter stepper motor with a flange that is 1.6 inches long, has a phase
current of 1.2 Amps, class B insulation, 5.3 phase voltage, 200 steps per revolution, and 8
wires is: NEMA 34D016-012B053200F.

https://www.zikodrive.com/ufaqs/nema-motor-frame-sizes-mean/

NEMA Frame Sizes, What They Mean and

Typical Torque Speed Ratings by Size

The NEMA frame size

of motors is used for both stepper motors and brushless DC motors but it is used
most commonly with stepper motors as a useful shorthand for the size of the motor
(and hence the power and torque).

Always remember that (within the NEMA sizing system) the length of the motor will
vary but the NEMA frame size simply refers to the diameter of the motor face.

Most commonly these faces are square (for example the ZDN2319 which is a
square faced 1.9Nm NEMA 23 stepper motor) but in some cases they may be
circular (as with the ZDBLM57600 brushless DC motor for example)

Frame sizes are split up into NEMA (National Electronic Manufacturers Association)
ratings.

Diameter isn’t everything when it comes to stepper motor power

Changing the stack length will generally not impact on the speeds that you can get
but it will have a major impact on the torque (turning force) that you are able to
achieve.
For example the ZD2N2318 and ZD10N2318 stepper motors are both NEMA 23
motors (therefore 57mm diameter) but the ZD2N2318 is 42mm long whereas the
ZD10N2318 is 104 mm long.

The difference in torque between the 2 motors is 0.6Nm for

the ZD2N2318 and 2.4Nm for the ZD10N2318. The difference in stack length of a
motor with the same NEMA rating has therefore quadrupled the possible torque.
The reason for this is quite simply that everything else in the motor design (bearings,
distance between stator and rotor, materials etc.) has remained constant but the
extra length has allowed a greater electrical power (and hence magnetic power) to
get into the motor at any one time and this delivers more torque to the motor shaft.

The stepper motor controller you choose won’t change the NEMA motor size of the
motor but it will change the performance you get from it!
Equally the stepper motor controller that you use will have a major impact on the
mechanical performance you are able to achieve using the motor. If the controller is
not able to deliver more power than the motor can handle then it is unlikely that you
will be able to achieve the maximum possible mechanical performance from the
motor.

One of the key reasons for this is that a certain controller may be able to deliver full
power from one motor but, as the motor stack length is increased that particular
motor controller may struggle to get the power into the larger motor coils to deliver
the required torque. There are other reasons that can affect this. Why not have a
look at our support section for more information on these factors.

As an example of this, our stepper motors with integrated controllers have higher
powered controllers the bigger the motors get.

See the table below for an overview of frame sizes.

Motor Frames And Typical Specifications For Stepper Motors

https://www.oyostepper.com/article-1074-Stepper-Motor-Sizing-and-NEMA-Standards-
List.html#:~:text=While%20stepper%20motors%20are%20readily,to%20get%20the%20job%20done
.

Stepper Motor Sizing and NEMA Standards List

I’m going to focus on sizing steppers, (like you haven’t figured that out yet) but remember that torque
is torque and you’ll be able to apply the information we’re going to cover to any rotary motor
technology.

So how do you go about sizing a motor? Well, you could pop out a set of calipers, a tape measure or
a scale depending on how accurately you want to “size” it.
(That was a feeble attempt at some motor humor)

NEMA size 14 (36 mm)

Starting with the smallest size offered by SEM, we have a NEMA 14 Stepper Motor. The “14” means
that the mounting face of the motor is approximately 1.4” square. If you looked at the mechanical
specs you’d see that it’s actually 1.39” square.

This dimension may vary between manufacturers as the NEMA standard only declares that square
flange motors fit inside a maximum circular dimension.

In addition to the mounting face, motors that meet the NEMA standard should have the same
mounting holes diameters, the same spacing between those mounting holes, the same shaft
centering boss size, the same shaft diameter and length.

So in theory, if you purchased a NEMA motor from one manufacturer it would physically fit into the
same location as any other manufacturer. However, there may be some mechanical differences,
especially with the diameter and length of the shaft. And there is a high probability there are
differences between the manufacturer’s motor winding specs.

The next size up is the NEMA 17 (42 mm)

How quick a learner are you? What is the approximate size of a NEMA 17 Stepper Motor mounting
face? I hope you said 1.7”. If you didn’t, you’d better reread the above paragraph.

The actual size is 1.67”. The NEMA 17 introduces different motor lengths. The mounting face of the
motor stays the same, but the length of the motor now varies. This is done because the manufacturer
has added magnet stacks to the rotor shaft. Additional magnets increase the motor’s output torque. A
single stack motor would have less torque than a double stack and a double stack would have less
torque than a triple stack.

The additional magnet stacks also increase the motor’s rotor inertia. Rotor inertia, we’ll see in later
postings, is an important parameter that is used when sizing a motor.

The next size up is the NEMA 23 (56 mm)

Again the NEMA 23 is the approximate mounting face size in inches. And again this series of
steppers has three stack lengths. The MDrive Plus versions have four stack lengths. There is a point,
however, where adding to the stack length gets prohibitive. This is because the manufacturing
process to make longer and longer motors become difficult. To get more torque, it’s more easily
accomplished and more economically done by increasing the diameter of the motor and adding stack
lengths to that motor series.

Then we have the NEMA 34 (85 mm)

And again the 34 is the approximate mounting face size in inches. And this series has three stack
lengths for both the motor only and the MDrive versions.

While stepper motors are readily available in NEMA size 42, beyond nema 34 stepper motors using
steppers become cost-prohibitive, especially when there are other, more, practical motor and drive
technologies available to get the job done.