Introduction to processor:

• A processor is the logic circuitry that responds to and processes the basic
instructions that drives a computer.
• The term processor has generally replaced the term central processing unit
(CPU). The processor in a personal computer or embedded in small devices is
often called a microprocessor.
• The processor (CPU, for Central Processing Unit) is the computer's brain. It
allows the processing of numeric data, meaning information entered in
binary form, and the executionof instructions stored in memory.

Evolution of Microprocessor:

A microprocessor is used as the CPU in a microcomputer. There are now many

different microprocessors available.
• Microprocessor is a program-controlled device, which fetches the instructions
from memory,decodes and executes the instructions. Most Micro Processor are
single- chip devices.
• Microprocessor is a backbone of computer system. which is called CPU
• Microprocessor speed depends on the processing speed depends on DATA BUS
WIDTH.
• A common way of categorizing microprocessors is by the no. of bits that
their ALU canWork with at a time
• The address bus is unidirectional because the address information is always
given by the Micro Processor to address a memory location of an input / output
devices.
• The data bus is Bi-directional because the same bus is used for transfer of data
betweenMicro Processor and memory or input / output devices in both the
direction.
• It has limitations on the size of data. Most Microprocessor does not support
floating-pointoperations.
• Microprocessor contain ROM chip because it contain instructions to execute data.
• What is the primary & secondary storage device? - In primary storage device the
• Storage capacity is limited. It has a volatile memory. In secondary storage
device the storagecapacity is larger. It is a nonvolatile memory.
a) Primary devices are: RAM (Read / Write memory, High Speed, Volatile
Memory)
/ ROM (Read only memory, Low Speed, Non Voliate Memory)
b) Secondary devices are: Floppy disc / Hard disk
Compiler: Compiler is used to translate the high-level language program into
machine code at a time. It doesn’t require special instruction to store in a memory, it
stores automatically. The Execution time is less compared to Interpreter.
1. 4-bit Microprocessor:
• The first microprocessor (Intel 4004) was invented in 1971. It was a 4-bit
calculation devicewith a speed of 108 kHz. Since then, microprocessor
power has grown exponentially. So
• It has 3200 PMOS transistors.
• It is a 4-bit device used in calculator.
2. 8-Bit microprocessor:
• In 1972, Intel came out with the 8008 which is 8-bit.
• In 1974, Intel announced the 8080 followed by 8085 is a 8-bit processor
Because 8085 processor has 8 bit ALU (Arithmetic Logic Review). Similarly
8086 processor has 16 bit ALU. This had a larger instruction set then 8080.
used NMOS transistors, so it operatedmuch faster than the 8008.
The 8080 is referred to as a “Second generation Microprocessor”
3. Limitations of 8 Bit microprocessor:
• Low speed of execution
• Low memory addressing capability
• Limited number of general purpose registers
• Less power full instruction set
4. Examples for 4/ 8 / 16 / 32 bit Microprocessors:
• 4-Bit processor – 4004/4040
• 8-bit Processor - 8085 / Z80 / 6800
• 16-bit Processor - 8086 / 68000 / Z8000
• 32-bit Processor - 80386 / 80486
5. What are 1st / 2nd / 3rd / 4th generation processor?
• The processor made of PMOS technology is called 1st generation processor,
and it is made upof 4 bits
• The processor made of NMOS technology is called 2nd generation
processor, and it is madeup of 8 bits
• The processor made of CMOS technology is called 3rd generation
processor, and it is madeup of 16 bits
• The processor made of HCMOS technology is called 4th generation processor,
and it is made up of 32 bits (HCMOS : High-density n- type
Complementary Metal Oxide Silicon field effect transistor)
8086 Architecture:
Overview or Features of 8086
• It is a 16-bit Microprocessor (μp).It’s ALU, internal registers works
with 16bit binaryword.
• 8086 has a 20 bit address bus can access up to 220= 1 MB memory locations.
• 8086 has a 16bit data bus. It can read or write data to a memory/port
either 16bits or 8 bitat a time.
• It can support up to 64K I/O ports.
• It provides 14, 16 -bit registers.
• Frequency range of 8086 is 6-10 MHz
• It has multiplexed address and data bus AD0- AD15 and A16 – A19.
• It requires single phase clock with 33% duty cycle to provide internal timing.
• It can prefetch upto 6 instruction bytes from memory and queues them
in order to speedup instruction execution.
• It requires +5V power supply.
• A 40 pin dual in line package.
• 8086 is designed to operate in two modes, Minimum mode and Maximum mode.
o The minimum mode is selected by applying logic 1 to the MN /
MX# input pin.This is a single microprocessor configuration.
o The maximum mode is selected by applying logic 0 to the MN /
MX# input pin.This is a multi micro processors configuration.

General purpose registers:

Accumulator register consists of two 8-bit registers AL and AH, which can be combined
together and used as a 16-bit register AX. AL in this case contains the low order byte of the
word, and AH contains the high-order byte. Accumulator can be used for I/O operations
and string manipulation.

Base register consists of two 8-bit registers BL and BH, which can be combined together and
used as a 16-bit register BX. BL in this case contains the low-order byte of the word, and BH
contains the high-order byte. BX register usually contains a data pointer used for based, based
indexed or register indirect addressing.

Count register consists of two 8-bit registers CL and CH, which can be combined together and
used as a 16-bit register CX. When combined, CL register contains the low order byte of
the word, and CH contains the high-order byte. Count register can be used in Loop,
shift/rotate instructions and as a counter in string manipulation.

Data register consists of two 8-bit registers DL and DH, which can be combined together and
used as a 16-bit register DX. When combined, DL register contains the low order byte of the
word, and DH contains the high-order byte. Data register can be used as a port number in I/O
operations. In integer 32-bit multiply and divide instruction the DX register contains high-
order word of the initial or resulting number.

Index or Pointer Registers

These registers can also be called as Special Purpose registers.

Stack Pointer (SP) is a 16-bit register pointing to program stack, i.e. it is used to hold the
address of the top of stack. The stack is maintained as a LIFO with its bottom at the start of
the stack segment (specified by the SS segment register).Unlike the SP register, the BP can
be usedto specify the offset of other program segments.

Base Pointer (BP) is a 16-bit register pointing to data in stack segment. It is usually usedby
subroutines to locate variables that were passed on the stack by a calling program. BP
registeris usually used for based, based indexed or register indirect addressing.

Source Index (SI) is a 16-bit register. SI is used for indexed, based indexed and register
indirect addressing, as well as a source data address in string manipulation instructions. Used
in conjunction with the DS register to point to data locations in the data segment.

Destination Index (DI) is a 16-bit register. Used in conjunction with the ES register in string
operations. DI is used for indexed, based indexed and register indirect addressing, as well
as a destination data address in string manipulation instructions. In short, Destination Index
and SI Source Index registers are used to hold address.

Segment Registers
Most of the registers contain data/instruction offsets within 64 KB memory segment. There
are four different 64 KB segments for instructions, stack, data and extra data. To specify
where in 1 MB of processor memory these 4 segments are located the processor uses four
segment registers.
Code segment (CS) is a 16-bit register containing address of 64 KB segment with processor
instructions. The processor uses CS segment for all accesses to instructions referenced by
instruction pointer (IP) register. CS register cannot be changed directly. The CS register is
automatically updated during far jump, far call and far return instructions.

Stack segment (SS) is a 16-bit register containing address of 64KB segment with program
stack. By default, the processor assumes that all data referenced by the stack pointer(SP)
and base pointer (BP) registers is located in the stack segment. SS register can be changed
directly using POP instruction.

Data segment (DS) is a 16-bit register containing address of 64KB segment with program
data. By default, the processor assumes that all data referenced by general registers (AX,
BX,CX, DX) and index register (SI, DI) is located in the data segment. DS register can be
changed directly using POP and LDS instructions.

Extra segment (ES) used to hold the starting address of Extra segment. Extra segment is
provided for programs that need to access a second data segment. Segment registers cannot
be used in arithmetic operations.