Name- Adei chaudhary

Roll no- 222804

Course- Ba (hons) Pol Science
Submitted to- Bhavya Ma’am

COMPARATIVE POLITICAL SYSTEMS

(ASSIGNMENT IA)
Ques 1-Discuss the power and Powers and position of President in the USA.

Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country. My fellow citizens
of the world: ask not what America will do for you, but what together we can do for the freedom of
man.”—John F. Kennedy

The Constitution of the United States is the centerpiece of the American political system, the
blueprint by which the United States is governed,
1.​ It outlines the structure of government, which is based around three branches of government
within a federal system.
2.​ It distributes powers among the different elements of government,
3.​ It gives the president command of the armed forces, wide authority over foreign policy, the
power to make selected appointments, and the power to veto legislative proposals from
Congress.
4.​ It distributes powers between the federal government and the states
5.​ It describes limits on the powers of government, designed to preserve certain individual
rights, such as freedom of religion, speech, and the press, and the right to a speedy public
trial.
THE EXECUTIVE: PRESIDENT

The American presidency was invented at the Constitutional Convention in 1787.The presidency of
the United States is often described as one of the strongest government offices in the world. In terms
of the resources that presidents have at their disposal, this is true: the president is
commander-in-chief of the world’s most powerful military force and makes decisions affecting one
of the world’s two biggest economies, having the powers to grant pardons, to make treaties (with
Senate approval), to nominate ambassadors and Supreme Court judges, and to veto congressional
bills. However, The president is also limited by the terms of the Constitution, his policy options are
limited by Congress, and many of the most important decisions about government and policy are
taken outside the White House. In reality, the power of the president mainly boils down to two
important factors: his ability to persuade, and his ability to build coalitions of support inside and
outside Congress.

❖​CONSTITUTIONAL ELIGIBILITY AND PRESIDENTIAL SUCCESSION

According to Article II, Section 1 of the Constitution, the president must be at least 35 years old, a
natural-born citizen, and have lived in the United States for at least 14 years. The Constitution also
specifies that if the president is removed from office due to death, resignation, or inability to
discharge the duties of the office, the vice president becomes president.
The Twenty-Second Amendment (1951) restricts the president to two elected terms. Many
Americans, particularly Republicans, desired to limit presidential terms of service due to concerns
about the potential for excessive executive branch power. Presidential term limits promote turnover
and new leadership, but also prevent voters from re-electing a popular president they wish to stay in
power. A second-term president, sometimes known as a lame duck, cannot seek reelection.
In terms of experience, elected political background is important, preferably as a state governor or a
U.S. senator. Governors were once prime contenders for the presidency, but this changed in the
1960s and 1970s, when a rash of former senators ran, including the Kennedy brothers, Barry
Goldwater, Richard Nixon, and George McGovern. Then came Watergate, and the reaction against
Washington “insiders” and big government gave the advantage to state governors: Jimmy Carter
from Georgia, Ronald Reagan from California, Bill Clinton from Arkansas, and George W. Bush
from Texas. The 2008 election was unique in that both of the candidates for the major parties were
sitting U.S. senators. There are advantages and disadvantages for presidents, depending on their
prior experience.

EXPANSION OF THE PRESIDENCY

According to Schlesinger, as long as the US is involved in global military conflicts to safeguard its
interests, the president is the most influential figure in American politics.
In the twentieth century, the United States became a global military and economic power. Its role in
World War II and the subsequent Cold War against the Soviet Union expanded the authority of the
presidency.However, after two very long wars, public opinion has shifted against intervening in
foreign conflicts , which leaves less support for presidential military action on foreign soil. As the
public looks more inward and focuses on domestic policy, Congress and the president stand on more
balanced scales

❖​ PRESIDENTIAL POWER: CONSTITUTIONAL GRANTS AND LIMITS

The “enumerated” constitutional powers of the president are modest: But looking beyond the
formal limits, the powers of the presidency have expanded into at least 10 different spheres

●​ Head of state. The president is the symbolic leader of the United States, supposedly
representing the entire country rather than just the people who elected him into office. In this
sense, he carries out many of the duties reserved in other countries to the monarch or to
non-executive presidents; these include receiving ambassadors and foreign political leaders,
making goodwill tours, providing a unifying influence, and acting as a national figure at
times of crisis.
●​ Head of government. The president is also a politician, a representative of his party, and the
champion of his particular set of policy objectives. In this role, he needs to keep the support
of the voters who elected him into office.
●​ Commander in Chief- The president is the Commander​in Chief of the armed forces of the
United States, which includes the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard,
plus their Reserve and National Guard units. An elected commander in chief, rather than an
appointed military officer, is a distinctly important element of American democracy. The
president directs all war efforts and military conflict.
●​ Power to Pardon - The president has the power to grant clemency, or mercy, for crimes
against the United States, except in the case of impeachment from the federal government.
Clemency is a broad designation that includes a pardon , which is forgiving an offense
altogether, and a commutation, which is shortening a federal prison sentence; in general,
pardoning someone is considered a more sweeping act of clemency than commuting a
sentence.
●​ Treaties and Recognition of Foreign Nations-
➢​ The President or his designated representative has the power to negotiate and sign
treaties with foreign nations, but he must do so with the “Advice and Consent of the
Senate,” as specified by the Constitution.
➢​ The president also enters into executive agreements, which do not require Senate
approval and tend to be less expansive in scope than treaties.
➢​ The president’s authority in foreign affairs includes the power to “receive
Ambassadors and other public Ministers,” which allows the president to recognize the
legitimacy of foreign regimes. Such decisions are frequently based on the internal
political system of the foreign nation
●​ Executive and Judicial Nominations-
The president has the power to appoint all federal officers, including cabinet secretaries,
heads of independent agencies, and ambassadors. The presidential appointment process has
two steps:
(1) nomination and
(2) subsequent approval by a majority of the Senate.
➢​ During Senate recesses, the president can make appointments that will expire when
the Senate officially adjourns at the close of a Congress (adjourns sine die), unless the
appointee is subsequently confirmed.
➢​ The president also nominates judges in the federal judicial system, from the district
court level to the Supreme Court, and they too must receive majority approval in the
Senate
➢​ The president has the power to fire federal officers but not to remove judges, who can
be removed only by impeachment. Most presidents are reluctant to remove cabinet
members except in the case of corruption or severe incompetence.
●​ Veto and the Veto Override- The president has an important role in the enactment of
legislation. He has the power to veto bills passed by Congress before they become law by
refusing to sign them and sending them back to the chamber in which they originated with
his objections.
➢​ If Congress is going out of session within ten days, he can simply not sign the bill, a
practice known as a pocket veto . If the president refuses to sign the bill and Congress
remains in session, the bill is enacted into law.( To counter the power of the veto, the
Framers gave Congress the veto override, the power to overturn a presidential veto
with a two-thirds vote in each chamber)
➢​ The veto is the most direct way that the president checks the power of Congress.
Presidents use the veto power either to prevent a bill from becoming law or to
pressure Congress into making changes to bring the bill closer to his policies and his
view of the national interest
●​ Agenda setter -President has considerable influence over setting the national political
agenda. He does this in part through the annual State of the Union address, which is an
opportunity to outline the issues and problems he considers important. And every president
has a well-developed strategy for the media, which tends to regard almost anything that the
president does as newsworthy. President Theodore Roosevelt described the office of the
president as a bully pulpit , where presidents could use the attention associated with the office
to make a public argument in favor of or against a policy
●​ Economic leader- Congress alone has powers over fiscal policy (taxing and spending), but
the White House must develop the federal budget and presidents can influence the direction
taken by economic policy. Indeed, the political fortunes of presidents often rise and fall with
the state of the economy, and the president is usually closely identified in the public mind
with economic issues, such as the rate of economic growth and inflation.

❖​ ULTIMATE CHECK ON THE POWERS OF EXECUTIVE:

➢​ Impeachment
Article II, Section 4, of the Constitution stipulates that the President, Vice president, and all
civil officers (including cabinet secretaries and federal judges) are subject to removal for
“Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.” Should these officers be
removed from office, they may be subject to normal criminal charges and proceedings, where
applicable
The process of removal begins with impeachment in the House of Representatives. The
House Judiciary Committee investigates charges and recommends to the full House whether
to impeach or not. If the House votes to impeach a federal officer, the Senate holds a trial,
and if the president is impeached, the chief justice of the Supreme Court presides. If
two-thirds of the senators vote to convict, the official is removed from office.
Impeachment is a rarely used but powerful instrument that makes it possible for Congress to
hold the president accountable for his actions.

➢​ Judicial Review
The judiciary, particularly the Supreme Court, has the authority to review executive actions
and declare them unconstitutional.Yet, judicial review is reactive rather than proactive—it
requires a case to be brought forward, and rulings can take years. Additionally, with the
increasing politicization of judicial appointments, especially at the Supreme Court level,
questions have emerged regarding the impartiality and timing of decisions that significantly
influence presidential power.

➢​ Public Opinion And Media Scrutiny

Public opinion remains a powerful, albeit indirect, check on presidential behavior. Presidents
are subject to regular elections and are often judged by their public approval ratings. Media
coverage, investigative journalism, and civic activism play crucial roles in shaping and
reflecting public sentiment. However, in an era of media fragmentation and echo chambers,
the influence of public opinion is increasingly skewed. Disinformation, partisan news
ecosystems, and algorithm-driven content have created parallel realities, diluting the potential
of informed civic engagement. Moreover, a deeply polarized electorate can allow even
unpopular actions to persist if they retain support within a loyal base.
CONCLUSION

In 2025, the powers of the U.S. President, while constitutionally formidable, are increasingly shaped
by political dynamics, institutional constraints, and public perception. President Donald Trump, in
his renewed term, exemplifies how a president can leverage a favorable Congress, a loyal judiciary,
and the tools of executive authority to assert sweeping influence across branches of government. His
bold use of platforms like X has allowed him to dominate public discourse and consolidate support,
yet it also deepens national polarization and invites criticism of norm erosion and authoritarian
tendencies. Despite these assertive moves, the constitutional system of checks and balances
continues to act as a counterforce, limiting overreach and preserving institutional integrity.
However, the Trump presidency also exposes the vulnerabilities of this system in an era of
heightened partisanship and ideological division, where democratic accountability often competes
with the demand for strong, decisive leadership. Thus, while the presidency remains a dynamic and
central institution in American governance, the present scenario underscores a delicate
balance—where the strength of executive power must continually be weighed against the
foundational principles of constitutional democracy, institutional restraint, and the evolving
expectations of a polarized electorate.
Ques 2- What are the main characteristics of the unitary system in China? Discuss
the role and position of the Chinese communist party.
The Chinese Dream is about Chinese people creating a better life for themselves and the nation. It is
a dream of rejuvenation, development, and prosperity.-Xi Jinping

China presents a unique case in the study of political systems due to its fusion of a unitary state
structure and a single-party authoritarian regime. Unlike a federal system where sovereignty is
constitutionally divided between different levels of government, China’s governance is highly
hierarchical, with the Communist Party of China (CPC) exerting strong control from the top. The
unitary structure in China is intricately linked to the one-party political framework, cultural
homogeneity in policy vision, and historical context of centralization. The system plays a key role in
maintaining the country’s territorial integrity, implementing national policies uniformly, and
maintaining socio-political control.

❖​The Main Characteristics Of The Unitary System In China Are As Follows-

➢​ Absolute Political Centralization-At the core of China’s unitary system is absolute political
centralization, with the Communist Party of China (CPC) maintaining unchallenged authority
over both state and society. The CPC operates above the state, controlling the legislature
(NPC), judiciary, media, military, and civil administration. This level of integration between
party and state leads to a fusion of power, which differs from constitutional democracies
where power is separated and balanced. The party’s dominance ensures uniformity of
ideology and governance, but it also eliminates political pluralism and checks on executive
overreach.This creates a system where political decisions are streamlined and consistent, but
the absence of opposition can foster authoritarian tendencies, reduce political innovation, and
suppress civil dissent.
➢​ Constitutional Unitarism and Legal Uniformity-China’s constitutionally unitary structure
concentrates sovereignty solely in the central government. Sub-national units, including
provinces and municipalities, derive their power from delegation, not from autonomous
constitutional authority. While Article 30 of the Constitution outlines local administrative
units, these entities are instruments of central will, not independently sovereign.
➢​ Administrative Hierarchy and Vertical Accountability-The state structure in China is based
on a strict vertical hierarchy, from the central government to provincial, prefectural, county,
and township levels. Each level of administration is accountable to the one above it, and
ultimately to the central authorities in Beijing. This “ladder-like” governance ensures that
local governments implement national policies faithfully, though it often stifles local
innovation and responsiveness. The dual leadership structure, where party committees exist
parallel to government offices at every level, further reinforces vertical control and ensures
political loyalty to the center rather than responsiveness to local populations.
➢​ Controlled Decentralization and Economic Management-Although the system is unitary,
China has experimented with a degree of economic decentralization since the 1980s under
the policy of “letting some regions get rich first.” Provincial and local governments were
given some discretion in implementing economic reforms, managing special economic zones,
and attracting foreign investment. This led to what scholars call “fiscal decentralization”
without political decentralization. However, these experiments remain under tight political
oversight. The central government retains the power to override or recentralize authority, as
seen in Xi Jinping’s recent anti-corruption campaign and reassertion of central control over
local governance.
➢​ The Role of ‘Autonomous Regions’ in the Unitary System-China formally recognizes five
ethnic autonomous regions (e.g., Tibet, Xinjiang), ostensibly granting them some degree of
self-governance. However, this autonomy exists only in theory. In practice, the central
government tightly controls these regions, especially where there are perceived threats to
national unity. The autonomy is limited to cultural and linguistic domains and is often
undermined by central decisions on security, education, and resource exploitation. The
suppression of dissent and imposition of uniform policy in these regions reflects the
unwillingness of the Chinese state to accommodate meaningful political or legal autonomy
within its unitary framework.
➢​ Uniform Legal System and Judiciary-China’s unitary system is reinforced by a uniform
legal framework governed by the National People’s Congress and its Standing Committee.
The judiciary is not independent but subordinate to the Party, and judicial decisions are
expected to align with party directives. There is no scope for sub-national legal variance, as
seen in federations where states or provinces may have their own legal codes. This central
control ensures policy uniformity but also raises concerns about rule of law, human rights,
and access to justice, particularly in politically sensitive cases.
➢​ Crisis Management and Policy Implementation-One of the strengths of China’s unitary
system is its ability to implement decisions rapidly across the country. The response to crises
like the COVID-19 pandemic, where large-scale lockdowns and testing were executed
efficiently, showcased the central government’s capacity to mobilize resources and
coordinate action nationwide. The command-style governance, however, often comes at the
cost of transparency, civil liberties, and responsiveness to local needs. Still, the system’s
top-down coordination is often praised for its efficiency in economic planning, infrastructure
development, and national campaigns.

❖​Critiques and Challenges of the Unitary System

While the unitary system contributes to political stability and efficient decision-making, it has also
faced significant criticism. The lack of local autonomy hampers regional innovation and ignores
local diversity. Over-centralization creates bureaucratic rigidity, reduces transparency, and
concentrates power excessively in the hands of the top leadership. The suppression of dissent and
inability to accommodate regional aspirations (e.g., Hong Kong, Xinjiang) threaten social cohesion
and international reputation. Furthermore, the central government’s overreliance on hierarchical
control can hinder effective governance in a country as large and diverse as China.
❖​The Role And Position Of The Chinese Communist Party (Ccp)
The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) is not only the ruling political party of China but also the
architect of the country’s political, economic, and social evolution since 1949. It plays a dominant
role in governing the state, shaping policy, controlling the military, and influencing Chinese society
at every level. In contemporary global politics, the CCP's role transcends domestic boundaries,
reflecting in its geopolitical strategies and international partnerships.

The CCP was founded in 1921 in Shanghai by a small group of intellectuals inspired by
Marxist-Leninist ideology. It gained momentum through the 1930s and 1940s, especially by
aligning with the peasantry during the Long March and the Anti-Japanese War. The party, under
Mao Zedong, eventually emerged victorious in the Chinese Civil War, leading to the establishment
of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1949.

Institutional Supremacy- The CCP operates above the state, controlling all levers of power. China’s
political system is not a multiparty democracy but a single-party authoritarian system with limited
spaces for public dissent or opposition. The National People’s Congress, the State Council, the
judiciary, and local governments all function under the purview of the CCP. The highest power lies
in the Politburo Standing Committee (PBSC), led by the General Secretary—currently Xi Jinping.
This concentration of power ensures internal coherence but stifles independent institutional checks
and balances

Ideological Role and Thought Control-Ideology remains central to the CCP's legitimacy and
governance. Over the years, the CCP has evolved ideologically—from Marxism-Leninism to Mao
Zedong Thought, and now to Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a
New Era. Through control of education, media, censorship (like the Great Firewall), and
propaganda machinery, the CCP actively manages national narratives. Patriotic education, historical
revisionism (e.g., on Tiananmen Square or Tibet), and party-led nationalism are tools used to secure
loyalty. The Party’s claim to represent the "people’s interests" is frequently reinforced through moral
narratives of stability, unity, and prosperity.

Economic Control and Policy Direction-While China’s economic transformation post-1978 has
been marked by market liberalization, the CCP has never relinquished control over the commanding
heights of the economy. State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs), strategic sectors like banking, energy, and
infrastructure, remain under Party control. The CCP also exercises influence over private enterprises
through party committees embedded in firms and mechanisms like the "dual circulation" strategy,
which aims to reduce external dependence. Under Xi Jinping, the Party has asserted stronger
oversight of the tech sector and tightened regulations on sectors like education and real estate,
emphasizing "common prosperity" and curbing capitalist excess.

Role of the CCP in Foreign Policy -The CCP’s control extends to foreign policy, shaped by a blend
of pragmatism and ideological assertiveness. Through the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), the Party
projects influence across Asia, Africa, and Europe. China's increasing assertiveness in the South
China Sea, its stance on Taiwan, and strategic partnerships with countries like Russia are reflective
of the CCP’s global ambition. Diplomacy is tightly choreographed under Party supervision, with
"Wolf Warrior" diplomacy becoming a symbol of China’s new assertiveness. The Party also uses
soft power, economic investments, and global institutions to counterbalance Western influence and
shape international norms.

❖​The CCP As A Distinctive Political Entity In Comparative Politics

The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) stands as one of the most powerful and enduring political
organizations in the modern world. Unlike most single-party regimes that have collapsed or
transitioned toward democracy over the last century, the CCP has not only survived but also
consolidated and expanded its control across every sphere of life. In comparative political systems,
it presents a unique model that challenges the conventional understanding of governance,
legitimacy, and development.

The Party’s claim to rule is not based on electoral mandates but on its ability to maintain stability,
ensure economic growth, and uphold Chinese sovereignty. This sets it apart from both Western
democratic systems and even from other authoritarian regimes where such performance metrics are
often absent or manipulated.

At the same time, China’s authoritarian resilience is notably different from the fragile dictatorships
that collapse under pressure or face internal coups. The CCP has institutionalized control, adapted to
economic globalization, and embedded itself in the country’s civil, corporate, and digital
infrastructure.
However, this model is not without internal contradictions and long-term risks. The lack of political
pluralism means that dissenting voices, innovation in governance, or corrective mechanisms are
often stifled. Over-centralization under Xi Jinping, especially following the removal of presidential
term limits, raises concerns about personalist rule, elite factionalism, and reduced institutional
flexibility. In comparative terms, systems that concentrate power in one individual or party often
become brittle over time, as seen in historical cases like the Soviet Union or more recently in
Venezuela

❖​Conclusion
In 2025, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) continues to play a central role in reshaping the
international world order, positioning China as a major global power. Under the CCP’s leadership,
China has aggressively pursued a strategy to expand its geopolitical influence, challenging the
dominance of Western powers, particularly the United States and its allies. China’s growing
economic clout, alongside its military modernization, has shifted the balance of global power,
making it a key player in international diplomacy, trade, and security.

At the same time, China’s rise has been accompanied by heightened tensions with Western countries
over issues such as human rights, trade practices, and military presence in the Indo-Pacific region.
The CCP’s assertive foreign policy has led to a growing geopolitical rivalry with the United States,
resulting in a more polarized global order. In conclusion, the CCP’s position in the international
world order in 2025 reflects both its strategic ambition to shape global norms and its increasing
competition with Western powers. As China continues to expand its influence, it seeks to carve out a
space where its political, economic, and cultural ideals can flourish, while also navigating the
complex challenges posed by global rivalries.